Vector Calculus

DIANUSMATIKOS LOGISMOS
I. Muritz
2009
Perieqmena
1 DIANUSMATIKH ALGEBRA
1.1
Dianusmatik sunartsei mia metablht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Dianusmatiko qroi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
1.2.1
Upqwroi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.2
Grammik anexarthsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.3
Distash kai bsh en dianusmatiko qrou . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.4
Efarmog sth lsh Grammikn Susthmtwn
14
1.2.5
Gewmetrik ermhnea twn grammikn susthmtwn
Grammik apeikonsei
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
16
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2 SUNARTHSEIS POLLWN METABLHTWN

2.1
Pragmatik sunartsei polln metablhtn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.1.1
Grfhma kai snolo stjmh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.1.2
Merik pargwgo
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.3
Bajmda
gradient
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.1.4
Pargwgo kat mko kamplh kai

kateujunmenh pargwgo
2.2
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.2.1
O telest andelta. Apklish kai strobilism . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.2.2
Efarmog: Metdosh jermthta
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Dianusmatik peda
Taylor
2.3
To Jerhma
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.4
Akrtata bajmwtn pedwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.5
To jerhma twn peplegmnwn sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3 OLOKLHRWSH SUNARTHSEWN POLLWN METABLHTWN
47
3.1
Epikamplia oloklhrmata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.2
Dipl oloklhrmata
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.3
Tripl oloklhrmata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.4
Allag metablhtn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5
Epifaneiak oloklhrmata
61
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PERIEQ
OMENA
3.5.1
Parrthma: Upologism tou epifaneiako oloklhrmato
3.6
To Jerhma
3.7
To Jerhma
Gauss
Stokes
. . . . .
62
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4 OI EXISWSEIS THS MAJHMATIKHS FUSIKHS

4.1
Klassik diaforik exissei me merik paraggou
4.2
Lsei twn MDE
77
. . . . . . . . . . .
77
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.3
H exswsh diqush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.4
Oi exissei
4.5
Oi exissei knhsh twn reustn
Maxwell
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
86
Keflaio 1
DIANUSMATIKH ALGEBRA
H nnoia tou diansmato w diatetagmnh trida tou
R3
enai gnwst ap to mjhma tou
Apeirostiko Logismo. To keflaio aut enai mia eisagwg sth Grammik 'Algebra kai
Rn
genikeei thn lgebra tou
se afhrhmnou dianusmatiko qrou . Arqzoume me thn
gnwst nnoia th parametrik anaparstash kampuln.
Sumbolism .
Upenjumzoume ti sti trei diastsei me
to dinusma jsh kai

grfoume
1.1
|r|
ant
r = krk =
krk.
x2
y2
r = (x, y, z) sumbolzoume
z 2 . Gia elfrunsh tou sumbolismo sunjw
Dianusmatik sunartsei mia metablht
'Opw dh gnwrzoume, sunartsei tou tpou

pragmatikn arijmn kai
n = 2, 3
onomzontai
r : I Rn
kample
pou
enai kpoio disthma
sto eppedo ston tridistato
qro.
Pardeigma 1.1.1.
An
tR
kai
a, v R3
stajer diansmata, tte
qei w eikna thn eujea pou pern ap to shmeo
r(t) = a + tv
a kai qei th diejunsh tou diansmato
v.
Pardeigma 1.1.2.
pou
a.
a>0
kai
H kamplh
t [0, 2],
Pardeigma 1.1.3.
r(t) = (x(t), y(t))
me
x(t) = a cos t
enai parametrik parstash kklou kntrou
H kamplh
r(t) = (x(t), y(t))
me
x(t) = a cos t
y(t) = a sin t
(0, 0) kai aktna
kai
kai
y(t) = a sin t
a > 0, > 0 kai t [0, 2/], enai parametrik parstash tou diou kklou, all to
dinusma jsh kinetai me diaforetik gwniak taqthta.H kamplh r(t) = (x(t), y(t))
me x(t) = a cos (t) = a cos t kai y(t) = a sin (t) = a sin t pou a > 0, > 0
kai t [0, 2/], enai parametrik parstash tou diou kklou, all to dinusma jsh
kinetai me antjeto prosanatolism.
pou
KEF
ALAIO 1.
Pardeigma 1.1.4.
enai mia kamplh
'Estw
f : R R,
sunrthsh mia metablht .
pou algebrik parstatai ap thn
y = f (x) ,
To grfhma th
dhlad

C = (x, y) R2 : y = f (x) .
qei w parametrik anaparstash,
x(t) = t
kai
y(t) = f (t) .
Ap ta paradegmata prokptei ti ma kamplh mpore na qei poll anaparastsei ,

p.q. oi
x (t) = t, y (t) = t, z (t) = t, t [0, ),
x (t) = t2 1, y (t) = t2 1, z (t) = t2 1, t [1, ),

pariston thn dia kamplh (eujea pou pern ap thn arq twn axnwn kai ap to shmeo
(1, 1, 1)).
Pargwgo
mia
dianusmatik
sunrthsh
to dinusma
r : t 7 (x(t), y(t), z(t))
sto shmeo
enai
dr
r (t + t) r (t)
= lim
,
t0
dt
t
arke fusik na uprqei to rio. Ekola prokptei ti sthn perptwsh aut oi pragmatik
sunartsei
x(t), y(t), z(t)
enai paragwgsime kai mlista
r (t)
dr
= (x(t),
y(t),
z(t)).
dt
r (t) enai parllhlo sthn eujea pou efptetai sthn kamplh sto shmeo r (t).
Gia pardeigma, na swmtio pou kinetai sthn elikoeid troqi r(t) = (cos t, sin t, t),
t R, qei taqthta v(t) = r (t) = ( sin t, cos t, 1) pou to mtro th enai |v(t)| = 2.
r = d2 r/dt2 =
Me anlogo trpo orzetai w epitqunsh h deterh pargwgo ,
(
x(t), y(t), z(t)) (ef' son oi sunartsei x(t), y(t) kai z(t) enai do for paragwgsime ).
To dinusma
Gia pardeigma, to dinusma jsh en swmatidou pou ektele omal kuklik knhsh
(dialgoume ssthma axnwn ste to kntro tou kklou na enai to shmeo
r(t) = a cos t i + a sin t j,
(0, 0)), grfetai
a, > 0.
H taqthta ja enai loipn
v(t) = a sin t i + a cos t j.

Parathrome ti to mtro th enai stajer,
dinusma jsh ,
r(t).v(t) = 0.
H epitqunsh
kv(t)k = a ,
kai enai diark kjeth sto
dv
= 2 a cos t i 2 r sin t j = 2 r(t),
dt
1.1.
DIANUSMATIK
ES SUNART
HSEIS MIAS METABLHT
HS
enai antrroph th dianusmatik aktna ,

(Genik,
an
pargwgo
mia
th ,
2v(t).v(t)
= 0,
dianusmatik
v .
sunrthsh
Apdeixh:
kat sunpeia enai kjeth sthn taqthta.
qei
o.e.d.)
norm
|v(t)|2 = v(t).v(t) = const,
stajer
Paragwgzonta thn
To ginmeno pragmatik sunrthsh
tte
enai
ep dianusmatik sunrthsh
orjognia
sthn
qoume
enai mia na
q = r pou orzetai w , q(t) = (t)r(t), t R. H pargwgo th
q dnetai ap ton tpo q(t)
= (t)r(t) + (t)r(t).
Me anlogo trpo, gia do dianusmatik
sunartsei r kai p prokptei
dianusmatik sunrthsh
d
(r.p) = r .p + r.p,
dt
d
(r p) = r p + r p.
dt
Ma kamplh lgetai apl kamplh an den autotmnetai
mia apl kamplh enai mia
na
pro na
. H parametrik anaparstash
apeiknish
r : I R3 ,
pou
kpoio disthma kai
Ma kamplh lgetai
to dinusma jsh en shmeou th kamplh .
lea n h pargwgo th den mhdenzetai poujen sto pedo orismo
th
dr
= (x,
y,
z)
6= (0, 0, 0)
dt
t I.
(Dikaiologeste ton orism).

Se kje apl kamplh antistoiqon do
prosanatolismo
kateujnsei
An p.q.
C sundei do shmea A kai B, mporome na epilxoume ton prosanatolism ap to

A sto B. H parametrik anaparstash r = r(t), t [t1 , t2 ], sbetai ton prosanatolism
aut an, r(t1 ) = A, r(t2 ) = B (dste pardeigma).
kamplh
Asksei
Epanalambnoume kpoiou tpou .
H seir aut apotele epanlhyh tou sqetiko ke-
falaou ap ton Apeirostik Logism.
1. An
a, b, c
enai grammik exarthmna tte
a. (b c) = 0
kai antstrofa.
2. Upenjumzoume ti h exswsh tou epipdou pou pern ap to shmeio

sto dinusma
a kai enai kjeto
grfetai
(x a) .n = 0.
'Ena eppedo qei exswsh
x + 2y 2z + 7 = 0.
Brete:
a) na monadiao kjeto
dinusma b) ta shmea tom me tou xone g) thn apstash tou epipdou ap thn
arq d) thi suntetagmne tou shmeou tou epipdou pou qei thn elqisth apstash
ap th arq.
KEF
ALAIO 1.
3. Upenjumzoume ti h exswsh th eujea pou pern ap to shmeio

diejunsh tou diansmato
kai qei th
grfetai
r (t) = tu + a.
Dexte ti aut mpore en gnei na grafe w
y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
.
a
b
c
(1.1.1)
Brete thn exswsh th eujea pou pern ap to shmeio
(1, 1, 1) kai enai kjeth sto
eppedo me exswsh
4x 3y + z = 5.
4. Brete th dianusmatik taqthta kai to mtro th sti paraktw kample
r (t) = t2 i + tj + k,
pou
a, b
stajer kai
u, a
r (t) = (a cos t, b sin t, 0) ,
r (t) = tu + a,
stajer diansmata.
r(t) twn paraktw kampuln: eujea pou pern

