Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Service Training
Printed in U.S.A.
Printed in 4/2001
Course Number 821003
2001 Volkswagen of America, Inc.
All rights reserved. All information contained in
this manual is based on the latest product
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Always check Technical Bulletins and the
Volkswagen Worldwide Repair Information
System for any information that may
supersede any information included in this
booklet.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Metric System Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Measurement Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Vernier Caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Dial Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Dial Bore Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Feeler Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Torque Wrench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Course Goals
Goals
After completing this self-study course,
you should:
Introduction
As a technician, you use many different
kinds of tools to make effective repairs,
and to help make your job faster and
easier. Some are common hand tools,
used with skills that you developed early,
through your own experience. Others are
special tools and test equipment with very
specific functions that may require special
training. For this course, we want to focus
on measuring tools.
Like other special tools, these require
some specialized knowledge and training.
Precise measurement techniques are not
foolproof. There are correct ways to use
these tools to achieve meaningful results.
Whether diagnosing a problem, evaluating
wear, verifying proper specifications or
making precise adjustments, accurate
measurements can be the foundation of
an entire repair. Remember, too, that any
measurement is only as accurate as the
tool you are using to make it. We need to
understand the limits of our tools, and not
expect more precision than they can
deliver. Careful handling of the tools
themselves is also necessary to ensure
that they maintain their accuracy.
The title of this self-study course, Metrics
for Mechanics, has a double meaning.
Metric is a word that dictionaries define
as a noun, meaning a standard of
measurement or a means of specifying
values. So, when we say metrics we
refer to the science of measurement.
Metric is also defined as an adjective
referring to the metric system of
measurementbased on the unit of length
called a meter.
Conversions
Starting with:
To convert to:
Multiply by:
Millimeters (mm)
Centimeters (cm)
0.1
10
Meters (m)
0.001
1000
Millimeters (mm)
10
0.1
Meters (m)
0.01
100
Millimeters (mm)
1000
0.001
Centimeters (cm)
100
0.01
Centimeters (cm)
Meters (m)
-or-
Divide by:
Measurement Basics
Measurement Basics
There are a few basic concepts about the
accuracy of measurements and measuring
tools that are worth examining.
Understanding these basics will help you
determine exactly how much confidence
you can have in a particular measurement.
It will also help you choose tools that are
precise enough to give accurate results for
the measurement you are making. Even
an inexperienced technician would not try
to measure a shim thickness or piston
diameter with a ruler. The tool is simply
not precise enough for the task, and any
measurement would be hopelessly
inaccurate.
You might use a caliper or micrometer to
measure shim thickness, because it is
described by precise specifications, but
you would not use such tools to check
brake pad thickness, because that level of
precision just isnt necessary, and it would
be a waste of time.
Any time you choose a measuring tool,
you must ask yourself some questions:
1. What is the smallest unit or part of a
unit that needs to be measured?
2. Does the measuring tool allow one to
reliably read units that small?
3. If so, is the tool accurate at that degree
of precision?
To answer these questions, we consider
the precision of the specification for the
value to be measured. The specification
itself contains all the information
necessary to determine how accurate the
measurement, and the tool, needs to be.
The key is the number of significant digits.
Measurement Basics
Precision and significant digits
A specification expressed as 4 mm has
no significant digits to the right of the
decimal point. With no specific tolerance,
the implied degree of precision calls for
measurement to the nearest millimeter.
We want about 4 mmcloser to 4 mm
than 3 mm, and closer to 4 mm than 5
mm. This measurement requires some
judgment, but requires a tool no more
precise than a ruler marked in millimeters.
Measurement Basics
Expressed tolerances
Until now, we have described
measurement precision and accuracy
based on implied tolerancesthe degree
of precision that is suggested by the way a
specification is expressed, and the
number of significant digits. In some
cases, the factory will specify the same
kind of nominal or desired value, and also
clearly express a tolerance or range of
values that is acceptable.
" Example:
" Example:
Measurement Basics
Practical complications
A specification does not always clearly
indicate the degree of precision intended
by the factory. The real meaning can be
more complicated. Consider an example:
Brake pad thickness:
Application #1: 11 mm
Application #2: 12.5 mm
Application #3: 14 mm
The specifications for #1 and #3 suggest
that we need to measure pad thickness to
the nearest millimeter. Does #2 need to be
measured with 10 times the precision, to
the nearest 1/10th millimeter (0.1 mm)?
