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    Chapter 10

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    of 55
    VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES 1» Chap. 9 we discussed gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains a gas throushout the entre eyele. In this chaper, we consider por power cycles m which the working fui is altematively vaporized ‘and condensed. We aso consider power generation coupled with process beating called engeneration. “The continued ques for higher therm) efficiencies has resulted in some innovative modifications to the basie vapor power cycle. Among these, we discuss the reheat and regenerative eyees, as well as combined gas-vapor power cycles Steam is the most common working Tid used in vapor power eycles ‘because of is many desirable characteristics, such as lowcost, availability, ‘and high enthalpy of vaporization. Therefore, this chapter is mostly devoted to the discussion of steam power plans. Steam power plants are commonly teferred to a8 coat plants, nuclear plants, of natural ges plants, depending ‘on the type of feel used to supply heat wo the stem. Hosieve, the team ‘206s through the same basic eyele inal of ther. Therefore, all can he na lyzed in the same mane. CHAPTER EEO 10-1 + THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE We have mentioned repeatedly that the Carmot cycle is the most efficient ‘cycle operating between two specified temperatufe limits. Thus i is natu- ral to look at the Camot eyele frst as a prospective ideal eyele for vapor power plants. If we could, we would certainly adopt it as the ideal cycle. ‘As explained below, however. the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for power cycles. Throughout the discussions, we assume steum to be the work- ing fluid since itis the working fluid predominantly used in vapor power eyeles. ‘Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle executed within the saturation dome ‘ofa pure substance, as shown in Fig. 10-1a. The Muid is beated reversibly land isothermally in a boiler (process 1-2), expanded isenropically in a ta bine (process 2-3), condensed reversibly” and isothermally’in a condenser {process 3-4), and compressed isentropically by a compressor tothe initial state (process 41) Several impracticalities are associated with this cycle: 1. Tothermal heat transfer to of from a two-phase system is not difficult to achieve in practice since maintaining a constant pressure in the device automatically fixes the temperature at the saturation value 1 ‘Therefore, processes 1-2 and 2-4 can be approached closely in actual boilers ‘and condensers. Limiting the heat transfer processes 10 two-phase sys- tems, however, severely limits the maximusn temperature that ean be used in the eycle (it has to remain under the crtical-point value, which is 374°C for water. Limiting the maximum temperature in the cycle also limits the Z ‘thermal efficiency. Any atemptto raise the maximum temperature inthe eycle involves heat transfer to ihe working fluid in a single phase, which is not easy ‘to accomplish isothermal. a 3 2. The isentropic expansion process (pmcess 2-3) can be approximated closely by a well-designed turbine. However, the quality of the steam decreases during this process, as shown on the 7's diagram in Fig. 10-La. Thus the turbine has to handle steam with low quality, that is, steam ® with a high moisture content. The impingement of liguid droplets om the turbine blades causes erosion and isa major source of wear. Thus steam with ‘qualities less than about 90 percent cannot be tolerated in the operation of power plants. Tis problem cou be climinated by using a working loid with ‘very steep saturated vapor line. 3. The isentropic compression process (process 4-1) involves the ‘compression of a lijuid-vapor mistore to a saturated liquid. There are two. difficulties associated with this process. First, itis not easy to control the ‘condensation process so precisely as 10 end up with the desired quality at state 4. Second, itis not practical wo design a compressor that handles two phases Some of these problems could be eliminated by exceuting the Carnot cycle in a differem way, as shown in Fig. 10-10. This cycle, however, pres ets other problems such as isentropic compression 10 extremely high pres- FIGURE 10-1 sures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures. Thus we conclude ‘Ts diagram of two Carex vapor ‘that the Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in acwal deviees and is not a oan realistic model for vapor power eyeles. o 10-2 « RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES “Many of the practicalities associated withthe Carnot eycle ean he elimi nated by supeheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser. as shown schematically ona 7's diagram in Fig. 10-2. The ‘jc that results is the Rankine eycle. which isthe ideal eyele for vapor power plans. The ideal Rankine eyele dees not involve any internal ime ‘versbiities and consists ofthe following four processes: 1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump 23 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler 34 Isentropic expansion in a turbine 41 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically tothe operating pressure ofthe boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due 10 a slight decrease in the specific volume of water. The vertical distance ‘between states 1 and 2 on the Ts diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity (Ar water were truly incompressible, would there be a temperature change at all during this process?) Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a supetheated vapor at slate 3. The boiler is asically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustion gases, nuclear reactors, ot other Sources is transferred fo the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler, together with the scetion where the steam is superheated (he super= heater. is often called the steam generator. “The Supesheated vapor at state 3 enters the euing, where it expands isen- topically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected 10 an electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of steam drop daring this process {w the valucs at state 4, where seam enters the condenser At this sae, steam is usually a satursted!liquid-vapo mixture with high quality. Steam is con- dense at constant pressure in the condense, which is basically a large heat ‘exchanger. by rejecting heat wo a cooling medium such a a luke, a iver, or ‘the atmosphere, Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liguid and entrs ‘the pump, completing the cyele, Th areas where wate i precious, the power plants are cooled by aie instead of water. This method of cooling, which is so used in car engines, is called ry cooling. Several power plants inthe ‘world, including some inthe United States use dry cooling to eouserve water Remembering thatthe area under the process curve on a T's diagram rep- resents the heat transfer for intemaly reversible processes, we see thatthe fea under process curve 2-3 represents the heat transfered to the water in the boiler and the area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat rejected in the condenser. The difference between these two (the area ‘enclosed by the eycle curve) isthe net work produced during the eycle Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, eile, tunbine, and condenser) are steadyflow devices. and thus all four processes FIGURE 10-2 “The simple ical Rankine cycle, that make up the Rankine eyete can be analyzed as steady-fow processes. ‘The Kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative 10 the work and heat wansfer tems and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow energy equation pet unit mass of steam reduces 10 ha ~ daa) * 4 ~ ag) = he ~ yer) on ‘The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump and the tubine are assumed 10 be isentrupic. Then the conservation of enessy ‘elation for each device can be expressed as follows: Pampig= 0» in == By 02) c= MPL 0s where 0 Boller = 0 aos) Torin 0-8) Condenser (w = 0% ao ‘The thermal efficiency ofthe Rankine cycle is determined from a= Z-r-% cos) ae ae where “The conversion efficiency of power plants in the United States is often expressed in terms of heat rate, which is the amount of heat supplied, in Burs, to generate | Wh of electricity. The smaller the heat rate, the eater the efficiency. Considering that 1 kWh — 3412 Buu and disregard ing the losses associated with the conversion of shaft power to electric power, the elation between the heat rate and the thermal efficiency ean be expressed as Ss12(unWH) 7h Fea rate (BAW) os) For example, a heat rate of 11,363 BuwkWh is equivalent to 30 percent efficiency. The thermal efficiency can also be interpreted as the ratio of the area enclosed by the eyele on a Ty diagram to the area under the heat- addition process, The use ofthese relations is lustated in the Following exarmple. {F EXAMPLE 10-1 The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle 5 Conscer 9 steam poner plant operating onthe simple teal Renkin ce. # Steam eles the lrbing at 3 MPa and 360°C and is condensed in the fondenser ata pressure ot 75 kPa. Determine the thermal etieancy of this ee. [SOLUTION steam power plont oparating on the simple ideal Rankine ‘leis cansidored. The tral fficioncy of the cyte Ist be datormined. ssamptions 1 Steady oparting cortions eset 2 Kinete. and potential ‘eneny changes ae nee Anaiyss Te schematic ofthe powerplant and the Ts diagram ofthe cycle fue shown in Fig. 10-3. We nota that the poner plant epertes on the iaeat Rankine cycle. Tere, the pump and to turbine are tarvope, ther are ‘no pressure drops in the beller and condenser, and sleam leaves the con- ‘denser and enters the pump as saturated liquid atthe condenser pressure. First ma detumine the entries at various pins in tha eel, using data from steam tables (ables A-8, A-5, and A-6)- Sate F< 7SURY by = bya = MAE Lg saciid JY, = jon = 0001037 ming Site2: Py IMPs i‘ eee ae = 303 Ksieg, ‘Example 10-1 hg ~ by + Waogin ~ BBSS + 3.08) ite — 38787 KVR Sure: P= 3MPa} r= 3rc! 5, Site: P= TSKPs (ot xtrs) My 670 = 1219 aT 6205 b+ thy = 384A + OSRHIATTEN = 2400 = asso 407 hh, = GUO ~ 38747) Ung = 27286 KI Gag 7 Ay — y= QUO — 384A) LUG = 201K GLI. and _ 2186 ug So - Smmng — MO ment “The thermal eticieney coud aso be determined fom etna = hy — hy = GIG ~ 4080) kik = 713.1 kg ae = Wienet~ Wane = (7IBL ~ 3.03) fag ~ 710. ie ~ Sn ~ foe ~ CARE — DOKB)LING ~ 710K and Mee 21004 4. TROIS “That tis powerplant converts 26 percent ofthe neat receives inthe bole to net work An actual powerplant operating Between the same tem ‘erate and presiue mis wll ave 2 lower eficincy becouse of Ue ine esis such a feton. ‘Disersson Notice Tet TNE D9CK Wark AO rp ~ MyM) a this power plant Is 0.004, ard thus ony 0.4 percent ef the frbing work etput is required {o operate the puma. Hasing such low back work ratios is cheraceistic of \apar power cycles. Ths isin contast tothe ga8 power cycles whieh typ aly ivove wary nigh back work ratios about 40 to 80 percrt {Wis ao intresting to nots the thermal etficincy of a Carn cyle opr- ang between the same temperatne limits =) Ze 9+ HK Meee 17) a+ aK “The ference between the two efficiencies is due tothe lage eternal ire- vesbilty in te Rankine oye caused by the large temperature diterence between sieam and combustion gases inthe Tunace. me = 0260 or 26.0% = oss 