2
x
ap ta shmea (1, 1, 1) kai (2, 3, 2), {(x, y) R : y = e }, lika aktna 2 kai bmato
1/3.
5. Brete parametrik anaparastsei
6. Upologste ta mkh twn kampuln

r(t) = 2 cos t, 2 sin t, 3t , t [0, 3] ,
r(t) = (t sin t, 1 cos t, 0) , t [0, 2] .
Upmnhsh:
l (r) =
1.2
|r(t)| dt =
Z bp
x 2 (t) + y 2 (t) + z 2 (t) dt.
Dianusmatiko qroi
'Ena snolo
lgetai dianusmatik qro (DQ) grammik qro upernw tou
, an ta
stoiqea tou mporon na prostejon metax tou kai na pollaplasiaston me pragmatiko
arijmo kat trpo pou na ikanopoiontai oi aklouje idithte :
stoiqea tou
kai
oi
arijmo
kai me
pragmatiko arijmo .
suqn lgontai
DQ 1
An
DQ 2
Gia
DQ 3
DQ 4
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
kai
ankoun
la ta stoiqea
ankei
sto
Ta stoiqea tou
x, y, z
sumbolzoume
lgontai
bajmwt).
(Me
sto
x, y
V
tou
V.
tte
kai
x+y
isqei
ankei
epsh
x + y = y + x.
sto
V.
diansmata
1.2.
DIANUSMATIKO
I Q
WROI
DQ 5
tou
Uprqei na stoiqeo tou
na isqei
DQ 6
Gia
DQ 7
(x + y) = x + y.
DQ 8
( + )x = x + x.
DQ 9
()x = (x).
DQ 10
1x = x.
pou sumbolzetai me
ttoio ste gia kje stoiqeo
x + 0 = x.
kje
sto
(1
uprqei
enai
arijm
R3 ,
To prtupo ma enai fusik o

m tou dianusmatiko qrou.
na stoiqeo
ttoio
ste
x + (x) = 0.
1)
tou opoou oi algebrik idithte tjentai w oris-
Ta pio endiafronta snola sta majhmatik, kajstantai
dianusmatiko qroi an oriston katllhla oi prxei th prsjesh dianusmtwn kai o

pollaplasiasm me bajmwt.
Pardeigma 1.2.1.
Rn , dhlad to snolo twn diatetagmnwn n-dwn (x1 , ..., xn )

pragmatikn arijmn enai o gnwst ma n-distato
. Ta stoiqea tou
To snolo
Eukledeio qro
ikanopoion ti idithte DQ1 w DQ10, an orzoume jroisma dianusmtwn
(x1 , ..., xn ) + (y1 , ..., yn ) = (x1 + y1 , ..., xn + yn ) ,
kai pollaplasiasm me bajmwt
(x1 , ..., xn ) = (x1 , ..., xn ) .

Suqn,
oi perisstere idithte ikanopoiontai
dexoume ti na snolo
Ta stoiqea tou
matiko arijmo
A.
An
B.
An
kai
C[a, b])
enai dianusmatik qro , arke na elgxoume ti:
mporon na prostejon metax tou kai na pollaplasiaston me prag-
kat trpo
ankoun
kai
xV
Pardeigma 1.2.2.
me
kat tetrimmno trpo kai gia na
pou
sto
tte
na ikanopoiontai
tte
kai
x+y
ankei
sto
oi
aklouje
ankei
epsh
sto
To snolo twn suneqn sunartsewn
me prxei thn prsjesh sunartsewn
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

kai pollaplasiasm me bajmwt
idithte :
R
(f )(x) = f (x)
f : [a, b] R
(sumbolzetai
10
KEF
ALAIO 1.
enai DQ diti ikanopoie ti idithte DQ1 w DQ10. H apdeixh afnetai ston anagnsth.
sto
Smfwna me thn prohgomenh paratrhsh, elgqoume mno ti an
C[a, b],
tte kai
f +g
kai
C[a, b].
ankoun epsh sto
kai
ankoun
H aplousteumnh aut
diadikasa enai efikt diti to mhdenik stoiqeo tou qrou orzetai me profan trpo
(sthn perptwsh ma enai h mhdenik sunrthsh) kai oi idithte DQ2, DQ4 kai DQ6 w
DQ10, enai sunpeie gnwstn idiottwn twn pragmatikn arijmn.
Pardeigma 1.2.3.
To snolo
Mmn
mn
twn
pinkwn, me prxei thn prsjesh
pinkwn kai pollaplasiasm me pragmatik arijm, enai dianusmatik qro .
1.2.1
Upqwroi
Orism 1.1.
upqwro ,
a.
An
b.
An
g.
To
'Ena
uposnolo
an ikanopoiontai
x
y
R
kai
ankoun
kai
mhdenik
oi
tte
dinusma
en
aklouje
sto
xW
tte
x
V
tou
dianusmatiko
qrou
lgetai
dianusmatik
sunjke :
kai
x+y
W
ankei
ankei
sto
ankei
epsh
sto
epsh
sto
R3 pou qoun mhdenik z suntetagmnh,

dhlad stoiqea th morf (x, y, 0) me x, y R, enai na dianusmatik upqwro tou
R3 . (Argtera ja dome na trpo na ton tautopoisoume me ton R2 ). An V enai to
snolo lwn twn sunartsewn f : [a, b] R, mporome ekola na dexoume ti V enai
nn
enai o DQ twn n n
dianusmatik qro kai C[a, b] enai na upqwro tou. An M
pinkwn kai W to snolo twn n n summetrikn pinkwn A (dhlad aij = aji ) tte W
nn
enai upqwro tou M
.
Gia pardeigma, to snolo twn stoiqewn tou
H tom do upoqrwn enai upqwro . Brete do upqwrou tou

upqwroi tou
Orism 1.2.
a1 , . . . , an
enai
R3 .
Poioi enai oi
R?
'Estw
na
pragmatiko
dianusmatik
arijmo,
tte
to
qro
kai
x1 , . . . , xn
stoiqea
tou
An
dinusma
a1 x1 + . . . + an xn
lgetai
grammik
sunduasm
twn
x1 , . . . , xn
Gia pardeigma, ap ta stoiqea

sunduasm
sin t, cos t
tou d.q.
C[0, ]
pargetai o grammik
a sin t + b cos t.
Jerhma 1.2.1.
To
snolo
dianusmatik upqwro tou
W
.
lwn
twn
grammikn
sunduasmn
twn
x1 , . . . , xn
enai
1.2.
DIANUSMATIKO
I Q
WROI
An
Apdeixh.
a1 , . . . , an
kai
11
b1 , . . . , bn
enai pragmatiko arijmo, tte
(a1 x1 + . . . + an xn ) + (b1 x1 + . . . + bn xn ) = (a1 + b1 ) x1 + . . . + (an + bn ) xn

dhlad to jroisma do stoiqewn tou
enai pli stoiqeo tou
W.
An
enai arijm ,
tte
c (a1 x1 + . . . + an xn ) = ca1 x1 + . . . + can xn

x1 , . . . , xn ,
enai epsh grammik sunduasm twn

periqei to
0,
ra stoiqeo tou
W.
Tlo , to
diti
0 = 0x1 + . . . + 0xn .
W
V , dhlad
x1 , . . . , xn . Eidik an ta diansmata
x1 , . . . , xn pargoun ton
kje stoiqeo tou V grfetai w grammik sunduGia
asm tou , tte lme ti o dianusmatik qro V pargetai ap ta x1 , . . . , xn .
2
pardeigma, o R pargetai ap ta i, j, all pw mporete na elgxete, pargetai kai ap
ta i, i + j, j, kai ap ta i j, i + j, j. Tjetai loipn to erthma, an uprqei pnta ttoio
Lme ti o upqwro
ap ta
pargetai
snolo pou pargei na DQ kai an nai, poio enai o elqisto arijm twn dianusmtwn
pou apaitontai ste kje stoiqeo tou
na grfetai w grammik sunduasm tou . Gia
na apantsoume sto erthma, ja qreiastome thn nnoia th grammik anexarthsa .
1.2.2
Grammik anexarthsa
Orism 1.3.
Ta diansmata
x1 , . . . , xn
lgontai
grammik
anexrthta an h
isthta
a1 x1 + . . . + an xn = 0
sunepgetai
ti loi
Ta diansmata
oi
arijmo
a1 , . . . , an
x1 , . . . , xn lgontai
enai
mhdn.
grammik exarthmna
an uprqoun arijmo
a1 , . . . , an ,
qi loi mhdn, ttoioi ste
a1 x1 + . . . + an xn = 0.
Gia pardeigma, ta stoiqea
sin t, cos t
C[0, ]
tou d.q.
enai grammik anexrthta.
Prgmati, gia na enai na grammik sunduasm tou so me mhdn gia kje
a sin t + b cos t = 0, t [0, ], ja

b = 0 kai gia t = /2 prokptei a = 0.
dhlad
Dexte ti ston
i j, i + j, j
R2
ta
i, j,
prpei
a = 0, b = 0,
anexrthte .
gia
t=0
enai grammik anexrthta, to dio kai ta
(a, b).
Dexte ti
prokptei
i, i + j
Ta
C (a, b) o qro twn paragwgismwn