Probably not. By comparing the similar
specifications, we can assume 12.5
really means 12 + 12 mm, a value that
can only be expressed as 12.5 mm.
Piston dia.:
80.985 mm
79.48 mm
82.485 mm
Bore:
81.01 mm
79.51 mm
82.51 mm
Vernier
Caliper
Vernier Caliper
Vernier Caliper
the most common and versatile
" Perhaps
of the precision measuring tools in the
workshop is the vernier caliper. Two
different sets of jaws are designed to
make outside measurements such as
component thickness, and inside
measurements such as hole diameter or
clearance between parts. Most vernier
calipers also have a mechanism for depth
measurements, such as a difference in
height between two parallel surfaces.
The jaws are specially designed so that,
when used carefully, they are properly
aligned and perpendicular to the
measured surfaces. This helps produce
measurements that are as accurate as
possible.
10
Vernier Caliper
The vernier calipers main scale is very
much like a conventional ruler. It measures
whole millimeter. In this way, the vernier
caliper is no more precise than any other
ruler.
11
Vernier Caliper
A dial caliper operates the same way as a
vernier caliper, except that it combines the
versatility of a caliper with the mechanical
display of a dial indicator. Likewise, a
digital caliper offers the benefits of an
electronic digital display. A dial or digital
caliper is more expensive than a vernier
caliper, but easier to read. For information
about reading a dial caliper, see the
section on dial indicators later in this
booklet.
Digital caliperall the function and versatility
of a vernier caliper, with the added simplicity
and convenience of digital read-out.
12
Vernier Caliper
Example:
In this example, we count four lines from
0 on the upper scale (arrow), and
determine that the measurement is at least
4 mm, but not as large as 5 mm.
13
Vernier Caliper
Step 2 Fractions of millimeters
For the next part of the reading, the
similarity to a ruler ends. Verniers scale
allows us to accurately read tenths of
millimeters, which we could never do with
a ruler.
will notice that the vernier scale is
" You
short. Its total length represents just one
whole millimeter. In the version shown,
there are ten increments marked along its
length, labeled 0 to 10, so each
increment represents 1/10th millimeter.
We emphasize the word represents
because, as we can see, these marks are
greater than 1/10th mm apart. In fact,
these 1/10th mm increments are larger
than the whole millimeter markings on the
main scale. By the genius of Verniers
design, we are able to use these large,
easy-to-see markings to accurately read
values that are actually much smaller.
Once we have determined the crude part
of the measurement in whole millimeters,
we shift to the vernier scale and use it to
count 1/10th millimeters. Heres how:
the first illustration, the caliper reads
" Inzero.
The 0 pointer is exactly aligned
with the 0 on the main scale. Notice, too,
that the 0 mark and the 10 mark on the
vernier scale are the only marks that line
up with a mark on the main scale.
Remember that for later reference!
second illustration, we have opened
" Inthethecaliper
exactly 1 mm. The 0 on the
vernier scale no longer reads zero
because, of course, it now reads 1 mm.
Notice, too, that the 10 on the vernier
scale is still lined up with a mark on the
main scale, but it is a different mark.
14
Vernier Caliper
To make sense of this, lets look at a third
illustration. The caliper is open exactly 12
mm (0.5). The 0 pointer line on the
vernier scale lies, as we expected, halfway
between 0 and 1 mm (left arrow).
15
Vernier Caliper
Step 3 The complete reading
OK, now lets put it all together to make a
complete reading. We will go over the
complete process, from beginning to end,
using a new example.
First, we determine the crude part of the
reading: what is the measurement to the
nearest whole millimeter. Remember to
always use the 0 mark on the vernier
scale as a pointer to read the main scale.
Count the lines between 0 on the main
scale and 0 on the vernier scale.
"
16
Vernier Caliper
Example:
Using the 0 mark on the vernier scale as
a pointer, we count seven millimeters on
the main scale (left arrow). Then, we look
for the one line on the vernier scale that
matches up with a line on the main scale
(right arrows). On the vernier scale, we
count that as the seventh line. Each of the
10 lines on the vernier scale indicates
1/10th millimeter, so our vernier scale is
indicating 7/10ths or 0.7 mm.