10-3 = DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER: CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES ‘The actual vapor power eyele differs from the ideal Rankine eyce, as ius tad in Fig. 10-4, a5 @ result of ireversibiltes in various components Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two commen sources of imeversiilies, Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler. the condenser. and the piping between various components. As a result steam leaves the boiler ata Somewhat lower pressure. Also, the pressure atthe turbine inlets somewhat lower than that at the boiler exit due to the pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The pressure drop in the condenser is usvally very smal. To com ppensate for these pressite drops, the water must be pumped toa sufficiently higher pressure than the ideal cycle calls for. This requires larger pump ‘and larger work iat to the pump. “The other major source of ineversiblity isthe feat loss from the steam to ‘the surroundings as the steam flows through various components. Ta miin- tain the same level of net work output, more heat needs to he transferred 10 the steam in the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat losses. As a result, cycle efficiency decreases. (OF particular imporance are the imeversibilties occurring within the pump and the urbine. A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller work output as a result of ineversibilities. Under ideal ‘conditions, the low through those devices is isentropic: The deviation oF ‘actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones ean be accounted for by Uilizing isentropic eficiencies, defined as 3h 040) te and a oan where states 2a and 4a aro the actual exit states ofthe pump and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the comesponding states forthe isentropic ‘ease (Fig. 10-4). Other factors also need to be considered in the analysis of actual vapor power cycles. In actual condensers, for example, the liquid is usually sub- ‘cpoled to prevent the onset of cavitation, the rapid vaporization and con ddensation of the fluid at the low-pressure side ofthe pump impeller, which ‘may damage it. Additional losses occur atthe bearings between the moving pars as a result of friction. Steam that leaks out during the eycle and i that leaks ino the condenser represent two other sources of loss. Finally, the power consumed by the auxiliary equipment such a fans that supply ar to {the furnace should also be considered in evaluating the overall performance of power plants. ‘The cficct of iereversbilities on the thermal efficiency of a steam power ‘eyce is illustrated below with an example. 3 cxamrus 10-2 an Retual steam Power Cycle {FA siesm poner plant operates on the cele shown in Fig. 10-5, Ifthe ise 18 onl efclency of te turbine 87 percent and the entropic eciency of the pump i 85 percent, determine (2) the thermal efficiency of the ale ‘and (8) the net power output of the plant for a mass flowrate of 15 hg SOLUTION A sizam power cycle with specitied turbine and pump efiien- es considered. The thermal efficiency and the net power eutput ae to be determines. ‘Assumptions | Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Kintle and pote every chenges are nezlbie: ‘Analysis The schematic ofthe power plant andthe Ts cram of the cycle 4a shown in Fig. 10-6. The tomperatres and pressures of steam t various points ne also inaiatad on the igute. We noe nat the power plant iysives Ssteady-flow components and operates on the Rankine cjce, but the imper fections at various components are acountad fo (Gi The thermal efficiency of a cycle is the ratio of the net work output to the Feat input and i deter ned as folos FIGURE 10-4 (a) Deviation of actual vapor power ‘yele frm the ideal Rankine ele (by "The elfetof pump and wrbine lnceversibitis onthe eal Raine yee Pump mah nts ang ere UP, = Pid oe Te De (01009 wag L6m00 = 9 al ooking Turbine work cutout: Msi ite nly ~ h) = O8TSEBA — 21153) TOW Boller heat input: Gq = I~ hy = GOATS ~ 160.1) Lig = 3487 SEI Thus, = Veto ~ Nanaia = (2770 ~ 190)1Iy = 1258 Kg Me _ 125K Rg 4. METS Khe = 0361 or 361% (0) The power produced by tis powerplant Waa = shin ~ (15 yX12580 kihg) = 189 MW ‘Discussion Without the meversbilties, the thermal etfeieny of ths cle would be 43.0 percent (sce Example 10-30. Schematicand 7s diagram for Example 10-2 10-4 = HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE? Steam power plants are responsible for the production of most electric power inthe world, and even small increases in thermal efficiency can mean large savings from the fuel requirements. Therefore, every effort is made vo Improve the efficiency ofthe cycle on which steam power plants operate. “The basic idea behind all the modiistions to increase the thermal eff- ciency of a pawer eycle isthe sate: Increase the avenge temperature at hick heat is transferred to the working fluid inthe viler, or decrease the ‘average temperature at which heat i reecied from the working fluid inthe Condenser. Tha is, the average uid temperature should be as high 38 pos- sible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection. Next \we discuss thre way’ of accomplishing tis for the simple Kea! Ranking cycle Lowering the Condenser Pressure (LoWerS Troy a) Stam exists a strated mitre inthe conenser atthe strato tem aes cease tei ee oe eee Tico Leesa AE Specie pismar of te Gorka: mieeueally once the temperature’ of tho steam, and ths the tempermre a which heat is rected “The effet f lowering the condenser pressure onthe Rankine jee ef ciency is lustrated on diagram In Fig. 10-6. For comparison por pose the trie int ste is manne the same. The colored area om (ie dopant peat hc ctens ott. werk pat n'a res