t 2t
oi sunartsei e , e
enai grammik
enai grammik exarthmna. 'Estw
sunartsewn sto disthma
p.q.
t [0, ],
12
KEF
ALAIO 1.
Jerhma 1.2.2.
aut
mpore
na
ta diansmata
aut
enai
Apdeixh.
arijmo
x1 , . . . , xn
An ta diansmata
grafe
x1 , . . . , xn
grammik
grammik
mpore
enai grammik exarthmna, tte na ap
sunduasm
na grafe w
twn
upolopwn.
grammik
Antstrofa,
an
na
sunduasm twn upolopwn,
ap
tte
exarthmna.
'Estw ti ta diansmata
a1 , a2 , . . . , an ,
x1 , . . . , xn
enai grammik exarthmna. Tte uprqoun
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = 0.
'Estw p.q. ti
a1 6= 0,
opte
x1 =
Antstrofa, an na ap ta diansmata
a2
an
. . . xn .
a1
a1
x1 , . . . , xn , p.q.
to
x1 mpore na grafe w grammik
sunduasm twn upolopwn, tte
x1 = 2 x2 + . . . + n xn ,
sunep
(1)x1 + 2 x2 + . . . + n xn = 0
dhlad ta
x1 , . . . , xn
1.2.3
Distash kai bsh en dianusmatiko qrou
Orism 1.4.
matiko qrou
enai grammik exarthmna.
mgisto
lgetai
Pardeigma 1.2.4.
arijm
grammik
distash tou
kai
anexarttwn
sumbolzetai
me
dianusmtwn
dim V
en
dianus-
Sto eppedo uprqoun do grammik anexrthta diansmata (brete
do!), all opoiadpote tra diansmata enai grammik exarthmna. 'Ara h distash tou
epipdou enai do (
dim R2 = 2).
Sto qro pou zome uprqoun 3 grammik anexrthta di-
ansmata (brete tra!), all opoiadpote tssera diansmata enai grammik exarthmna.
'Ara h distash tou eukledeiou qrou enai tra (
Jerhma 1.2.3.
An
V
v1 , . . . , vn
dianusmatiko qrou
sunduasm
Apdeixh.
ap
twn
v1 , . . . , vn
enai grammik anexrthta diansmata en
, tte kje stoiqeo tou
Ta diansmata
dim R3 = 3).
distatou
grfetai me monadik trpo w grammik
x, v1 , . . . , vn
enai grammik exarthmna diti enai perisstera
n, dhlad perisstera ap th distash tou qrou.
'Ara, uprqoun arijmo
ax + a1 v1 + . . . + an vn = 0,
a, a1 , . . . , an ,
1.2.
DIANUSMATIKO
I Q
WROI
13
a 6= 0, alli ta v1 , . . . , vn ja tan grammik exarthmna. 'Opw akrib sto jerhma

1.2.2, to x grfetai w grammik sunduasm twn upolopwn,
me
x = c1 v1 + . . . + cn vn ,
Prpei tra na dexoume ti an to
ck = ak /a.
mpore na grafe kai w
x = b1 v1 + . . . + bn vn ,
tte
ck = bk
gia kje
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Prgmati, afairnta kat mlh ti parapnw
isthte , brskoume
(c1 b1 ) v1 + . . . + (cn bn ) vn = 0,
kai epeid ta
v1 , . . . , vn
enai grammik anexrthta, prokptei ti
ck = bk ,
gia kje
k=
1, 2, . . . , n.
Orism 1.5.
v1 , . . . , vn
enai
To
snolo
grammik
Anakefalainoume: An
tou
V,
tte to
{v1 , . . . , vn }
anexrthta kai
lgetai
bsh
ep plon
tou
qrou
pargoun
ton
qro
{v1 , . . . , vn } enai mi bsh tou qrou V
grfetai me monadik trpo w grammik
an
ta
diansmata
x tuqao dinusma
sunduasm twn v1 , . . . , vn ,
kai
dhlad
x = a1 v1 + . . . + an vn .
a1 , . . . , an lgontai
grfoume to x w nda
x w pro thn dojesa bsh kai poll

for
arijmn, x = (a1 , . . . , an ). 'Etsi, dexame ti opoiadpote
n grammik anexrthta diansmata, mporon na epilegon w bsh tou V . Epomnw
Oi arijmo
suntetagmne
tou
le
oi bsei en dianusmatiko qrou qoun to dio pljo stoiqewn, so me th distash tou
qrou
Pardeigma 1.2.5.
Ta
Pardeigma 1.2.6.
To snolo twn poluwnmwn
{i, j, k} apotelon bsh tou R3 . 'Omoia, ta n diansmata

e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, 0, . . . , 1), apotelon bsh tou Rn , ra
dim Rn = n.
nbajmo
me pragmatiko sunte-
lest , enai grammik qro me prxei thn prsjesh poluwnmwn kai pollaplasiasm
me arijm. Dexete ti oi sunartsei
Pardeigma 1.2.7.
upqwro tou
{1, t, t2 , t3 , . . . , tn }
apotelon bsh tou qrou.
To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn enai DQ distash 1.
pou apoteletai ap diansmata me mhdenik
stoiqea th morf
pern ap to shmeo
zsuntetagmnh,
dhlad
(x, y, 0), x, y R, qei distash 2. Kje eujea gramm tou R3

(0, 0, 0) enai dianusmatik upqwro tou R3 distash 1.
pou
14
KEF
ALAIO 1.
Pardeigma 1.2.8.
upqwro tou
u1
kai
2x 3y + 7z = 0, pern ap thn arq

u1 = i + 2/3j, u2 = 7/2i k. Kje grammik
To eppedo me exswsh
twn axnwn kai periqei ta diansmata

sunduasm twn
u2 ,
ankei epsh sto eppedo. To eppedo loipn enai didistato
, kai ta (grammik anexrthta) diansmata
u1
kai
u2 , apotelon mia bsh
tou.
Jerhma 1.2.4.
m>n
enai
An
grammik
dim V = n
tte
opoiodpote
snolo
dianusmtwn
me
exarthmno.
H apdeixh brsketai se opoiodpote biblo Grammik 'Algebra .

exasfalzei ti an qoume
diansmata
{v1 , . . . , vm }
To jerhma aut
pou pargoun to qro kai
ap aut enai grammik anexrthta, tte mporome na petxoume

ste ta apomnonta
tou
mno
mn diansmata otw
n (grammik anexrthta) diansmata na enai ex' sou apotelesmatik
gia na pargoun ton qro.
1.2.4
Efarmog sth lsh Grammikn Susthmtwn
'Estw na
mn
pnaka
A,
A=
a.11
.
.
.
a1n
.
.
.
am1 amn
jstlh sumbolzetai me Aj kai sunjw lgetai

m
mia mda arijmn, enai na stoiqeo tou R ),
a1j
.
Aj = ..
H
dinusma
jstlh
(jewromenh
amj
A. An ta do diansmata stlh tou enai grammik

(Isodnama, an ta do diansmata stlh tou enai
anexrthta, tte det A 6= 0.
grammik exarthmna, tte det A = 0). Genikesete sti trei diastsei . Sth
'Estw na
22
pnaka
Grammik 'Algebra apodeiknetai to jerhma:
Jerhma 1.2.5.
an kai
mno
an
Ta diansmata stlh en
det A 6= 0
nn
pnaka
enai grammik anexrthta,
A jewrsoume tra to omogen ssthma
exissewn
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = 0
am1 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + amn xn = 0
1.2.
DIANUSMATIKO
I Q
WROI
gia tou
agnstou
15
x1 , . . . , xn .
x1 = 0, . . . , xn = 0.
Mia lsh enai h tetrimmnh,
Anazhtome mh tetrimmne lsei .
To ssthma mpore na grafe w
n
X
aij xj = 0,
i = 1, 2, ..., m,
j=1
Ax = 0
x1
a11
.
.
.
am1
a12
.
.
.
+ x2
am2
+ ... + xn
kai tlo , qrhsimopointa ta diansmata stlh
Aj ,
a1n
.
.
.
amn
0
.
.
.
x1 A1 + x2 A2 + ... + xn An = 0
(1.2.1)
Aut h teleutaa morf me thn opoa gryame to ssthma, den enai par mia sqsh gram-
mik exrthsh
dianusmtwn (twn
jerhma 1.2.4 prokptei ti ta
x1 , . . . , xn ,
Aj ),
tou
Rm .
An loipn
n > m = dim Rm ,
ap to
enai grammik exarthmna, dhlad uprqoun arijmo
qi loi mhdn, ttoioi ste na isqei h (1.2.1). Kat sunpeia:
Jerhma 1.2.6.
tetrimmnh
'Ena omogen
ssthma
exissewn me
agnstou ,
n>m
, qei mh
lsh.
A ljoume tra sthn pio endiafrousa perptwsh, en mh omogeno sustmato

exissewn me
agnstou ,
x1 , . . . , xn
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
am1 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm

pou grfetai kai w
Ax = b,
qrhsimopointa ta diansmata stlh
Aj ,
x1 A1 + x2 A2 + ... + xn An = b
(1.2.2)
m = n kai ti ta diansmata stlh Aj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n enai grammik

n
Sunep apotelon bsh tou R , opte opoiodpote dinusma b, grfetai
A upojsoume ti
anexrthta.
me monadik trpo w grammik sunduasm tou .
x1 , . . . , xn ,
Dhlad uprqoun monadiko arijmo
ttoioi ste na isqei h (1.2.2). Anadiatupnoume to sumprasma ma w ex .
Jerhma 1.2.7.
anexrthta,
tte
to
An
m = n
kai
ssthma (1.2.2)
ta
diansmata
qei
monadik
Aj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n
monadik
lsh
an kai
mno
an
det A 6= 0.
grammik
lsh.
Sunduzonta to jerhma 1.2.7 kai to jerhma 1.2.5 prokptei ti

qei
enai
to ssthma (1.2.2)
16
KEF
ALAIO 1.
1.2.5
Gewmetrik ermhnea twn grammikn susthmtwn
Upenjumzoume ti h exswsh tou epipdou pou pern ap to shmeo

dinusma
p kai
enai kjeto sto
grfetai w
(x p) .u = 0,
Ax + By + Cz = D.
(1.2.3)
Arqzoume me na klassik pardeigma.
Pardeigma 1.2.9.
u = (1, 1, 0).
'Estw
Dexte ti
to snolo twn
enai upqwro tou
x R3
pou enai kjeta sto dinusma
kai brete th distash tou. Perigryte
W.
3
An x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) R
enai kjeto sto dinusma u, dhlad x.u = 0, ja qoume
x1 x2 + 0x3 = 0 x1 = x2 . 'Ara ta stoiqea tou W qoun prth sunistsa sh me
th deterh, sunep kje stoiqeo w W enai th morf w = (w1 , w1 , w3 ) . Profan
0 W kai w = (w1 , w1 , w3) W. An w, v W, tte w + v = (w1 , w1 , w3 ) +
(v1 , v1 , v3 ) = (w1 + v1 , w1 + v1 , w3 + v3 ) , dhlad to w + v qei prth sunistsa sh me
th deterh, ra w + v W. Sumperanoume ti W enai upqwro .
Ma bsh tou W
apoteletai ap ta diansmata (1, 1, 0) , (0, 0, 1) , ra h distash tou upoqrou W enai 2.
Ap thn genik exswsh (1.2.3) sumperanoume ti W enai na eppedo pou pern ap thn
arq (0, 0, 0) kai enai kjeto sto u = (1, 1, 0) .
gewmetrik to snolo
Genikeonta , to snolo twn
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) , enai upqwro
tou
x = (x, y, z) R3
pou enai kjeta sto dinusma
distash do. 'Oloi oi upqwroi tou
a =
distash do,
enai eppeda pou pernon ap thn arq twn axnwn kai perigrfontai ap exissei th
morf
a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = 0.
(Prosoq! to eppedo
x + y + z = 1,
Pardeigma 1.2.10.
den enai upqwro ).
x y 2z = 0 kai 2x + y 2z = 0.
Ta eppeda tmnontai se mi eujea parllhlh pro kpoio dinusma v pou enai kjeto
kai sto u1 = (1, 1, 2) kai sto u2 = (2, 1, 2). Epomnw w v mporome na proume to

i j
k

v = u1 u2 = 1 1 2 = 4i 2j + 3k.