7 mm + 0.7 mm = 7.7 mm
Example:
We count two whole millimeters on the
main scale (left arrow). Then, we see that
the fifth line on the vernier scale, labeled
5, is the one that lines up with a line on
the main scale, so our vernier scale is
indicating 5/10ths or 0.5 mm.
2 mm + 0.5 mm = 2.5 mm
Example:
The 0 pointer falls just past the 1 cm
mark on the main scale, so we are reading
1 cm or 10 whole millimeters (left arrow).
Turning to the vernier scale, we see that
the ninth mark lines up with the main
fractional scale, for a reading of 0.9 mm.
10 mm + 0.9 mm = 10.9 mm
Many vernier calipers are
marked in both English and
metric units. As you have seen,
multiple steps are required to
read a vernier caliper. Avoid
getting confused about what
scale you are using.
17
Vernier Caliper
Reading other vernier scales
Different types of vernier calipers are
capable of different degrees of precision.
We have just seen an explanation of one
common type, which is accurate to the
nearest 1/10th millimeter. Others are
capable of greater precision because of
their design, and the scales they use.
To review, the short vernier scale always
represents one whole millimeter. In our
earlier examples, that one-millimeter scale
was divided up into ten equal parts, so
each part represents 1/10th millimeter.
Another caliper might feature a onemillimeter scale divided into 20 or 50
equal parts.
case, the "0" to "10" vernier scale
" Instillthisrepresents
one millimeter, but it is
divided into 20 equal parts instead of ten.
The ten lines representing 0.1 mm are
each subdivided by a smaller line. Each of
these represents 1/20th millimeter (0.05).
Knowing this, of course, becomes
important when we are counting lines on
the vernier scale. We have to know what
part of a millimeter each line represents.
With this more precise vernier scale, we
have a way to read values like 5.25 mm,
which fall midway between 5.2 mm and
5.3 mm, as shown (arrow).
look at one more type of vernier scale.
" Lets
The complete "0" to "10" vernier scale still
represents just one millimeter, but it is
divided into 50 equal parts. Each line now
represents 1/50th millimeter (0.02), so we
can read to the nearest 0.02 mm, reading
values like 4.22 mm in the example shown
(arrow).
We take measurements with any precision
vernier caliper the same way, as long as we
translate the lines on the vernier scale
correctly.
18
Vernier Caliper
Example:
The main scale remains the same. Each
line marked on the main scale indicates
one millimeter. In this example, we count
six whole millimeters (left arrow).
Example:
The main scale is the same. Each line
marked on the main scale indicates one
millimeter. In this example, we count
seven whole millimeters (left arrow).
19
Vernier Caliper
Review/Quiz
Use the examples on this page to test
your understanding of how to read a
vernier caliper. For clarity, the marks on
the two scales that line up are indicated by
the vertical reference lines.
Correct answers are included at the back
of the booklet (see page 52).
" Example 1
" Example 2
" Example 3
The vernier caliper reads __________ mm
20
Micrometer
Micrometer
Micrometer
Types of micrometers
A micrometer, like a vernier caliper, is
used to make precise measurements of
length. Most are capable of measuring to
the nearest 1/100th of a millimeter (0.01
mm or 0.0004 in.).
There are three common types: outside,
inside, and depth micrometers.
A typical outside micrometer
22
Micrometer
An inside micrometer measures length or
distance between two parallel surfaces.
That may be a space between two
components, or the inside diameter (ID) of
a nominally round component, such as a
connecting rod bore. It is a bit more
difficult to use than an outside micrometer.
The tool must be exactly perpendicular to
the measured surfaces. Any deviation from
perpendicular, caused by holding the tool
at an angle, will produce a reading that is
too large.
23
Micrometer
have a relatively small range.
" Micrometers
Choose the right one for a particular job,
making sure that the nominal dimension
you want to measure falls within the range
of the tool. Micrometers are available in
various sizes, to measure from less than a
millimeter to over 100 mm (approx. 4 in.).
24
Micrometer
Operating a micrometer
When the thimble is turned so that the
spindle is just making light contact with the
anvil, the micrometer should read zero.
The end of the thimble should be precisely
aligned with the 0 mark on the sleeve,
and the index line should be precisely
aligned with the 0 mark on the thimble.
Reading a micrometer
A combination of steps is used to arrive at
the final, most precise reading. With
practice, the sequence will become
second nature. For now, however, we will
exaggerate the details of each, and treat
them as separate steps to make sure the
process is clear.