of ering the condense pressure fom P, to Py. The ha input requirements also increase (represented by the area under curve 2'-2), but this increase is ‘ery sa Th the overall et of lowering the condenser presse fan ieceene tal cine of tle ie Hy ks lreties of Me Seen acc aloo pace, ht condensers of steam power plans usually operas well below the ame Spon presse Thi dacs not presenta major poh since the vapor freer cele operas ina cle onp, However there ia lower iit on {he conde pesnre tat can he und. Hcannt be lower than the sar, tain pons Gegguntng to thc eae of fie coolng mio Comes fix exam coker ht to be ened by amet ther a IS. Allowing temperature dferece of 10°C for efectve heat ans fer, to steam temperate inthe condenser must he above 25°C: ths the cous panen Seas SSD Es, a cee coe ase. ee eee For one thing. it creates the paxil ofa leakage im the condense. More import inreses the moisture coment of the steam athe al tinge oft thie can fs xm foe Fg 10-8. The psc lage Gees of ltrs sight cadet ta wutines Bemis eras the turbine efficiency and erodes the ui blades. Fonunately this prob- dem can be coneced as discussed next FIGURE 10-6 “The effect of lowering the condenser ‘presse nthe ideal Rankine eye FIGURE 10-7 “Theelectof superbeating the steam to igher temperatures on the ideal Ronkine vee FrouRE 10-8 ‘Theeffectof increasing the boiler resus othe Meat Rankine cycle Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures Increased without increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to bigh temperatures, The effect of superheating on the performance of ‘apor power cycles is illustrated on a Zs diagram in Fig. 10-7. The colored area on this diagram represents the increase in the net Work. The total area under the process curve 3-3" represents the increase in the heat input. Thus ‘both the net work and heat input increase as a result of supedeating the thermal ‘steam to a higher temperature. The overall effect is an increase is ficiency, however, since the average temperature at which heat faded ‘Superbeating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable cffect: Ht deczeases the moisture content ofthe steam atthe turbine exit as ‘can be seen from the 7 diagram (ihe quality a tae 4s higher than that at state 4), ‘The temperature ro which steam can be superheated js imited, however. ‘hy metallrsical considerations. Presently the highost stoam temperatre allowed at the turbine inlet is about 620°C (L1S0'F). Any inerease in this value depends on improving the present materials or finding new ones that can withstand higher temperaures. Ceramics are very promising in this regard Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Tygy,., Another way of increasing the average temperature during the hea adtion process 10 increas the operating presaue ofthe Boer, which automatic Cally raises the wermperaue at which Bling aks place. Ths in tu ses {he average temperature a which Rea transfered othe scam ad hk ‘asc he thermal efficeney of he eel. ‘The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of vapor pover yeles is lsat on as agra in Fig. 10-8. Notice that Fra Fixed turbine net vernperatre, the cycle hs tothe Hef and the ostre content of sea atthe bine ext increases. This undesirable side effect ‘an be corrected, however by reheating the eam, as discussed in the next Operating pressures of boilers hve gradually inseased over the years from about 27 MPa (00 pia) in 1922 0 over 30 MPa (4800 psi) ta), generating enough seam 9 produce a net power output of 1000 MW or "or ina lage power plant. Tey many moder stam powerplants operate at superitical presures (P > 23.06 MPa) and have dermal elficenis of Shout 40 percent for fossil plants and percent for nuclear plants ‘Thee ae over 150 superenticalpessre steam poster plans in operation inthe Unie Stes. The lover efficiencies of nuclear power plas are due to the lower maximum temperatures used in thse plans for safety reasons. The T's diagram ofa supercritical Rankine eycle is shown in Fi. 10-9. “The eects of loering the conden pewure,superhcsing to a higher temperatures and increasing he boiler presse on the thes efcieney of tne Rankine eyele are ilastated helow with an example. foters the turbine at 2 MPa and 350°C and ls condensed io te condenser Bat 2 pressure of 10 kPa, Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of tis power plant, (6) the thermal efficiency i seam 's superheated to 600 °C insiead of 360°C, and (2) the them etficency it the bol pressure is raged to 15 MPa while the turbine init temperate is maintained at 600. SOLUTION A steam cower plant operating on te ideal Rankine cycle fs considered. The effects of supomeating tha stam to a Mighor tenerature apd raising the boiler pressure on thermal ficiency ae to be iwestgate, “Tne Fs diagrams of the cycle fer all tes cases are gyen in Fig. 10-10. () This is the steam powerplant discussed in Example 10-1, except that the condenser pressure is lowered to 10 KPa. The them eficieny is dete ‘mines in a similar manne ee rs) Berk acts Sat igo Us ~ Yeo ce ~ QODI0) mg (91s! + 300A Pee re een ee = 67850 KE K FIGURE 10-9 supercritical Rankine cycle FIGURE 10-10 7s diagrams ofthe dre eyeles discused in Example 10-3, Store 42 P,= \OKPS (eae mistre) pe a ag This, 1 = hy + dy = IDEAL + 081280392.) = 2136.18 gy 7 fy — f= G16 — 1AADKIR ~ 2921-34IKE doe = A = hy = 2136.1 ~ LSD Ly = 1944 3g and _ ISSN 21S Rik ts Thoretoe, the thera) atfclency increases trom 26.0 to 33.4 percent as a result of lowering the condenser pressure fom 75 to 10 kPa. At the same ‘ime, nowever, the quality ofthe steam decresses from 88.6 to B13 percent (in ther words, the moisture content increases from 1.4 to 18.7 pert) (0) States 1 and 2 soain the sare in ti caso, and the enthalpios