2 1 2
Brete thn tom twn epipdwn
Brskoume na koin shmeo twn epipdwn, lnonta ti exissei twn epipdwn. 'Ena ttoio
shmeo enai (profan ) to
enai
(0, 0, 0) .
Me bsh ton gnwst tpo (1.1.1) h exswsh eujea
x
y
z
=
= .
4
2
3
1.2.
DIANUSMATIKO
I Q
WROI
17
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) kai b =
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) . Tte ta eppeda a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = 0 kai b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = 0 tmnontai en gnei
se ma eujea pou pern ap thn arq 0. Prgmati, lnonta (me ton kanna tou Cramer)
w pro x kai y to ssthma
Genikeonta , jewrome do grammik anexrthta diansmata
a1 x + a2 y = a3 z,
b1 x + b2 y = b3 z,
brskoume
x
y

a a = a a
2 3
3 1

b2 b3
b3 b1
z
=

a a ,

1 2

b1 b2
dhlad qoume thn exswsh eujea pou pern ap thn arq

diejunsh tou
a b.
(0, 0, 0) = 0
kai qei th
Epomnw h tom do didistatwn upoqrwn enai en gnei na
monadistato upqwro .
Paratrhsh.
An to eppedo den pern ap thn arq twn axnwn, ja qei exswsh
th morf (1.2.3) me
to
0 = (0, 0, 0).
D 6= 0.
Sthn perptwsh aut dn enai upqwro , afo den periqei
R3
Pte h tom do didistatwn upoqrwn tou
Jewrome tra eppeda pou pernon ap thn arq

tou na enai to monosnolo
Poi enai h tom twn epipdwn
'Estw do grammik anexrthta diansmata
kai
Brete sunjke ste h tom
x y 2z = 0, 3x + 3y + 6z = 0 kai 2x + y 2z = 0?
pargoun na upqwro
gewmetrik to snolo
0.
{0} .
ta
den enai monadistato upqwro ?
W.
u kai v.
Smfwna me to jerhma 1.2.1,
Brete th distash tou
W.
Perigryte
W.
Jewrome tra eppeda ttoia ste toulqiston na ap aut den pern ap thn arq
0,
opte perigrfontai apo exissei th morf
a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = d1 ,
b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = d2 ,
c1 x + c2 y + c3 z = d 3 ,
di
qi loi mhdn.
Poi sunjke prpei na ikanopoion ta
ai , bi , ci
otw ste:
(a) ta eppeda tmnontai se na mno shmeo (b) h tom tou enai ma eujea (g) den
tmnontai (h tom tou enai to ken snolo).
18
KEF
ALAIO 1.
Genkeush ston Rn
a = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) Rn . Tte to snolo twn x Rn

Rn distash n 1. Lme ti x.a = 0,
'Estw
tou
me
x.a = 0 enai na upqwro
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn = 0,
enai h exswsh en
P1 kai P2
(m n)
tte h tom twn
exissei
P1 tou Rn . An P2 enai to upereppedo b1 x1 +...+bn xn = 0,

en gnei na upqwro distash n 2. Genikeonta , oi
uperepipdou
enai
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = 0
am1 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + amn xn = 0
m upereppeda pou h tom tou enai upqwro distash nm. Apodeiknetai ti upqwro aut qei th mgisth distash n m an m stle tou pnaka A enai
grammik anexrthte , isodnama an kpoia m m upoorzousa tou pnaka A enai m
mhdenik (blpe rjro per txh (rank) pnaka sthn Wikipedia).
paristnoun
Jewrome to snolo
Perigryte to upereppedo
x R4
twn
me
x1 + 2x2 = 0
kai
enai upqwro kai brete th distash tou.
x1 = 0
tou
x3 x4 = 0.
Dexete ti
R4 .
Asksei
1. Ta paraktw uposnola tou
R3
enai upqwroi
(a) To snolo twn
(x, y, z)
gia ta opoa
x + y + z = 0.
(b) To snolo twn
(x, y, z)
gia ta opoa
x = y.
2. An
u, v
enai grammik anexrthta stoiqea tou
R3 ,
o upqwro pou pargetai ap
aut enai na eppedo pou pern ap thn arq twn axnwn.
{a = (1, 1, 1), b = (1, 0, 1), c = (0, 0, 1)}, {a = (0, 1, 1), b =

(1, 0, 2), c = (2, 0, 1)}kai {a = (1, 1, 0), b = (1, 2, 1), c = (0, 0, 1)} apotelon
3
bsei tou R kai brete ti suntetagmne twn dianusmtwn x = (1, 0, 0) kai y =
(1, 1, 1) w pro ti bsei aut .
3. Dexete ti ta snola
4. Duo stoiqea
arijm
u, v
V , enai grammik
u = v v = u.
en d.q.
ttoio ste
5. 'Opw edame to snolo twn
22
pinkwn.
mn
exarthmna an kai mno an uprqei
pinkwn enai DQ. Brete mia bsh sto qro twn
To dio kai sto snolo twn trigwnikn
nn
pinkwn.
To dio kai
1.3.
GRAMMIK
ES APEIKON
ISEIS
sto snolo twn
mn
6. An
pinkwn?
33
summetrikn pinkwn.
R2
enai upqwro tou
gnsio upqwro tou
19
Poia enai h distash tou qrou twn
poia mpore na enai h distash tou
(dhlad den tautzetai me ton
V?
), tte ete
V enai
V = {0} ete
enai mia eujea pou pern ap thn arq twn axnwn.
7. An
R3
enai upqwro tou
gnsio upqwro tou
poia mpore na enai h distash tou
, tte ete
thn arq twn axnwn, ete
V = {0}
ete
(x1 , ..., xn )
gia ta opoa
V?
An
An
enai
enai mia eujea pou pern ap
enai na eppedo pou pern ap thn arq twn axnwn.
Rn pou
x1 + x2 + ... + xn = 0?
8. Poia enai h distash tou upoqrou tou
9. Se omogen ssthma upojtoume ti
sunstatai ap la ta diansmata
m = n kai ti ta diansmata stlh tou pnaka
enai grammik anexrthta. Dexte ti h mnh lsh enai h tetrimmnh.
10. Kataskeuste do
33
grammik m omogen sustmata tsi ste to na na qei
monadik lsh kai to llo na mn qei lsh.
11. Kataskeuste do
33
grammik omogen sustmata tsi ste to na na qei
monadik lsh kai to llo na qei peire lsei .
1.3
Grammik apeikonsei
Orism 1.6.
Mia
apeiknish
F:V W
ap na dianusmatik qro
ish,
an gia
kje
kai
V
x, y V
se na llo dianusmatik qro
, lgetai grammik apeikn-
isqoun
F(x + y) = F(x) + F(y),

F(x) = F(x).
Sunjw paralepetai h parnjesh sto risma th apeiknish
Mia
grammik
apeiknish
pnw s'
na
dianusmatik qro
F : V V,
lgetai
grammik telest
ston
me
kai grfoume apl
eikna
msa ston
V,
Fx
20
KEF
ALAIO 1.
To updeigma twn grammikn apeikonsewn enai h apeiknish

ston
F : R R , me
"
# "
#
x1
ax1 + bx2
Fx = F
=
.
x2
cx1 + dx2
. Prkeitai dhlad gia thn apeiknish
(x, y) 7 (ax + by, cx + dy)

tpo
(1.3.1)
Parathrome amsw ti
F(x + y) =
"
ax1 + bx2
cx1 + dx2
a (x1 + y1 ) + b (x2 + y2 )
c (x1 + y1 ) + d (x2 + y2 )
kai
F(x) =
"
Shmantik paratrhsh.
"
H apeiknish
"
ay1 + by2
cy1 + dy2
ax1 + bx2
cx1 + dx2
= Fx.
ax1 + bx2
cx1 + dx2
"
parstatai ap ton
a, b, c, d:
# "
#
"
#"
x1
ax1 + bx2
a b
Ax =
=
.
c d
x2
cx1 + dx2
qei w stoiqea tou tou arijmo
Pardeigma 1.3.1.
'Estw na
33
pnaka
A.
An
22
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )T
= Fx + Fy,
pnaka
A,
pou
na dinusma tou
R3 , tte Ax enai epsh na dinusma tou R3 . Ekola prokptei ti o pnaka A enai na

3
grammik telest ston R , dhlad A (x + y) = Ax+Ay kai A (x) = Ax, R.
Pardeigma 1.3.2.
orismnwn sto
(a, b),
'Estw
o dianusmatik qro twn pragmatikn sunartsewn
pou qoun paraggou kje txh (sumbolzetai me
telest th paraggish ,
D = d/dt,
C (a, b)).
orzetai w
Df = f ,
dhlad gia kje stoiqeo
tou
V,
(Df )(t) = f (t),