25
Micrometer
Step 1 Whole and half millimeters
use the main scale to determine the
" First,
part of the measurement expressed in
whole millimeters. The micrometer reads
zero when the edge of the thimble is
exactly aligned with the 0 on the main
scale.
Opening the micrometer to take a
measurement, the edge of the thimble
moves along the main scale. To read the
first part of a measurementthe number
of whole millimeterscount the lines that
appear between the edge of the thimble
and the 0 on the main scale.
Remember that the top of the scale on the
sleeve is marked in 1 mm increments. The
marks on the bottom scale subdivide the
marks on the top, and these bottom marks
indicate 12-millimeter increments. Count
whole millimeters using the top of the
main scale.
Example:
this example, the thimble is indicating a
" Inmeasurement
between 7 mm and 8 mm.
We know this, because we can count
seven lines on the upper part of the main
scale. From this, we determine that the
measurement is at least 7 mm.
Compared to a vernier caliper, we are now
adding an extra step. The bottom part of
the main scale on the sleeve allows us to
make this initial reading to the nearest half
millimeter. Once the initial number of
whole millimeters is known (seven in the
example above), look to see if another line
is visible on the bottom part of the scale. If
so, this indicates that another 12-millimeter
should be added.
26
Micrometer
Example:
In this example, we count seven lines on
the upper part of the main scale, but we
can also see an additional line on the
bottom part of the main scale. From this,
we determine that the measurement is at
least 7-12 or 7.5 mm.
7 mm + 0.5 mm = 7.5 mm
Try this initial reading, using the next two
examples as exercises.
What is the first part of the measurement,
the whole millimeter (mm) value, in each
case?
Using the bottom part of the scale, should
we add 12 mm to the whole millimeter
value?
27
Micrometer
Step 2 Smaller fractions of
millimeters
After that initial reading, which is a little
more than the nearest 12-millimeter, we
need to find out how much more. We will
read the more precise fractions of a
millimeter from the scale on the rotating
spindle. The thimble and spindle turn on
very fine, precisely machined threads, and
accurately indicate 100ths of a millimeter.
The entire circumference of the thimble is
inscribed with a scale, divided into fifty
equal parts, and marked from 0 to 50.
Each of the fifty increments of rotation
equals 1/100th millimeter of spindle
movement. A full rotation equals 50/100ths
or 12 mm (0.5)the distance between a
millimeter mark on the main scale (top)
and the next 12 mm mark on the bottom
main scale.
reading from the thimble tells us how
" The
much, in 100ths of a millimeter, to add to
the initial measurement. Heres how.
In the first illustration, the micrometer
reads zero. The edge of the thimble is
aligned with the 0 on the main scale, and
the 0 on the thimble scale is aligned with
the index line on the sleeve.
28
Micrometer
To make sense of this, lets look at the
third illustration. The caliper is open
3
exactly 1- 4 mm (1.75). The edge of the
thimble lies, as we would expect, halfway
between 1.5 mm and 2 mm. To count
100ths of a millimeter, find the line on the
thimble scale that lines up with the index
line on the main scale. In this example, we
see that it is the line at the 25 mark,
representing 25/100ths millimeter, or 0.25
mm.
7 mm + 0.36 mm = 7.36 mm
In the next example, the edge of the
thimble is indicating just 2 mm, but very
close to 2-12 mm. It is no surprise, then, to
find the thimble scale reading 0.47 mm
almost 0.50. Our reading is 2 mm plus
0.47 mm, for a total of 2.47 mm.
2 mm + 0.47 mm = 2.47 mm
At measurements that are very
close to the nearest 12 millimeter,
the next line on the main scale
may start to become visible. Be
careful not to misinterpret this
and add an extra 0.5 mm by
mistake, as in the next example.
29
Micrometer
example, one might assume that
" Inwethis
should count 2 mm on the main scale,
and add 0.49 mm from the thimble scale
to get a total of 2.49 mm. Looking more
closely, we can see that this would be
wrong, since the entire reading is very
near 2 mm. The reading from the thimble
scale is 49 instead of 0, indicating that
the correct reading is 1.99 mm.