at stato 3 (3 WPa and 600°C) and tate 4 (10 kPa and 5, = 5) are determined to be a = sos2stung ae A, = 2380.38INg (x, ~ 0915) i= By = BIDS — 1983 = ERO LTAY 28005 — 19181 = 2188 Siang oo and as 4 _ 2188S oats or373% Therefor, the vera ffclency increases trom 33.4 to 37.3 percent as 2 result of superhesting the steam fom 350 to 600°C. At the same time, the ‘Qualty of the steam incteacas from 81.3 t0 91.5 parcent (in ther Worcs, the moisture content decreases from 18.7 to 8.5 percent), (c) State 1 remains the same In this ease, Dut the other states change. The enthalpies at state 2 (15 MPa ands, = 5), stale 3 (15 MPa and 600°C, fand state 4 (10 KPa and 5: = 5) ae determined ina similer manne to be 1h, = 20695 = 3585.1 A= 2usauRE h 0504) Thus, y= hy — hy = 3583.1 — 20695 = 357621 an 21133 — 191.81 = 19285 ang ny Se 1 EE go or as0e Discussion The thermal ficiency increases frm 37.3 to 43.0 percent as a ‘aul of raising the boiler pressure fom 3 to 15 MPa while maintaining the ‘urine inet tempersture at 600°C. At the same time, however, tne quality cf the steam decreases from 91.5 to 80.4 percent (in other wads, the mei ‘ure content increases fom 8.5 10 19.6 pereant) 10-5 » THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE ‘We noted in the last section that increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but it also increases the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable levels. Then it is natural to ask the fol- lowing question: How can we take aavantage of tho increas oficlereies at higner Dolor pressures without facing the probiem of excessive molsture atte fa! ‘stages ofthe tune? Two possibilities come to mind: Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be the desirable solution since the average temperature at \which heat is added would also increase, thus inereasing the eyele efficiency. This is nota viable solution, however. ince it requires raising the sear tem\- perature to metallurgically unsafe levels. 2. Expand the steam i the turbine in two stages and reheat it in between, In other words, modify the simple ideal Rankine eyele with a reat process. Reheating isa practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in tu bines, and itis commonly used! in modern steam power plants, ‘The Tir diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and the schematic of the power plant operating on this cycle are shown in Fig. 10-11. The ideal reheat Rankine cyele differs from the simple ideal Rankine cycle in that the expansion process takes place in two stages. In the first stage (the high- pressure turbine), stcam is expanded isentropically to an inteemestiate pressure and sent back to the boiler where itis reheated at constant pres- sue, usualy to the inlet temperature of the first turbine stage. Steam then ‘expands isentropially in the seeond stage low-pressure turbine) to the con- denser pressure. Thus the total heat input and dhe total turbine work output for a reheat cycle became i ~ Iya + Mae = (y= a) +s — (40-12) FIGURE 10-11 “The ideal cheat Rankine eye, FIGURE 10-12 ‘The average temperature at which heat is transferred during reheating increases asthe number of reat stagesis increased and Manan Maas? Mansn Os AQ +S A) (BID, ‘The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5 percent by increasing the average temperature at which heat is transferred othe stew, ‘The avege temperature during the reheat process can be increased by Increasing the numberof expansion and reheat tages. As the number of stages is increased. the expansion and rebeat processes approach an isoermal pro- cess at the maximum temperature. as shown in Fig. 10-12. The use of more than two reheat stages however, is not practical. The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the second reheat is about half ofthat which results from single reheat IF the turbine inlet pressure is not high enough, double chcat ‘woul eesult in superheated exhaust. This is undesirable a it would cause the average temperature for heat rejection to increase and thus the cycle efficiency to deezease. Therefore, double reheat is used only om supercntical-pressure (P> 2206 MPa) powerplants. A third reheat stage would increase the cycle elfcieacy by about half of the improvement attained by the second recat. ‘This gain is too smal to justify the added cost and complesity. The reheat eycle was introduced in the mid-1920s, but it was abandoned in the 1930s because of the operational difficulties. The steady increase in boiler pressures over the years made it necessary to reintroduce single reheat in the late 1940s and double reheat in the ealy 1950s. The reheat temperatures are very close or equal 10 the wrbine inlet temperature. The optimum rebeat pressure is about one-fourth of the ‘maximum cycle pressure. For example, the optimum reheat pressure for a cycle with a boiler pressure of 12 MPa is about 3 MPa. ‘Remember that the sole purpose of the reheat cycle isto reduce the mois- ture content ofthe steam atthe final stages of the expansion process. Tf \we had materials that could withstand sufiiently high temperatures, there ‘Would be no need for the reheat cycle {E EXAMPLE 10-4 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle 1 considera stem power plant operating on the ideal reheat Rankine cle | Steam ante tho high-presure tubine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is con- sensed inthe condenser at 9 pressure of 10 KPa, Ii the moisture content of te steam at to ext of the ow pressure turbine i not to exccod 10.4 per- cent, determine (a) the pressure at wich the seem shouldbe reneated and (0) the thermal eicteney ofthe cycle, Assume the steam Is reheated to the Inlet temperature of the high-pressure turbine SOLUTION A steam power plant ooerating on the ideal reat Rankine ‘leis considered. For 8 specined moisture content at te turbine ext, the reneat presute and the terra ficiney ae to be deterring, Assumplians 1 Steady operating conditions exst. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are nese. Analysis The scernalic of the powerplant and the Ts dagrem of the cycle are show in Fig. 10-13. We note thatthe powerplant operates on the ideal feteat Rankine cle. Thetefere, the pump and the turbines are seniop iy ‘here ae no pressure drops Inthe bole and condense, and steam lentes the condenser and entars the pumg a5 saturated quid at tho comdonsar pressure (a) Te rene pessune is determined trom the requirement thet the entropies at states 5 and 6 be tne same Stated: Py = 10 KPa 4,7 0.896 (sat mixture) 5675) ~ O88 + 089674990) — 73088 KK K Ne Ay tig ~ IOLSL + 08952392.1) ~ 2535.11 FIGURE 10-13 Schematic and :s diagram for Example 10-4, Ths, eon Ae n= J m= 30749uAg “Therefore, stam should be reheated at pressure of 4 MPa ce lner to pre vent a moisture content atove 10:4 pereent. (0) To determine the thermal efficiency, we need to krow the enthalpies at all other states. Sue 1: Py ‘Sau igi 191 LI, 00101 as Sure? Pym PsP) 00001 wk) (nee) 19181 + 151) Why = 206951 115.000 ~ 10 Pa = 1514 eke Siute3: P= ASMP, = 3583.01 T= aC J: ~ 66796 Mike a een eae nen J 3850 Thus ym) + eA = (585.1 — 20685)kIAg + GOMES ~ 31551 Kg 3806.11 Gag hg = ng = (3S. = LSD Ig 18 3g, ane newt fate | BE acca a. | S850 IE ‘Discussion This problem was solved in Example 10-2. for the same pras- ‘ure and temperature limits but without the reheat peesss. A comparison Of the two results reas that reheating reduces he roistire Contant ror 1966 to 104 percent while increasing the thermal eficiency from 43,0 to 45.0 porcant. 10-6 = THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE [A careful examination of the Ts diagram of the Rankine eycle rodrawn in Fig. 10-14 reveals that heat i transferred to the working fluid doring process 2-2" a a relatively low temperature. Ths lowers the average heal- ‘addition temperature and thus the eye efficiency. ‘To remedy this shortcoming. we look for ways to raise dhe temperature of| the liquid leaving the pump (called the feedwater) before it enters the boiler. ‘One such possibility isto transfor eat to the feedwater from the expand- ing steam in a countrflow heat exchanger built into the turbine, thats, ‘use regeneration. Ths solution is also impractical because itis ficult to design such a heat exchanger and because it would increase the moisture ‘content ofthe steam a the final sages ofthe turbine, ‘A practical rezeeration process in steam power plants is accomplished by ‘extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points. This sea, ‘which could have prodced moce work by expanding further inthe tine, i ‘used to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FW). Regeneration not only improves eycie efficiency, bu also provides a eon ‘venient means of Jeaerting the feedwater (femoving the air that leaks in at the condenser) to prevent corrosion inthe boiler. 1t also helps contol the large volume flow rate of the steam atthe final stages of the turbine (due to the large specific volumes at low pressures). Therefore, regeneration has been used in all modem steam power plants since its introduction in the carly 1920s ‘A feedwater heater is basically aheat exchanger where heat is ansfered from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams {open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them (closed feedwater heater). [Regeneration with both types of feedwater heaters is discussed below. Open Feedwater Heaters An open (or direc-contct) fedvater heater is basically «ising ‘hander where the steam exact from the rrhne mines wit the fos Stator exiting the pomp dally the mixture eaves the hester es strate Tipe te heat pre, Thea of rican powerplant wom pes fester hee (alo calle sigle-toe epeneraie ele) and he TFs diagram of the ect are shown in Fig. 10-15. In an eal regenerative Rankine cycle, sam eners che curbine the wile pressure (sate 5) nd expan eto o an intermediate pres sir sa 6 Som stam Is extracted ot th sta and rvted to the food oes eer pit etn ce eas eed ee ie fe ceckanet setoes ie 1 Stee ice Lawes epi ie Sturt lig tthe condenser prsure (tate 1). The condemned water hich is aso called the fede then enters an isnropi pump, wher iscompressd othe feedwater hese presi (state 2 an soe 0 the fetus Rene whey Wee Wil Mes rote fess extn ‘The fraction ofthe steam extracted ssh hat the ste leaves he heer sein sot id te Keone reser (Gui 2).A ect op Hi perce wees rbot Cee 9) Trego ae ‘etd by beating the water in the oiler othe rine lt sate atte 3. LATTE 1 FIGURE 10-14 ‘The first part of he heat-addition process inthe boiler takes pace at Feltively low temperatures. FIGURE 10-15 ‘The ideal regenerative Rankine cele witha open feedwater beater. In the analysis of steam power plants itis more convenient to work ‘with quantities expressed per unit mass ofthe steam flowing through the boiler, For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in ‘the turbine ands extractod at state 6, The remaining (1 — y) kg expands completely to the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are vantages of mercury are its toxicity and high cost. The mass flow rate of ‘mercury in binary vapor cycles is several times tha of water because of its low enthalpy of vaporization. Ibis evident from the Ts diagram in Fig, 10-27 thatthe binary vapor cycle approximates the Carnot cycle more closely than the steam cyele ‘for the same temperature limits. Therefore, the thermal efficieney of a ‘power plant can be increased by switching to binary eycles. The use of ‘mercuty-water binary cycles in the United