Tte o
enai na grammik telest ston
V.
t (a, b).
Prgmati,
D (f + g) = Df + Dg ,
(D (f + g))(t) = (f (t) + g(t)) = f (t) + g (t) = (Df )(t) + (Dg)(t),

kai moia apodeiknetai ti
Pardeigma 1.3.3.
kje stoiqeo
tou
diti
t (a, b),
D (f ) = Df, R.
'Estw
na DQ distash
grfetai w
n kai {v1 , . . . , vn } mia bsh tou, dhlad
x = x1 v1 + . . . + xn vn .
1.3.
GRAMMIK
ES APEIKON
ISEIS
21
Orzoume thn apeiknish
L : V Rn ,
me tpo
L(x) = (x1 , . . . , xn )
dhlad h
L,
apeikonzei kje stoiqeo tou
th dojesa bsh. H apeiknish
Pardeigma 1.3.4.
V,
sth
nda
twn suntetagmnwn tou w pro
enai grammik.
V = C[a, b], o qro twn suneqn sunartsewn sto disthma

[a, b] kai W = R. H apeiknish I : V W , pou se kje suneq sunrthsh f antistoiqzei
Rb
f , dhlad
ton arijm
a
Z b
I (f ) =
f (t) dt,
'Estw
enai grammik.
Pardeigma 1.3.5.
ston
V.
A jewrsoume to snolo
L(V, V )
lwn twn grammikn telestn
Orzoume prsjesh telestn kai pollaplasiasm me bajmwt pw sti prag-
matik sunartsei : An
kai
enai do telest kai
na pragmatik arijm , tte
x V
(F + T)(x) = F(x) + T(x),
(cF)(x) = cF(x).
L(V, V ) gnetai grammik qro . Mporome na genikesoume, kajistnta to snolo L(V, W ) lwn twn grammikn apeikonsewn ap ton V ston
W , grammik qro.
Me ti prxei aut , to snolo
Asksei
1. 1) Poie ap ti paraktw apeikonsei enai grammik ?
(a)
(b)
(g)
(d)
(e)
F : R3 R2 me
F : R4 R4
F : R3 R3
F : R2 R2
F : R3 R
F(x, y, z) = (x, y).
tpo
me tpo
F(u) = u.
me tpo
F(u) = u + (1, 1, 1).
me tpo
F(x, y) = (2x, y x).
me tpo
F(x, y, z) = xy .
f : R R grfetai w jroisma mia rtia

sunrthsh A kai mia peritt , dhlad f = A + . 'Estw V o qro lwn twn
pragmatikn sunartsewn. Orzoume thn apeiknish P : V V me tpo
2. Upenjumzoume ti kje sunrthsh
(Pf ) (x) =
Dexete ti h
enai grammik.
f (x) + f (x)
.
2
22
KEF
ALAIO 1.
S lgetai
A = AT .
3. Upenjumzoume ti na pnaka
lgetai antisummetrik an
pinkwn kai
P:V V
Dexte ti: H apeiknish
S = S T kai na pnaka
V = Mnn , o qro twn n n
summetrik an
'Estw
h apeiknish me tpo
PC =
C + CT
, C V.
2
enai grammik. Brete th distash tou qrou twn
antisummetrikn pinkwn.
4. Brete ton pnaka pou anaparist kje apeiknish:

a)
F : R3 R2
me tpo
F(x, y, z) = (x, y)
b)
F : R2 R2
me tpo
F(x, y) = (3x, 3y).
g)
F : R3 R3
me tpo
F(u) = u.
d)
F : R3 R2
me
(probol).
F (e1 ) = (1, 3)T , F (e2 ) = (4, 2)T , F (e3 ) = (3, 1)T
nn
Keflaio 2
SUNARTHSEIS POLLWN
METABLHTWN
To antikemeno tou Apeirostiko Logismo enai oi pragmatik sunartsei pragmatik
metablht , dhlad sunartsei tou tpou
f : R R.
Sto Logism Polln Metablhtn ( Dianusmatik Logism) ja exetsoume sunartsei
me pedo orismo kpoio uposnolo tou
peda
Rn
kai tim msa sto
Rm ,
dhlad
dianusmatik
F : Rn Rm
(2.0.1)
Eidik periptsei enai:

(A) Dianusmatik sunartsei mia metablht (kample ) pou edame sto prohgomeno keflaio
r : R Rm .
(B) Oi pragmatik sunartsei polln metablhtn (bajmwt
peda
: Rn R
Gia pardeigma, gia na perigryoume th jermokrasa mia jalssia perioq
qreiazmaste mia sunrthsh
U R3 ,
T :U R
dhlad
T (x, y, z)
enai h jermokrasa sto shmeo
Sunartsei th morf (2.0.1) me
m, n > 1,
(x, y, z)
tou
U.
dhlad dianusmatik peda emfanzontai
suqn sti fusik epistme kai w pardeigma anafroume thn taqthta
v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )
en reusto pou exarttai kai ap th jsh kai ap to qrno, enai dhlad mia sunrthsh
v : R4 R3
23
24
KEF
ALAIO 2.
SUNARTHSEIS POLLWN METABLHTWN
v (t, x, y, z) = (v1 (t, x, y, z) , v2 (t, x, y, z) , v3 (t, x, y, z))

sto shmeo (x, y, z) th stigm t.
tsi ste
reusto
2.1
enai h taqthta tou
Pragmatik sunartsei polln metablhtn
H katanhsh th sumperifor mia sunrthsh mia metablhth ,

th bojeia tou grafmato th ,
{(x, y) R : y = f (x)} .
f : R R,
gnetai me
Sti do diastsei mporome
na genikesoume kai na apoktsoume mia asjhsh th sumperifor en bajmwto pedou
: R2 R,
all sti perisstere diastsei h gewmetrik aut prosggish den enai
pnta dunat.
2.1.1
Grfhma kai snolo stjmh
Gia na apoktsoume mia optik parstash a jewrsoume mia sunrthsh do metablhtn
orismnh se na qwro
tou epipdou,
U R2
:U R
Grfonta
z = (x, y),
to grfhma
sumbolik,
th enai la ta shmea (x, y, z) tou R3 me (x, y) U ,

= (x, y, z) R3 : z = (x, y), (x, y) U .
z
f (x; y )
PSfrag repla ements
y
U
x
Sqma 2.1:
En gnei, to grfhma mia bajmwt sunrthsh do metablhtn enai mia
epifneia.
Mia llh qrsimh nnoia enai aut tou

pedou.
An
stjmh
(r) = c,
Sc
enai mia perioq tou
me tim
apoteletai ap
sumbolik,
sunlou
stjmh
(level set)
en bajmwto
: U R kai c mia stajer, tte to snolo

n
ta shmea r = (x1 , ..., xn ) U R
gia ta opoa
,
Sc = {r U : (r) = c} .
Eidik gia mia sunrthsh do metablhtn to snolo stjmh enai en gnei mia kamplh
pou lgetai
isostajmik
. 'Etsi, an
kamplh
(x, y)
enai mia sunrthsh do metablhtn,
2.1.
PRAGMATIK
ES SUNART
HSEIS POLL
WN METABLHT
WN
25
oi isostajmik kample th orzontai w
Eidik

Ck = (x, y) R2 : (x, y) = k .
gia mia sunrthsh trin metablhtn to snolo stjmh enai en gnei mia
epifneia pou lgetai
. 'Etsi, an
isostajmik epifneia
(x, y, z) enai mia sunrthsh trin
metablhtn, oi isostajmik epifneie th orzontai w
Sk = {(x, y, z) R3 : (x, y, z) = k}.
Meletste ta grafmata twn paradeigmtwn twn

tistete sth
Mathematica
Marsden and Tromba
kai peirama-
me sunartsei do metablhtn, pq
Plot3D[Sin[x y], {x, 0, 4}, {y, 0, 4}]

Pardeigma 2.1.1.
Gia thn
(x, y) = x2 + y 2
oi isostajmik kample orzontai w

Ck = (x, y) R2 : x2 + y 2 = k
k > 0 enai omkentroi kkloi me kntro thn

grfhma th enai paraboloeid ek peristrof .
kai gia
Pardeigma 2.1.2.
(x, y) = x2 + 2y 2
k.
To

Ck = (x, y) R2 : x2 + 2y 2 = k
p
k > 0 enai elleyei me hmixone k kai k/2. To grfhma th enai paraboloeikai oi tom tou me eppeda z = const enai elleyei .
kai gia
d
Gia thn
arq twn axnwn kai aktna
Pardeigma 2.1.3.
Gia thn
(x, y) = x2 y 2

Ck = (x, y) R2 : x2 y 2 = k
kai enai uperbol . To grfhma th
Pardeigma 2.1.4.
enai sgma.
An jewrsoume thn atmosfairik pesh sthn epifneia th jlas-
sa w sunrthsh th jsh ,
p (x, y) , tte oi isostajmik kample {(x, y) R2 : p (x, y) = c}
enai oi isobare pou apeikonzontai s' na qrth barometrikn susthmtwn. Anloga or'izontai oi isjerme , oi isobaje klp.
Pardeigma 2.1.5.
Gia thn
(x, y, z) = x2 +y 2 +z 2 , oi isostajmik epifneie orzontai
Sk = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = k}
kai gia
k>0
enai omkentre sfare me kntro thn arq twn axnwn kai aktna
(2.1.1)
k.
26
KEF
ALAIO 2.
Pardeigma 2.1.6.
Gia thn
(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 z 2 ,
h mhdenik isostajmik epifneia,
{(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 z 2 = 0}
enai kno . H isostajmik epifneia me tim
+1
enai to monqwno uperboloeid .
enai to dqwno uperboloeid kai me tim
H nnoia th sunqeia gia bajmwt peda enai anlogh aut pou gnwrzoume ap
ton Apeirostik Logism. Upenjumzoume ti ma sunrthsh
enai suneq an geitonik
f ).
shmea tou pedou orismo th qoun geitonik eikne (msw th

Logismo polln metablhtn, do shmea
kai
sto
Sthn perptwsh tou
enai geitonik, an h
norm
th
diafor tou enai mikr. Posotik, h parapnw ida ekfrzetai me ton akloujo orism:
Orism 2.1.
>0
uprqei
Mia
>0
sunrthsh
ttoio
ste
:U R
rU
enai
suneq
sto
a U Rn
an
gia
kje
gia
kr ak < |(r) (a)| < .

