PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Introduction
The following assignment discusses motivation, learning activities, organisation
of information, communication and feedback. The theories of psychologists will
be referenced to the examples given for motivation and the organisation of
information. Theories include those of Abraham Maslow, Jerome Bruner and
David Kolb.
Motivation
Students attend Learning Resources IT training on a voluntary basis, and are
therefore highly motivated. These students are intrinsically motivated. Borich &
Tombari describe this type of motivation as follows intrinsic motivation
influences learners to choose a task, get energised about it, and persist until
they accomplish it successfully, regardless of whether it brings an immediate
reward (p210). This description closely matches how our learners behave. Our
students have recognised that they would benefit from improving their IT skills,
have sought out and identified a resource to help them achieve this, and are
happy to attend a programme that does not award a certificate.
Some students are extrinsically motivated, as there are external factors for
responsible for their attendance. An example of this if they are referred by
academic staff for additional IT support, or if they are experiencing problems
with an assignment involving IT. Social learning theorists such as Albert Bandura
believe that observing peers shapes learners behaviour and that the social
environment can influence personality Zimbardo, McDermott, Jansz & Metaal
(p460). This could explain why some students attend because their peers are
already competent in using a computer. If friends and family are IT literate then
the learner feels they should be too. As more people become adept in using IT,
then more people will follow this behaviour. Whatever the motivation factors,
when a learner attends a learning programme it is the responsibility of the tutor
to maintain their motivation.
THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
A tutors first consideration is to establish and maintain an effective learning
environment. Learners need to feel secure and emotionally safe. As the
humanist psychologist Abraham Maslows (1962) Hierarchy of Needs shows,
physiological and safety needs must be satisfied before a person can progress.
These needs can be applied to a computer workshop as discussed in Reece &
Walker (p101). To satisfy physiological needs the tutor must ensure that the room
is not too hot/cold, the chairs meet health and safety regulations, and learners
have adequate breaks. Many students feel insecure and apprehensive about
learning IT, to ensure they feel emotionally safe it is important that the tutor

show empathy. Computers must be regularly maintained and software properly

installed to ensure the learner does not have to struggle with technical
difficulties.

Learning activities
The Humanist psychologists believe behaviour is unique to each individual. We
are not all motivated by the same things and we all have different aims and
expectations. Borich & Tombari describe the humanist theory as follows: It is
called humanist because the primary focus is the inner thoughts, feelings,
psychological needs, and emotions of the individual learner (p285). The
Humanistic approach should apply choosing teaching methods and planning
learning activities.
Learning activities must be structured to meet the needs of all learners. This can
be a challenge as some learners expect formal instruction and the tutor-led
approach, while others want to work independently, requesting help as required.
Learners can become frustrated and de-motivated if the workshop is not at an
appropriate level and/or the teaching methods and activities inappropriate to
their needs.
Psychologist Carl Rogers stated that the learner should be placed at the centre of
the learning process through active self-discovery. He also stated that the job of
the teacher, in his view, is to generate the conditions and environment for
students to develop their own self concept Reece & Walker (p112). Rogerss
concept of placing a learner at the centre of the learning process is possible
when learning activities and teaching methods encourage independent learning,
the tutor taking the role of facilitator. Computer-based training, student-centered
material and exercises are all suitable for independent learning.
Motivation can be maintained by acknowledging previous learning experience
and providing the appropriate learning materials to enable the learner to build on
existing skills.
Learners benefit from seeing a task carried out before they attempt it
themselves. When the tutor is required to teach many new skills the
demonstrations are broken up throughout the workshop. One long demonstration
is not appropriate, as learners can become bored, retention is more difficult,
leading to de-motivation.
Communicating effectively with learners
Our task as teachers is to create an environment where students feel part of a
group and feel that their contribution has worth Reece & Walker (p112). To
achieve this the tutor must be able to communicate with learners, encouraging
communication within the group. Communication must be a two-way process
between tutor and learner.
Learners must be aware of the aims and objectives of the learning programme.
The tutor needs to be aware of the learners expectations and v previous
learning experiences. This can only be achieved by fostering an environment
whereby the tutor and learner can discuss this, learners need to feel

comfortable. If a learner is not mastering the appropriate skills required to take