1 mm + 0.5 mm + 0.49 mm = 1.99 mm
Inside and depth micrometers operate
much the same way, although their scales
may be graduated in slightly different
ways. Determine the most accurate
measurement you can make on the main
scale, and make sure you understand the
relationship between the main scale and
the thimble scale.
Calibration
A good quality micrometer is furnished
with a calibration standard of a precise,
known dimension. It should read exactly
0.00 mm when closed, and it should read
precisely the specified dimension when
measuring the standard50.00 mm in the
example shown.
A 50 mm standard being used to calibrate a
50-75 mm outside micrometer. With 50 mm
between the anvil and spindle, the micrometer
should read exactly 50.00 mm.
30
Micrometer
Review/Quiz
Use the examples on this page to test
your understanding of how to read a
micrometer.
Correct answers are included at the back
of the booklet (see page 52).
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
This micrometer reads __________ mm
31
32
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator
A dial indicator is another instrument used
to make very precise measurements of
distance, accurate to the nearest 1/100th
of a millimeter (0.01 mm or 0.0004 in.).
Where a vernier caliper or a micrometer
measures fixed dimensions of parallel
surfaces, a dial indicator is most often
used to measure a range of movement or
making minimum/maximum comparisons.
Properly set up in one measuring position,
it can accurately measure range of free
play, limits of movement, run-out, etc.
34
Dial Indicator
The smallest movements are recorded by
the movement of the large needle. When
the tracer pin or foot is displaced and
moves toward the indicator, the large
needle rotates clockwise. It will make one
complete revolution for each millimeter the
pin moves.
35
Dial Indicator
in direction of travel the
" 2. Mounting
tracer pin must be exactly aligned with
the dimension being measured.
When measuring shaft end play or
thrust bearing clearance, for example,
the tracer pins movement must be
parallel to the shaft.
For measuring run-out, the tracer pins
movement must be perpendicular to
the shaft or surface being measured.
36
Dial Indicator
Any dial indicator will have some play in
the mechanism. Pre-load means slightly
loading the mechanism in one direction to
take up that play, so that it does not affect
the accuracy of the measurement.
Mount the dial indicator so it reads greater
than zero at the minimum point. One
millimeter of pre-load is a good rule of
thumb for most measurements. Initially,
near the minimum point, the dial indicator
should read about 1 mm.
To measure a range of values such as
run-out, read the minimum value, and then
subtract it from the maximum value. The
actual minimum value may be less than 1
mm, and this is the reason for the preloadto make certain that the tracer pin
never reaches the end of its travel.
Measuring a larger range of values may
require more pre-load.
To make it easier to subtract, the outer
scale can be moved. Once we establish
the precise minimum point, we can rotate
the scale and actually make that point
read exactly zero.
In the top illustration, the minimum value
with pre-load reads 3.50 mm. In the
bottom illustration, we have rotated the
outer scale until the needle reads zero.
We have moved only the outer scale, so
we can make an accurate reading more
easily. The needle itself has not moved.
37
Dial Indicator
From this point, reading the measurement
on the dial indicator becomes a matter of
reading the difference between zero and
the other (maximum) value.
Lets look at some examples:
Measurement: pump stroke
Specification: approx. 3 mm
Pre-load: 3.50 mm
In this case, we have chosen a pre-load
that corresponds to the larger range of
values that we expect to measure. With
3.5 mm pre-load, a 3 mm measurement
should never exceed the range of travel of
the tracer pin.
illustration, we have set the pre" Inloadtheatfirst
3.5 mm. Then, with the tracer pin
at the minimum point, the outer scale has
been reset to zero. Notice that the reading
has dropped below 3.50 mm.
38
Dial Indicator
Measurement: end play
Specification: approx. 1.5 mm
Pre-load: 2 mm
The top of the illustration shows the initial
reading at the minimum point, after the
outer scale has been reset to zero. The
reading has dropped slightly below the
2.00 mm pre-load value.
39
Dial Indicator
Measurement: actuator movement
Specification: unknown
Pre-load: approx. 5 mm
first illustration shows the reading
" The
after the outer scale has been reset to
zero, with the tracer pin at the point of
minimum travel. Notice that the indicator
reading has dropped far below the 5 mm
pre-load, but not as far as zero. This
suggests that 5 mm pre-load is barely
enough.
If the initial (minimum) reading
dropped below zero, we would
want to start again with more
pre-load.
second illustration shows the reading
" The
with the tracer pin at the maximum point.