Sthn perptwsh twn do diastsewn, to snolo twn shmewn
kuklik dsko (qwr to snoro tou), kntrou
to dsko aut me
D (a)
me
kr ak < ,
a = (a, b) kai aktna .
enai
An sumbolsoume
ja qoume

D (a) = r R2 : kr ak < =
to snoro th ), kntrou
a = (a, b, c)
(x, y) R :
r
me
kai aktna
Sti trei diastsei , to snolo twn shmewn
B (a)
(x a) + (y b) < .
kr ak < ,
enai mia mpla (qwr
An sumbolsoume thn mpla aut me
ja qoume

B (a) = r R3 : kr ak < =
(x, y, z) R :
Qrhsimopoiome ton ro mpla, diti sfara kntrou
(x a) + (y b) + (z c) < .
a = (a, b, c)
kai aktna
enai h
epifneia

S (a) = r R3 : kr ak = =
2.1.2
(x, y, z) R :
(x a) + (y b) + (z c) = .
Merik pargwgo
Mia prosggish th nnoia th paraggou mia

htn,
(x, y, z),
enai h akloujh.
omal
sunrthsh p.q trin metabl-
An jewrsoume pro stigmn ti metablht
w stajer , tte mporome na paragwgsoume thn
w pro
x,
kai
pw akrib kai sthn
2.1.
PRAGMATIK
ES SUNART
HSEIS POLL
WN METABLHT
WN
perptwsh sunrthsh mia metablht . H pargwgo w pro

w pro
kai sumbolzetai me
/x,
27
x lgetai
merik pargwgo
dhlad
d
(x + h, y, z) (x, y, z)
=
.
= lim

x
dx (y,z)=const h0
h
/x = 2x + y 5
y kai w pro z . Gia pardeigma,

4
gia thn (x, y) = x + xy ,
kai /y = 5xy . 'Omoia genikeetai h
n
nnoia th merik paraggou gia bajmwt peda : R R.
H merik pargwgo w pro x, ekfrzei to rujm metabol th tan metabanoume
ap to shmeo (x, y, z), se na geitonik shmeo pou brsketai sthn eujea pou pern ap
to (x, y, z) kai enai parllhlh me ton xona x.
'Omoia orzontai kai oi merik pargwgoi th
Orism 2.2.
merik
ti to
Ma
pargwgoi
bajmwt
sunrthsh
th
pedo
:U R
uprqoun
enai
txh
kai
enai
C 1 (U)
w pro
lgetai
paragwgsimh
suneqe
sto
sto
Sthn
U Rn
perptwsh
an
le
aut
oi
lme
Oi detere merik pargwgoi orzontai w
=
2
x
x
=
2
y
y
,
=
xy
x
,
=
yx
y
(x, y) = x2 + xy 5 ) prokptei 2 /x2 =

2, 2 /y 2 = 20xy 3 , 2 /xy = 5y 4 , 2 /yx = 5y 4. Oi meikt pargwgoi 2 /xy
2
kai /yx enai se gia le ti kal sunartsei . Akribstera (bl p.q. Finney et
al), isqei ti:
P.q.
sto parapnw pardeigma (gia thn
Jerhma 2.1.1.
(x, y),
tte
oi
An
meikt
2 /x, 2 /y 2
2 /xy
kai
pargwgoi
2 /xy
2 /yx
enai
kai
suneqe
enai
se
se
sto
mia
perioq
shmeo
(x, y)
Sto ex , ja upojtoume ti la ta bajmwt peda enai paragwgsima (txh
tou
C 1 ).
An
qreiazmaste detere trte merik paraggou , ja upojtoume ti ta bajmwt peda

enai txh
2.1.3
C2
C 3,
akma kai
Bajmda
C .
gradient
f . Se trei
3
diastsei , mporome na jewrsoume trei rujmo metabol mia sunrthsh : R R,
3
pou antistoiqon sti trei merik paraggou . Se kje shmeo r = (x, y, z) R , h
3
trida twn merikn paraggwn (/x, /y, /z) orzei na dinusma tou R , ra
3
3
enai na dianusmatik pedo ap to R sto R . To dianusmatik aut pedo lgetai
gradient tou , kai sumbolzetai me grad (r) (r),
Upenjumzoume ti se mia distash,
df /dx
ekfrzei to rujm metabol th
klsh,
bajmda,
i+
j+
k.
x
y
z
28
KEF
ALAIO 2.
(x, y, z) = xey + z , qoume = (ey , xey , 1).
to diaforik df = f (x)dx ekfrzei thn apeirost
Gia pardeigma, gia thn

Se mia distash,
metabol
th
x, h metabol
th grfetai
sunrthsh (proseggistik, tan h anexrthth metablht metablletai kat

th sunrthsh enai
f f (x) x).
d =
To diaforik
ekfrzei thn
Se trei diastsei ,
to
diaforik
dx +
dy +
dz.
x
y
z
apeirost
(2.1.2)
th , me thn ex nnoia: tan oi

x, y, z , h metabol th sunrthsh
metabol
anexrthte metablht metabllontai kat

dnetai proseggistik ap th sqsh
x +
y +
z.
x
y
z
(2.1.3)
H austhr shmasa th (2.1.3) ja gnei katanoht se epmenh pargrafo (bl Jerhma
Taylor).
Shmeinoume ti to diaforik (2.1.2) mpore na grafe kai w
d = (r).dr.
gradient th (x, y, z) = r =
epifneia sfara aktna r .
Brete to
sthn
H idithta aut tou
tou
grad enai genik:
x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
(2.1.4)
Parathreste ti enai kjeto
enai orjognio sti isostajmik epifneie
Austhr apdeixh ja dome sthn epmenh pargrafo, all mporome na peisjome
ap to akloujo epiqerhma. Pnw se mia isostajmik epifneia
S,
S = {(x, y, z) R3 : (x, y, z) = const},

h sunrthsh
enai stajer, dhlad
upologzontai pnw sthn epifneia

enai mhdn, ra
S.
d = 0,
pou ta diaforik
enai kjeto sthn epifneia
E = .
S.
An
= const,
tte
= 0
( + ) = +
() = +
(/) = ( ) / 2 ,
eke pou
6= 0.
(r).dr
sundetai me to dunamik
Elgxete th sqsh aut gia thn perptwsh
Sunpeie tou orismo enai oi paraktw idithte .
sthn (2.1.2)
Me lla lgia, to eswterik ginmeno
Sthn hlektrostatik, h ntash tou hlektriko pedou

msw th
dx, dy, dz
(r) = kQ/r .
2.1.
PRAGMATIK
ES SUNART
HSEIS POLL
WN METABLHT
WN
2.1.4
29
Pargwgo kat mko kamplh kai

kateujunmenh pargwgo
Sthn pargrafo aut ja orsoume to rujm metabol en bajmwto pedou
kat
r (t). Jewrome th snjesh tou bajmwto pedou : R R

3
me thn kamplh r : R R (ousiwd prkeitai gia ton periorism th sthn kamplh
C = {r R3 : r = r (t)}). Tte h snjesh tou , r, enai mia pragmatik sunrthsh
mko mia kamplh
pragmatik metablht me tpo
h(t) = (r(t)) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)),

pou
r (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)).
Sto ex ja qrhsimopoiome to dio grmma,
gia th sn-
jesh. O kanna th alusda genikeetai me profan trpo, dhlad
d
dx dy dz
=
+
+
,
dt
x dt
y dt
z dt
(2.1.5)
, suntomografik
d
(2.1.6)
= .r,
dt
pou ennoetai ti = (r (t)) kai r
= (x(t),
y(t),
z(t))
. O tpo (2.1.6) parqei thn
r (t) kai paristnei to rujm metabol th

kat mko th kamplh r (t).
Sthn eidik perptwsh pou h r (t) enai h eujea pou pern ap to shmeo a kai qei
th diejunsh tou diansmato v , dhlad r (t) = a + tv, tte qoume thn
v,
, Dv , pou ja orsoume genik se epmenh
pargrafo, bl. (2.1.8). To detero mlo th (2.1.6) enai v. (a) kai sunep qoume
pargwgo
th
kat
mko
th
kamplh
pargwgo
thn
katejunsh
kateujunmenh
kat
pargwgo
ton tpo
Dv (a) = v. (a) .
Ap thn (2.1.6) prokptei loipn ti gia tuqosa kamplh
.r
enai h pargwgo th
kat thn katejunsh
(2.1.7)
r (t), to eswterik ginmeno
r .
Idithte tou
Emaste tra se jsh na dome th gewmetrik shmasa th klsh (
Jerhma 2.1.2.
kat thn
opoa h
An
(r) 6= 0
auxnei
, tte h klsh
(r)
gradient).
deqnei pro ekenh thn katejunsh
grhgortera.
n na monadiao dinusma. Tte o rujm metabol th kat mko

tou n enai n. (r) = | (r)| cos , pou enai h gwna metax n kai (r). 'Ara o
rujm gnetai mgisto tan n enai omrropo tou (r) , ( = 0).
Apdeixh.
'Estw
30
KEF
ALAIO 2.
r( )
a
r
_
PSfrag repla ements
(x; y + y)
(0)
= (0)
r
z
S
y
x
Sqma 2.2:
ap to
(a)
To
a.
enai kjeto se kje kamplh th epifneia stjmh pou pern
H llh idithta th klsh en bajmwto
enai ti
enai kjeto sti epifneie
stjmh th sunrthsh . Akribstera, isqei to paraktw jerhma.
Jerhma 2.1.3.
k Sk = {r R3 : (r) = k}
Sk r : (, ) Sk
(a) .r (0) = 0
'Estw
epifneia stjmh me tim
opoiadpote
ap to
kamplh
Tte
Apdeixh.
paragwgsimh
sunrthsh
th
trin
metablhtn
. 'Estw na shmeo
epifneia
pou
th
Sk
t=0
th
stigm
kai
Sk
kai mia
pern
'Estw ti
dinusma sthn
ep
mia
Sk
r(t)
periqetai sthn
sto shmeo
a.
Sk
H sunrthsh
kai
r(0) = a.
r (0) enai efaptmeno

th Sk , ra (r(t)) = k .
Tte
enai stajer ep
Paragwgzonta brskoume
dhlad
(a) r (0).