an assessment, the tutor must let the learner know, guiding them in the right
direction
Communication with learners needs to be consistent to avoid a situation where
some learners get more attention than others. Gagne and Berliner (1988)
discuss several biased ways in which a tutor can interact with a learner. These
include: interacting with learners seated only at the front, non-minority group
members more than minority and more able learners more often than the less
able. Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach Gary D. Borich &
Martin L. Tombari 2nd Edition 1997 Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.
page 261.
Organising information
Learning should be organised and delivered to allow learners to learn at their
own pace and have the opportunity to build on existing skills. It helps learners to
see the end result or outcome of the skills they are trying to attain. This is
particularly relevant when learning IT. For example, building a budget in
Microsoft Excel is easier if the learner has seen working model. The Gestalt
theory of seeing the big picture can be applied. Gestalt psychology
emphasised the importance of perceiving whole objects or forms, and proposed a
number of principles on how we organise objects. Atkinson, Smith & Bem
(p166)
Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner believed learning to be an active process
in which learners learn based upon their current and previous learning
experiences. A learner acquires new information, transforming that learning
with regard to existing knowledge Reeves & Walker (p110). If you apply this to
learning how to use a computer it is important that learners know about the
menus and toolbars before progressing into new skills. When this have been
achieved learners can add to these skills and continue building.
The author of Cognitive Development Today, Peter Sutherland (1992 p55) states:
Skinners ideas are suitable for linear subjects, such as computing, where
tackling one topic depends on the successful achievement of the previous one.
The organisation of information should be hierarchical. Demonstrations,
handouts and exercises flow in a logical sequence. Computer-based training
(CBT) is a logical sequence. International students, learners lacking IT skills in
confidence find step-by-step written instructions helpful. An example of this
would the steps required to create a chart in Microsoft Excel. This can be
compared to Skinners theory that people learn by operant conditioning, an
operant being a series of actions the learner does to achieve an outcome.
Another theory that can be applied to learning IT is Jerome Bruners theory of the
three forms of representation. This is discussed in Bruners book Toward a theory
of Instruction (p10). The three forms of representation is:

Action (enactment and demonstrations)

Icons (summarising pictures)
Symbols (words and numbers)
We know many things for which we have no imagery and no words, and they
are very hard to teach anyone by the use of words, diagrams or pictures Bruner
(p10). Action can be represented by the demonstration of a skill to a learner.
Demonstrations are an important teaching method in IT.
Iconic representation is principally governed by principles of perceptual
organisation bruner (p11). Handouts/exercises include screen shots of the
software being learnt.
Representation in words or language Bruner (p10). There is always an element
of teaching where speech or text imparts information.
In his influential book, Principles of Learning (1921) Thorndike suggested that
learning would occur subject matter was carefully refined and sequenced and
learners appropriately reinforced. The subject matter is presented and organised
to the learner broken down into suitably small steps or frames, each one
generally in the form of a question requiring a response.
Reviewing the learning process with learners
Learners registered for the European Computer Driving Licence are given verbal
feedback throughout the programme. Learners use computer-based training
(CBT) as their primary learning source. Their progress is automatically recorded
onto their university network space. The tutor uses this to check pre-test
assessment scores to identify areas of weakness. Learners are given this
feedback verbally during fortnightly tutorials.
The computer-based pre-test could be viewed as a positive reinforcer, a key
element in Skinners Stimuli-Response theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response and is one of the key concepts in behaviour
analysis. The learner naturally wants to achieve a high score, when this is
achieved, they are motivated to learn more in order to perform well in
subsequent tests. One of the advantages of computer-based training is that the
learner receives a response at each stage of the learning process and receives
immediate feedback.
Negative reinforcement, such as poor pre-test scores, can de-motivate, and
should be avoided. The reason for poor test scores could be that the learner is
not suited to CBT and requires more traditional teaching methods. This learner
would be advised to attend the taught workshop sessions. When the learners
skills, confidence and experience improve they can be re-introduced to the CBT
pre-tests.

The automated testing software marks the test and the result is immediate.
Learners are not given this information in the test environment. This is because
of learners who have failed, it is inappropriate to tell them this in front of
another learner. Results are always given to the individuals at a later stage.
The European Computer Driving Licence tests are regulated by the British
Computer Society. They stipulate that learners are not permitted to know the
percentage score, only that they have passed or failed. Understandably learners
want more feedback than just a pass or fail. Test feedback forms have been
devised to meet this need (see appendix 1 ECDL test feedback form).
The automated test software offers various reports. One of these reports list the
tasks tested and how the learner performed (see appendix 2 ECDL test results
module 7). The tutor checks these results and identifies the areas where the
learner has done well and where they can improve. The test feedback form is
completed and given to the learner, usually in a tutorial where progress can be
discussed.

TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Introduction
The following assignment discusses the teaching and learning strategy for the
programme of IT training workshops (see appendix 1 IT training programme)
run by Learning Resources at The University of Luton. It includes a description of
the teaching methods used, factors to be considered when choosing a method,
and the effect of resource constraints.
Promoting learning in groups, learning through experience and encouraging
individual learning is also discussed.
Lesson plans for Microsoft Access and Internet Explorer and the World Wide Web
are included in the appendix. The teaching methods for both workshops have
been evaluated and revised as appropriate.
The Teaching and Learning Strategy
The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the
necessary skills required to produce assignments and to encourage them to
become independent learners. The programme is available to all students
studying at The University of Luton. The majority of students sign up voluntarily,
but lecturers can refer students who require additional help and support.
Students attending workshops often have very different aims, expectations and
abilities. Some use the workshops on a need to know basis while others want to
learn all aspects of IT and attend the entire programme.
The learning process has to be structured to meet the needs of all learners.
Some learners expect formal instruction and the tutor led approach, while others
want to work independently, requesting help as required.
The tutor led approach is applied for some of the workshop but the tutor
facilitates for the majority of the time. Facilitation is the desired approach as it
helps to foster a learning environment where the learner takes responsibility for
their own learning, building on existing skills and becoming more confident.
Teaching methods
The most commonly used teaching methods for the computer workshops are:
Demonstration
Practical
Verbal instruction (step-by-step)
Talk/presentation

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING A TEACHING METHOD

There are many factors to consider when choosing a teaching method. These
include the learning objective, group size, available resources, time and most
importantly ability and learning styles of learners. Some of these will be
discussed along with advantages and disadvantages for each method.
The learning objective
The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the
necessary skills required to produce assignments and most importantly
encourage them to become independent learners. To promote independent
learning it is important to use teaching methods that encourage the learner to
work as an individual. Computer-based training, student centred material and
exercises are all suitable for independent learning.
Group size
A formal demonstration (using a multi-media projector) is a very effective and
efficient way of introducing a new skill to a group of 5 or more. Participation is
high if the demonstration is good and of high quality. When the tutor is required
to teach many new skills the demonstrations are broken up throughout the
workshop. One long demonstration is not appropriate, as learners can become
bored, distracted and retention is more difficult. Demonstrations may not be
appropriate for very small groups, as it can be quite intimidating.
Verbal step-by-step instruction is more appropriate for groups of 5 and under and
very effective for one-to-one. Using this method for large groups can lead to real
problems for the tutor. The tutor must ensure that all learners are at the same
point and that no one is being left behind. This can be very frustrating for the
learners who are managing to keep up and are wasting time waiting for the
others. International students may have problems understanding the tutors
dialect and find they get left behind.
Resources
Computers, networks and software are obviously an integral resource. These
resources must be in perfect working order if a computer workshop is to run
smoothly. Information technology tutors should always be aware of what can go
wrong and have some idea of how to trouble shoot when things do go wrong.
There should be a variety of handouts and exercises, ranging from beginners to
more advanced. This is important because the tutor can then meet the needs of
learners of different abilities.
Ability of learners

A workshop for an introduction to Microsoft Excel can attract learners of varying

abilities. This is usually because a learners perception of his or her own ability
often does not match the reality. The list of pre-requisites (skills they must
already have), which is available at the time of signing up for the workshop
rarely deters learners from signing up for a workshop not appropriate to their
needs. The tutor has to use a variety of teaching methods to ensure everyones
learning needs are met. If the workshop is too basic for the learner there should
be handouts and exercises covering more advanced topics available. The tutor
can also use computer-based learning for learners who find the workshop
material either too easy or too difficult. This then frees the tutor to meet the
needs of the less experienced learners.
Learning Styles
Some learners (possibly reflectors) may find computer-based learning, studentcentred learning and the exercises with its element of independent learning
appealing because they will be able to work at their own pace. Others (possibly
activists) may find the computer-based training repetitive and too rigid because
there are no opportunities for expression and experimentation.
There should be variety of teaching methods and learning materials to meet the
learning style of each individual.
Effects of resource constraints
Time is the biggest constraint when running any computer workshop. The
programme is available to students from any faculty, studying on any degree
programme and they sign up to attend workshops between lectures/seminars.
Due to the limited time available to students it is important that the workshops
are not too long. Most of the workshops run for between 90 and 120 minutes
and unless the group is very small it is often very difficult to cover all of the
intended material. If a workshop is not carefully managed (time wise) the
learner may feel their needs have not been met. To overcome this problem the
tutor needs to be realistic in what it will be possible to cover and the learner
must know up front which skills are to be addressed.
Technical problems are a major constraint. A problem with the university
network can severely disrupt a computer workshop, as can a shortage of
computers due to faults. When this happens learners often become demotivated which can result in learners opting out of IT. It is important that the
tutor checks the resources prior to the start of the workshop. Learners need to
be assured that technical difficulties can be overcome.