States dates back to 1928, Several sch plants have boen built since then in the New England aca, ‘where fuel costs are typically higher. A small (40-MW) mercury-steam ‘power plant that was in service in New Hampshire in 1950 had a higher ternal efficiency than most of the large modern power plants in use ut ‘that time, ‘Studies show that thermal efficiencies of $0 percent or higher a pos- sible with binary vapar eycles. However, binary vapor eycles are not co- ‘nomically attractive because oftheir high initia} cost and the competition ‘offered by the combined gas-steam power plants. Bm m ‘The Carnot cycle is not a sutble model for vapor power Sele Rete Wael be pgm th pete The ‘model eele for vapor power cycles fs the Rankine cvele, Srhieh fs compo of fo antemally revere procenes ‘consume pressure sot addition ina boiler. isermopic ‘exponson in turbine, consantpressie heat ejection i a condznsc, and isensopic compression in a pump. Steam Jeaves the condenser ava sora figui atthe comdemer rss. ‘The thermal effceney of the Rankine gele can be Sncrewed by increasing the average temperate at Which treat is transferred 16 the working fluid andlor by decrease ng the veraue iciprature a which heat sje 10 the ‘ooking medium, The average temperate ding heat rejec= ‘don can be dsvreased by lowering the turbine exit presse ‘Conseyuely.the condenser presare of mest vapor power ‘plans is wel below the atmospheric pressure. The average Aemperature during beat aditon cam he inercased by ras Sng he boiler pressure or by supesbeating the Maid 10 high Aeepersaren Tes Teal he degre ef soph ‘however. since the Mid temperament allowed w exceed a metallurpcaly safe value ‘Superheting hus the aldad advantage of decresing tho moisture content of the seam at the turin’. ext “Lowering the exhaust pressure or rising the boiler presse, Ihomever, inersases the moishre coment. To take aan ‘age of the improved efficiencies at higher boiler pressures and lower condenser presses, seam is usually rehewed after expanding parally in the highpeesse turbine. THs ‘is done by extracting the steam after partial expansion in the high-presae ubiac, sending it back co the boil where it is toheated at constant pressure, and retuming it {othe low-pressure ube for complee expansion 10 the condenser pressure. The average temperuure during the reheat pris, and ths the thermal efficiency of the cyl, fan be inereuied by increasing the number of expansion fond rohet sages. As the amber of sages nese, he expansion and reba processs approach an isotrmal pro- ess at maxima temperature. Rebeating alo decreases the ‘moisture contet a the rrbine ext ‘Another way of inccasng the thermal eficiency of the Rankine cycle is regeneraion. During a regeneration pro- cess, lguid ater (feedwater) leaving the pump is heated hy seam blod of the turbine at some inermedise pres ai in devices called feedwater heaters. The two scams are ‘nite ia ope fecdwater heaters, and Uke mite leaves a saturated lguid at the beater pressure. In ewe feedwater eas, ati waned rom the seam w the feedwater swith mixing "The producton of mare than cne weful farm of enemy (oct as process heat and clectic poner) frm the sme ‘merry sour is called cogeneration Cogeneration plans pecs cli: por wile icting ie pce eat ‘eultemcns of ean india! proceso. Ths way, more lf the energy transfered tothe fad in the oir i lized for a useful papons. The fraction of energy thas used for titer process heat or power generation is cll the fi tion factor ofthe cogencration pam ‘The overall thermal efcieney of a power plant can be Increased by using a combined cyele. The most common combined cycle isthe gas-seam combined eyele where fevtvbineeyele opera the high-semperanare range andl ! scar turin eyele at the lowe tempraane range. Steam is head by dhe high-emperature exh gases leaving the ga turbine. Combinal eycles hive a higher thermal ffcieney than de steam or gaturine eyes operating lone. Eo nn es 1. RL Ranmiver andG. 1 Silvestri “The Evolution ‘of Cena Station Siam Tutbincs.” Mechanical gineering, ebuary 1989, pp. 70-78 2. RL. Banmisr, GJ. Silvewi, A. Hizume, and 7. ijkava. “High Tempore Superical Stam ‘Toatnen.” Mechanical Engineering Fobmuary 1987 pp. 60-65, 23. M.M, EL:Wakil, Powerplant Techy, New York: ‘McGraw Hil. 1986, 4. K.W.Liand A P. Priddy, Power Ploa System Design [Now York Inn Wiley 8 Sons, 185, 5. HE Sorensen, Fuergy Cuero Systems. New York sla Wiley & Sans, 1983. (6, Sten, ls Generation and Use, 3 New York: Baberek and Wik Ca. 1978 17. Taomacnery 28 9, 2 (Marel/Apr 1987). Norwalk. ‘CT: esican oma ne {8 1, Wessman and R. eka. Modern Per Pant Engincering Englewood Cis, I: Peatce Hal, 1985, fa Carnot Vapor Cyele 1W-1C Why 3s the Camot eyele not a realistic model for seam power plas? 12K Water enter the boiler of » weady-flow Carat engine as saturated Figuid at 400 psia and Teaves: with Sjality 0.95. Stara eaics the tine af preamee oF 230 prin Show the eyele on a Tr digram relative to the sat ‘ation Hines, aa dtersine (a) the thermal eiciney, (4) the ‘ality atthe end of the aothermal beat rejection Process, ed (e) the vet work nad. Answers: (2) 240 percent (0.208, (@ 178 stutem 10-3 A seady-low Carnot cycle uses wate a the working Aud, Water changes from satrsed lg &o sated xapor cat is wansfnted wit rom a surae at 250°C. Heal ijec- tion kes place ata pressure of 20 KPa Show the eycle on 2 7s dagea elaive wo tbe ssturation Tins, and deternine (a) the thermal effcieney.