d
0=
= (a) .r (0) ,
dt t=0
To apotlesma isqei gia kje efaptmeno dinusma sthn

ti h kamplh
Sk
sto shmeo
a,
dedomnou
enai tuqosa.
Epanextash th kateujunmenh paraggou

'Opw edame oi merik pargwgo th
w pro x, y, z , ekfrzoun tou rujmo metabol
kat ti dieujnsei x, y, z . Me th sqsh (2.1.7), epitqame na perigryoume to rujm

metabol th kat mi opoiadpote diejunsh v . 'Opw ja dome euj amsw , sto
th
apotlesma aut mporome na ftsoume jewrhtik qwr na persoume ap thn nnoia th

merik paraggou.
Endiafermaste na orsoume thn pargwgo se na shmeo
pedou
pou orzetai se mia perioq
U R
tou
U,
en bajmwto
. H pargwgo ekfrzei to rujm metabol
2.1.
th
PRAGMATIK
ES SUNART
HSEIS POLL
WN METABLHT
WN
tan metabanoume ap to
31
se na geitonik tou shmeo. O rujm aut exarttai
a.
ap th diejunsh pou kinomaste xekinnta ap to
Jewrnta loipn na geitonik
a pou brsketai sthn eujea pou pern ap to shmeo a kai qei th diejunsh tou
diansmato v , aut ja grfetai a + tv , me t R. 'Ena elogo orism th paraggou
th sto shmeo a, enai to rio (an uprqei) kaj t 0 tou phlkou
shmeo tou
lim
t0
To rio aut lgetai

diansmato
kateujunmenh
kai sumbolzetai me
paragwgsimh sunrthsh
smbolo
(a + tv) (a)
.
t
pargwgo
Dv (a).
th
(2.1.8)
sto shmeo
sthn katejunsh tou
Gia thn kateujunmenh pargwgo
kat th diejunsh tou monadiaou
n,
Dn
mia
qrhsimopoietai kai to
/n.
H sqsh (2.1.7) apotele tpo upologismo th
Dv (a).
Shmeinoume ti o genik
orism (2.1.8) emperiqei thn nnoia th merik paraggou diti gia na bajmwto pedo
p.q. trin metablhtn, prokptei
Di (a) =
Me lla lgia,
pargwgo
pedo
kat
merik
thn
(a)
(a)
(a)
, Dj (a) =
, Dk (a) =
.
x
y
z
pargwgo
diejunsh
tou
p.q.
x
i = (1, 0, 0). Prgmati,
shmeo a = (a, b)
pro
den
enai
par
diansmato
p.q. do metablhtn, ja qoume sto
kateujunmenh
gia na bajmwto
(a + ti) (a)
(a)
(a + t, b) (a, b)
= lim
=
.
t0
t0
t
t
x
Di (a) = lim
Teleinoume me mi teqnik fsew paratrhsh.
Upenjumzoume ti h pargwgo
mia pragmatik sunrthsh mia metablht , orzetai sto eswterik kpoiou diastmato
[a, b].
An epijumome na epektenoume thn pargwgo sto na kro tou diastmato , to pol
, gia na orzetai
U (gia pol mikr t).
na orzetai h pleurik pargwgo . Sthn perptwsh tou bajmwto pedou
a tou U , prpei a + tv na paramnei sto

Me lla lgia, prpei to a na enai eswterik shmeo tou U , me thn nnoia ti mia mikr
mpla me kntro to a prpei na ketai ex' oloklrou msa sto U . Ja lme loipn ti
aU
U
>0
r
kr ak < ,
U.
h pargwgo sto shmeo
to
enai
me
eswterik
shmeo
tou
na periqetai
an uprqei
ttoio
ste to
snolo twn
shmewn
sto
Asksei
1. Sqediste merik isostajmik kai merik isouye kample th
(x, y) = x2 +2y 2.
2. Sqediste merik isostajmik kample th sunrthsh me tpo
(x, y) = 2x2 + y 2 .
32
KEF
ALAIO 2.
gradient sta shmea (1, 1) , (1, 1) . Sqediste to up klmaka (kat'

ektmhsh) se tra shmea tou sqmato . Upologste thn pargwgo th kat mko
Brete to
th kamplh
r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j
me
1
x(t) = cos t
2
kai
y(t) = sin t,
t [0, 2] .
Exhgeste giat to apotlesma tan anamenmeno.
z/u, z/ an z = x2 + 2xy, x = u cos , y = u sin . Brete ta z/u,

z/ an z = ex + xy 2 , x = u + , y = eu+ . Brete thn dw/dt an w = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
x (t) = et cos t, y (t) = et sin t, z (t) = et .
3. Brete ta
4. An
z = f (u) , u = (x + y) /xy,
dexte ti
x2
5. An
z
z
= y2 .
x
y
w = x2 + y z + sin t kai x + y = t, brete ta

w
w
w
w
w
,
,
,
,
.
y x,t
y z,t
z x,y
t x,z
z x,t
6. Dexte ti, an
(x, y) = 0,
tte
y
/x
=
x
/y
arke
/y 6= 0.
7. Dexte ti
An
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4,
Dn = Dn .
8. Kat pso
metakinhje
z/x, z/y.
Dn = 0.
p
ja metablhje h (x, y, z) = ln
x2 + y 2 + z 2
kat s = 0.1 kat mko tou 3i + 6j 2k?
An
n,
brete ti
tte
an to shmeo
(3, 4, 12)
S = {(x, y, z) R3 : (x, y, z) = c} enai mia isostajmik epifneia

th , tte to enai kjeto se kje kamplh ep th S. Gryte thn exswsh tou
efaptomnou epipdou shn S sto shmeo (x0 , y0 , z0 ) . Brete to efaptmeno eppedo
2
3
kai thn kjeth sthn epifneia x xy + z = 1 sto shmeo (1, 1, 1) .
9. Gnwrzoume ti an
11.
x2 + y 2 z 2 = 1
x + y + z = 5 tmnontai se mia
kamplh C. Brete thn efaptomnh th C sto shmeo (1, 2, 2) .
2
'Ena swmatdio kinetai kat mko th kamplh r (t) = t i
t j + ln 2t k. Dexte
2
2
ti th stigm t = 1 qtupei kjeta thn epifneia z = ln (y + 2x y ).
10. To uperboloeid
12. Perigryte ti paraktw epifneie .
kai to eppedo
2.2.
DIANUSMATIK
A PED
IA
a) Elleiptik klindro
33
y 2 + 4x2 = 4, 2 z 2
b) Elleiyoeid
g) Elleiptik paraboloeid
d) Elleiptik kno
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2
b
c
2 2
2 2
z =a x +b y
z 2 = a2 x2 + b2 y 2
e) Monqwno uperboloeid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 2 =1
a2
b
c
st) Dqwno uperboloeid
z) Uperbolik paraboloeid
2.2
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 2 = 1
a2
b
c
2 2
2 2
z =a x b y
Dianusmatik peda
'Opw edame sthn eisagwg, na
F:U R
pedo
(d.p.)
ston
Rn
enai mia apeiknish
r tou U antistoiqe na dinusma F(r).

Sti trei diastsei , grfoume suntomografik, F = (Fx , Fy , Fy ) , F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) ,
F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k kai ennoome fusik ti oi sunistse Fi enai bajmwt sunartsei ,
(pou
U R
dianusmatik
) pou se kje shmeo
F(r) = F (x, y, z) = F1 (x, y, z) i + F2 (x, y, z) j + F3 (x, y, z) k.

To aplostero pardeigma d.p. enai mia grammik apeiknish, p.q. to d.p.
me tpo (bl. (1.3.1) kai epmenh paratrhsh)
F : R2 R2
F (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy) .
Mia optik parstash gia dianusmatik peda se do diastsei mporome na proume

ap th
Mathematica.
Dokimste ta dianusmatik peda
x i + y j, yi + x j, p
x2 + y 2
i+ p
x
x2 + y 2
j, F(r) =
r
.
r3
Sto ex , ja upojtoume ti la ta dianusmatik peda enai paragwgsima txh
C 1 (U),
F enai na dianusmatik pedo,

le oi merik pargwgoi twn sunistwsn Fi tou F, uprqoun kai enai suneqe
2
sto U . Sta parapnw paradegmata prosdiorste to mgisto uposnolo tou R sto
1
opoo ta dianusmatik peda enai txh C . Poia ap aut mporon na grafon w
grad , kpoia bajmwt sunrthsh : R2 R?
toulqiston
dhlad ja upojtoume ti an
34
KEF
ALAIO 2.
Mia kamplh pou se kje shmeo th

lgetai
oloklhrwtik
Orism 2.3.
pedou
Ma
tou
kamplh
F.
r(t)
kamplh
r, to dinusma F(r) enai efaptmeno sthn kamplh,

Akribstera:
lgetai
oloklhrwtik
kamplh
en
dianusmatiko
an isqei
r (t) = F(r(t)).
Oi oloklhrwtik kample lgontai akma
gramm
pediak
gramm (
field lines
Gia pardeigma, oi oloklhrwtik kample tou dianusmatiko pedou
(x, y)
), dunamik
F(x, y) = r =
enai eujee pou pernon ap thn arq twn axnwn. 'Omoia, oi oloklhrwtik kam-
ple tou pedou
r
E(r) = Q 3 = Q
r
Coulomb
x
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
i+
y
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
j+
k , Q R,
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
enai eujee pou pernon ap thn arq twn axnwn.