The difference on the outer scale is only
0.03 mm, but the inner dial shows that the
needle has also moved about eight times
around.
40
Dial Indicator
Review/Quiz
Use the examples on this page to test
your understanding of how to read a dial
indicator. After answering Example 1, use
that result to derive the answers to
Examples 2 and 3 as described below.
Correct answers are included at the back
of the booklet (see page 52).
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
41
42
44
45
Feeler Gauge
Feeler Gauge
A single feeler gauge is a strip of metal
manufactured to a precise thickness. For
convenience, a typical feeler gauge set is
made up of multiple strips of varying
thickness increments. They are often
labeled in both millimeters and inches.
A flat-blade feeler gauge can be used for a
variety of measurements including, for
example, piston ring end gap, connecting
rod side clearance, or valve adjustment
(where applicable). For an accurate
measurement, the feeler gauge should slip
in and out of the gap being measured with
a slight amount of drag or resistance.
Flat-blade feeler gauge being used to
measure piston ring clearance.
46
Feeler Gauge
Feeler gauge and straight-edge
Used in conjunction with a straightedge, a
flat-blade feeler gauge can be used to
check a flat machined surface for warping
or other deformation. A straightedge is a
precisely machined bar, designed to be
almost perfectly flat and very resistant to
bending, warping or other distortion. As
such, it is used as standard for judging the
relative flatness of other components.
Without a doubt, the most common
application of this tool is in evaluating the
condition of aluminum cylinder heads.
47
Torque Wrench
Torque Wrench
a torque wrench is not strictly a
" While
measuring tool, we use tightening torque
as an indirect way to measure something
that we cannot measure any other way.
A threaded fastener generates a clamping
or compression force that will hold two
components together. In turn, there is an
equal and opposite tension or tensile force
that actually stretches the bolt. With a
torque wrench, we are measuring the
bolts resistance to being stretched and,
indirectly, the force that it exerts to hold
the components together.
A properly installed fastener must be tight
enough to stay in tension under vibration,
thermal expansion and contraction and
other mechanical loads, but not so tight
that the bolt itself "yields" to the tensile
force and stretches permanently, strips
threads or breaks.
To get bolt tension right, we want to be
able to measure bolt lengthhow much
the bolt is being stretched. We could, too,
except that usually we cant get to the bolt
to measure it! So, we settle for the next
best thingmeasuring the twisting force
or torque required to turn the bolt.
Tightening torque
torque is like any other kind of
" Tightening
torque. It is a twisting force, defined as
force times distance. Force by itself is not
torque. A torque wrench measures the
twisting force acting on a fastenerthe
amount of force you are applying at the
handle, multiplied by the leverage you get
from the length of the handle.
48
Torque Wrench
Torque wrenches are calibrated according
to their length, according to the leverage
they will exert on a fastener. Anything that
changes that length, like the addition of a
"crows-foot" extension, will effectively
change the calibration.
49
Torque Wrench
Types of torque wrenches
Beam-type
The most basic torque wrench is a beam
type. The torque is indicated by simple
mechanical deflection. As twisting force
(torque) on the fastener is increased, the
beam indicated the deflection on a scale
attached to the wrench handle. Different
size beams and different overall lengths
produce torque wrenches with different
operating ranges.
50
Torque Wrench
Click-type
A "click" type torque wrench does not need
to be read at all. At a predetermined
torque value, the handle will move freely
for a few degrees and make an audible
"click." This combination signals that the
desired torque has been reached.
51
17.85 mm
Example 2:
3.3 mm
Example 3:
5.84 mm
9.71 mm
Example 2:
3.78 mm
Example 3:
4.53 mm
2.66 mm
Example 2:
3.97 mm
Example 3:
4.23 mm
52
Appendix
Appendix
Unit conversions Length/Distance
mm
in.
mm
in.
in.
0.1
0.004
mm
in.