(b) the amount of heat rected, ad (¢ the mat work ouput AOA Repeat Prob, 10-3 far a hia ijnion ewe of 10a. “Prbiems designated 2 *0" ae concep quai and ers ae ence aged answer em a. Problems designate bran arm Engin unt, and tne S| uearcan ane re. Problems win the @) Icon ate aed uring EES, are eariete selutions together i Sutiesateincluced ot the tet Sac Potions heigl eras compre etn rare ined tobe sled ih a ution soe suc a= EES, 10-8 Consider astady flow Carnot cycle with water asthe working uid. The maximum and tinioum temperatures in the cycle ate 350 and OU"C. The quality of water is 0.891 ‘tthe begining ofthe hea tejection proces and 0.1 atthe fend. Show the eyele on & 75 diagram relative to the satura iow Tins, and dctxanine (a) the thea effiicny, B) the pressure atthe turbine inet, and (c) the net work ouput. ‘asus (a 0.865, (8) 140 MP, (2) 1625 eg The Simple Rankine Cycle 10-6C Consider simple ideal Rankine eyele with Hue turbine inst conditions, What is th effect of lowering the condenser pres on ‘Pump waik inputs (a) increases, (B) decreases, (remains the same Turbine werk (ad increases, (b) decreases, output (2 remains the same Hat supplied: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (remains the same Heat rejected: (a) increases, (b) decreases, {a remains the same Cyleeticiency: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (remains the same ‘Woisture content (a) increases, (b) decreases, atturbine eit: (remains the same 10.70 Consider simple ideal Rankine eyele with Raed turbine inl temperatrs nd condenser ress. What be et ol pecentag tec bake peaancen Pump werkinguts (2) increases, (2) decreases, (eo remains the same Turbine work (2) ncreaves, (2) decreases, cutout: (remains the same eat supplied: (a) increases, (B)dsereases, (c) remains the same Heat ejctede (a) increases, (0) decreases, (remains the same ‘ete ofcioney: (2) increases, (0) decreases, (remains the same Noistue content (2) increases, (6 decreases, At turine ests (6) remains the same 10-8C Comsier a simple ideal Rankine cycle with fted boiler and condenssr pressures. What is the effect of super beating the seam wo a higher tempera on Pump werkinut: (a) increases, (2) decreases, (e) remains the same Turbine work (2) increases, (2) decreases, output: (e)remains the same Heat supplied: (2) increases, (0 decreases, (ovemains the same Heat efcted: (a) increases, (0) decreases, (Co remains the same Cycle afciencye (a) increases, (8) decreases, ()emains the same Moisture content (2) increases, (0) decreases alluring ext; (e) remains the same 10-9C How do actual vapor power cyl ifr from ideal ‘aod ones? 410-10C The entropy of stam increases in octal tear Carbine a a result of inevernibide. Ina effet como fnipy increne. iti proposed to cool the steam athe ‘arbipe by running cooling water arcund the wine easing. 1 angucd tht tis wil reduce the entopy andthe enthalpy 1 He seat at the tba xi nd en fcr he eet ‘uta, How would you crake this propel” MOALIC st powsible wo maintain a prenie of 10 KPa in “ucondonsr that's being cooled hy rer water entering beet 10-12 A steam power plant operates on a simple ical Rankine cycle betmcen the pressure limits of 3 MPa und SULPa The emperstare of the scar al the tahine inlet 540°C, ond ve mass flow ate of steam through the cycle |g 35 igh. Show the eyele ona T-s diagram with respect 0 saturation tines, and determine (a) the thermal eficioncy OF the eycle and (6) the met power output of the power plant VOI Refrgees34a in ed ax the wicking. lal in a simple ideal Rankine cycle which operas the boiler at 2000 LPa and the condenser at 24°C. The mixture tthe ext ff the trbine fas 4 qaiy of 93 percent. Determine the turbine ict termperatre, the cycle thermal eiiciency and the back-work rao of hs eye 10-18 A simple sdeal Rankine cyole which aes water 4 the working lid operas its comenser at 40°C and is baile a 300°C, Calelie the work produc by the bine, ‘he Heat supplicd im the boiler, and the thermal efficiency lof this eyele When the scam ens Ue ubine without apeteating FIGURE P10-14 JO-ASE A simple ‘deal Rankine cycle with water as the working Muid operates ween the pressure Knits of 2500 pia in the biker an 5 pian the coemser. Wha ‘he minima temperate required at the turbine inlet such ‘hac the qualiy ofthe seas leaving the tain is nt below. 0 pence. When operated al this terperaune, what i he ‘henna efficiency ofthis ycle? 410-16 Considera 210-M1W steam power pant hat operat fm a srple ideal Rankine eyele. Steam enters the urine a {0 MPs ae SOI-C sls cookin the cundemer a 3 pre sure of 10 KPa. Show he eyele ona T's diagram with respect ‘to sauration lines, and determine (a) the qual ofthe scam A the tarbine ext (2) the thermal efBconcy of the eye, and () the mass flow rate ofthe scart. Anse: io) 0.793, (2) a2 percent (e185 43 rT 10-17 Repeat Prob, 10-16 suming an iene fTicomsy ‘OF SS percent for both the carsine and the pump. Anznev [a] 0874, () 34.1 parent, (ch 194 kos MABE A stam Rankine cyele operates between the pressure Tims oF 1500 psia in the Dover and 2 pia in ‘the condenser. The turbine inlct temperature is 800°F. The turbine isentropic effcieney 1s 90 percent, the pur losses are negligible. andthe cyle is sized to produce 2500 kW of power Calcite the miss low rate thngh the baler, the [omer produced by the turbine, he te a heat supply fn he ‘oles, and the thermal efisiency. 0-19 Reconsider Prob. IN-ISE, Howe much eon is ‘caused i the thermal eieieney if the power required by the ‘pump were completly neglectad? 10-20 A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between the pressure limits of 1250 and 2 psia. The mas flow rate of steam through the eyele is 75 this. The moisture content of the steam atthe turbine ‘exit fs not to exceed 10 persent. Show the cycle on a T-s sdagrara with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) ‘the minimum turbine inlet tmperature (b) the rate of beat Input in the boiler, and (e) dhe thnial efficiency of the eget. 10-211 Repeat Prop, 10-20: asuming on isnipic eff

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