0.002
0.00008
0.004
0.00016
0.006
0.00024
0.008
0.00031
0.010
0.00039
0.01
0.0004
0.020
0.00079
0.02
0.0008
0.030
0.00118
0.03
0.0012
0.040
0.00157
0.04
0.0016
0.050
0.00197
0.05
0.0020
0.060
0.00236
0.06
0.0024
0.070
0.00276
0.07
0.0028
0.080
0.00315
0.08
0.0031
0.090
0.00354
0.09
0.0035
0.100
0.00394
0.10
0.0039
0.200
0.00787
0.20
0.0079
0.2
0.008
0.300
0.01181
0.30
0.0118
0.3
0.012
0.400
0.01575
0.40
0.0157
0.4
0.016
0.500
0.01969
0.50
0.0197
0.5
0.020
0.600
0.02362
0.60
0.0236
0.6
0.024
0.700
0.02756
0.70
0.0276
0.7
0.028
0.800
0.03150
0.80
0.0315
0.8
0.031
0.900
0.03543
0.90
0.0354
0.9
0.035
1.000
0.03937
1.00
0.0394
1.0
0.039
0.04
2.000
0.07874
2.00
0.0787
2.0
0.079
0.08
3.000
0.11811
3.00
0.1181
3.0
0.118
0.12
4.000
0.15748
4.00
0.1575
4.0
0.157
0.16
5.000
0.19685
5.00
0.1969
5.0
0.197
0.20
6.000
0.23622
6.00
0.2362
6.0
0.236
0.24
7.000
0.27559
7.00
0.2756
7.0
0.276
0.28
8.000
0.31496
8.00
0.3150
8.0
0.315
0.31
9.000
0.35433
9.00
0.3543
9.0
0.354
0.35
10.000
0.39370
10.00
0.3937
10.0
0.394
10
0.39
20.000
0.78740
20.00
0.7874
20.0
0.787
20
0.79
30.000
1.18110
30.00
1.1811
30.0
1.181
30
1.18
40.000
1.57480
40.00
1.5748
40.0
1.575
40
1.57
50.000
1.96850
50.00
1.9685
50.0
1.969
50
1.97
60.000
2.36220
60.00
2.3622
60.0
2.362
60
2.36
70.000
2.75591
70.00
2.7559
70.0
2.756
70
2.76
80.000
3.14961
80.00
3.1496
80.0
3.150
80
3.15
90.000
3.54331
90.00
3.5433
90.0
3.543
90
3.54
100.000
3.93701
100.00
3.9370
100.0
3.937
100
3.94
54
Appendix
Unit conversions Tightening torque
N. m -to- lb. ft (ft. lb)
N. m
lb. ft
(ft. lb)
N. m
lb. ft
(ft. lb)
N. m
lb. ft
(ft. lb)
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
7
8
9
10
10
11
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
17
18
18
19
20
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
28
29
30
30
31
32
32
33
34
35
35
36
37
38
38
39
40
41
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
41
41
42
43
44
44
45
46
46
47
48
49
49
50
51
52
52
53
54
55
55
56
57
58
58
59
60
60
61
62
63
63
64
65
66
66
67
68
69
69
70
71
72
72
73
74
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
74
77
81
85
89
92
96
100
103
107
111
114
118
122
125
129
133
136
140
144
148
151
155
159
162
166
170
173
177
181
184
192
199
207
214
221
229
236
243
251
258
266
273
280
288
295
55
Appendix
N.m -to- lb.in (in.lb), kg.cm
N.m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
lb.in
(in.lb)
9
18
27
35
44
53
62
71
80
89
97
106
115
124
133
142
150
159
168
177
186
195
204
212
221
56
lb.in
(in.lb)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
kg.cm
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
N.m
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
lb.in
(in.lb)
221
230
239
248
257
266
274
283
292
301
310
319
327
336
345
354
363
372
381
389
398
407
416
425
434
443
kg.cm
255
265
275
286
296
306
316
326
337
347
357
367
377
387
398
408
418
428
438
449
459
469
479
489
500
510
lb.in
(in.lb)
18
22
27
31
35
40
44
49
53
58
62
66
71
75
80
84
89
kg.cm
20
25
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
82
87
92
97
102
Appendix
kg.cm -to- lb.in (in.lb), N.cm
kg.cm
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
lb.in
(in.lb)
4
5
6
7
8
9
17
26
35
43
52
61
69
78
87
N.cm
49
59
69
78
88
98
196
294
392
490
588
686
785
883
981
lb.in
(in.lb)
87
95
104
113
122
130
139
148
156
165
174
182
191
200
208
217
N.cm
981
1079
1177
1275
1373
1471
1569
1667
1765
1863
1961
2059
2157
2256
2354
2452
57
58