Gia na brome thn oloklhrwtik kamplh tou
t = 0,
pou pern ap to shmeo
r0
th stigm
prpei na lsoume to prblhma arqikn timn
r (t) = F(r(t)),
r(0) = r0 .
(2.2.1)
Me lla lgia, to prblhma angetai sthn eplush tou sustmato twn diaforikn exissewn
x = F1 (x, y, z) , y = F2 (x, y, z) ,
me arqik sunjke
z = F3 (x, y, z) ,
x (0) = x0 , y (0) = y0 , z (0) = z0 .
Oi oloklhrwtik kample en dianusmatiko pedou qoun do basik idithte .
Ap
kje
shmeo
oloklhrwtik
Oi
r0
(msa
sto
pedo
orismo
en
dianusmatiko
pedou
),
pern
mia
kamplh.
oloklhrwtik
kample
tou
den
tmnontai
Oi parapnw isqurismo gnontai profane an jumhjome to jerhma parxh lsh

kai monadikthta th lsh sustmato diaforikn exissewn:
To prblhma arqikn
timn (2.2.1) qei monadik lsh.
Brete ti oloklhrwtik
kample twn (grammikn) dianusmatikn pedwn
tpou
F(x, y) = (y, x), F(x, y) = (x, y).
me
2.2.
DIANUSMATIK
A PED
IA
2.2.1
35
O telest andelta. Apklish kai strobilism
Orism 2.4.
dianusmatik telest
=i
lgetai
telest
+j
+k ,
x
y
z
andelta.
, dr pnw se na bajmwt pedo , pargei

grad = (/x, /y, /z) . Mporome na jewrsoume th
'Eqoume dei ti tan o telest andelta,

to dianusmatik pedo
drsh tou telest
pnw se dianusmatik peda. To apotlesma exarttai ap to an o
eswterik exwterik
F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) orzoume
(divergence):
telest dra
pnw sto d. p. 'Etsi gia na dianusmatik pedo
Apklish
div F = .F =
Strobilism
F1 F2 F3
+
+
x
y
z
curl):

i
j k

curl F = F = x y z

F1 F2 F3
Shmeinoume ti h apklish enai bajmwto pedo en o strobilism enai dianusmatik

pedo.
Pardeigma 2.2.1.
F(x, y, z) = r, div r = 3 kai curl r = 0.

F(x, y, z) = (y, x, 0) , > 0, enai div F = 0 kai curl F = 2k.
Gia to d.p.
'Ena dianusmatik pedo

deqnei ti to
gradient
Jerhma 2.2.1.
lgetai
astrbilo
an
curl F = 0.
Gia to d.p.
To paraktw jerhma
kje bajmwt sunrthsh enai astrbilo d. p.
Gia
kje
bajmwt
pedo
(pou
enai
toulqiston txh
C2
isqei
curl (grad ) = = 0.
Apdeixh.
Ap ton orism tou strobilismo ja qoume

y z
x z
x y
= i j + k
y z
x z
x y

2

2
2

2
2
2

+j
+k
,
= i
yz zy
zx xz
xy yx
kai to apotlesma prokptei ap thn isthta twn meiktn paraggwn.
36
KEF
ALAIO 2.
Se antjesh me ton strobilism tou
gradient
en bajmwto pedou
gradient enai na no bajmwt pedo . pou

Laplacian . Epomnw h Laplacian tou grfetai
mhdn, h apklish tou
kai diabzetai
2 =
pou enai pnta

sumbolzetai me
2 2 2
+ 2 + 2.
x2
y
z
O telest
2
2
2
= 2 + 2 + 2,
x
y
z
2
lgetai
telest
Laplace.
Tlo
diaforik
2 = 0,
lgetai exswsh
Laplace.
exswsh
2 2 2
+ 2 + 2 = 0,
x2
y
z
'Opw ja dome, h exswsh
diaforik exissei me merik paraggou .
Laplace
Laplace enai mi ap ti spoudaitere
Profan se do diastsei h exswsh
grfetai
2 2
+ 2 = 0.
x2
y
To dunamik tou hlektriko pedou pou pargetai ap shmeiak forto

ap ton tpo
(x, y, z) =
Q
,
r
Q,
dnetai
r = |r| .
E = . Brete
thn exswsh Laplace.
Dexte ti h ntash tou hlektriko pedou dnetai ap th sqsh

to
div E
kai to
O telest
curl E.
Laplace
Apodexte ti to dunamik
enai grammik , dhlad an
for paragwgsima) kai
ikanopoie
kai
enai bajmwt peda (do
arijm , tte
2 ( + ) = 2 + 2 ,
kai
2 (c) = c2 .
Laplace enai grammik DE,

Laplace, tte kai u + v enai lsh.
Toto shmanei ti h exswsh

lsei th exswsh
'Estw
: R3 R
bajmwt pedo txh
C 3.
dhlad an
kai
enai
Poi ap ti paraktw parastsei
enai lanjasmne ? Exhgeste.
div (curl (grad )) , curl (div (grad )) , div (grad (curl )) ,

grad (curl (div )) , curl (grad (div )) , grad (div (curl )) .
'Ena dianusmatik pedo
lgetai
asumpesto
an
div A = 0.
deqnei ti o strobilism opoioudpote d.p. enai asumpesto d. p.
To paraktw jerhma
2.2.
DIANUSMATIK
A PED
IA
Jerhma 2.2.2.
37
Gia kje dianusmatik pedo
(pou enai toulqiston txh
C2
) isqei
div (curl F) = . ( F) = 0.
Apdeixh.
H apdeixh enai parmoia me autn tou jewrmato 2.2.1.
Oi paraktw tautthte mporon na deiqjon me ektlesh twn prxewn.
div (F + G) = div F + div G,
curl (F + G) = curl F + curl G
. (F) = .F + .F
(F) = F + F
( F) = (.F) 2 F
Asksei
bajmwt sunrthsh kai a stajer dinusma. Brete ta (a.) kai (a ) .

'Estw F kai G dianusmatik peda. Giat (a.)F den enai so me F(a.)? Dexte ti
(G ).F = G.( F). Dexte ti
1. 'Estw
1
(F.) F = ( F) F+ |F|2 .
2
2. Knete prqeiro sktso twn d.p.
yi xj,
xi + yj,
x
y
i j,
r
r
y
x
i
+
j,
r3
r3
me
r = |r| .
Poi ap aut enai astrbila?
3. Upenjumzoume ti h oloklhrwtik kamplh
(F1 , F2 , F3 )
r (t) = (x (t) , y (t) , z (t))
en d.p.
F=
ikanopoie ti diaforik exissei
dx
dy
dz
= F1 (x, y, z) ,
= F2 (x, y, z) ,
= F3 (x, y, z) .
dt
dt
dt
Dexte ti
dx
dy
dz
=
=
,
F1
F2
F3
pou ennoetai ti an pq
F1 = 0 tte dx = 0. Brete ti
oloklhrwtik kample twn
d.p.
F (x, y, z) = (2 cosh x, 2y sinh x, sinh x) ,
G (x, y, z) = yi xj.
38
KEF
ALAIO 2.
4. H knhsh idaniko reusto perigrfetai ap ti
exissei
Euler
p
u
+ (u.) u =
,
t
pou
h taqthta tou reusto,
dunamik (sunjw barthta ).

mopointa thn tautthta
twn reustn grfetai
h puknthta tou,
Orzoume na no d.p.
(u.) u = ( u) u +
to exwterik
= u. Qrhsi-
h pesh kai
1
(u.u) , dexte ti h exswsh
2
1
p
u
+ u+ u2 =
,
t
2
kai parnonta ton strobilism kai sta duo mlh prokptei
+ ( u) = 0.
t
5. H
Laplacian en bajmwto pedou f
dnetai ap
se polik suntetagmne
x = r cos , y = r sin
1 f
1 2f
2f
+
+
.
f= 2
r
r r
r2 2
2
(Updeixh:
f
r
f x
x r
f y
y
f
x
cos +
6. Apodexte ti oi paraktw sunartsei enai
f
y
sin ,
klp).
armonik
(dhl. ikanopoion thn exswsh
Laplace)
(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 2z 2 , (x, y) = ln
2.2.2
x2 + y 2 , (x, y) = tan1 (y/x) .
Efarmog: Metdosh jermthta
A upojsoume ti jermanoume mia perioq en smato . Tte jermthta rei ap shmea

uyhl jermokrasa se shmea qamhl jermokrasa . H jermokrasa enai mia sunrthsh
th jsh ,
T (x, y, z).
H ro jermthta qei diaforetik katejunsh se kje shmeo, ra
h. Akribstera, to mtro tou h enai to phlko th

qrnou I = dQ/dt pou pern kjeta ap mia stoiqeidh
parstatai ap na dianusmatik pedo

jermik enrgeia an monda
epifneia,
S ,
dia th epifneia aut
h=
An loipn
enai to monadiao kjeto sto
kai an monda embado) enai

epifneia.
h.n,
dI
.
dS
dS ,
tte h ro jermthta (an monda qrnou
dhlad enai h sunistsa tou
Poia enai h sqsh metax ro jermthta
sthn kjeth sthn
kai jermokrasa
perama gnwrzoume ti an metax twn pleurn mia plka pqou
T?
Ap to
kai embado
S,
2.3.
TO JE
WRHMA
TAYLOR
epikrate diafor jermokrasa
39
T = T2 T1 ,
tte h jermthta an monda qrnou pou
pern ap thn plka dnetai ap th sqsh
I = kS
T
,
l
k enai o suntelest jermik agwgimthta tou uliko.
pou
p.q.
Se poio polploka smata,
se mia jalssia perioq, prosanatolzoume topik ti pleur mia stoiqeidou
S parllhla pro ti isjerme epifneie sthn perioq th plka ,

To I/S , enai
opte ja qoume I/S = kT /l , me l to pqo th plka .
to mtro th ro jermthta h, pou h katejunsh tou enai ap thn isjermh T + T
pro thn isjermh T , dhlad enai kjeth pro ti isjerme . Ap thn llh, T /l , o
rujm metabol th jermokrasa , enai o mgisto rujm , diti h metabol jsh l
enai kjeth sti isjerme . Kat sunpeia, o rujm T /l , enai to mtro tou T .
Sumperanoume ti ta diansmata h kai T enai suggrammik, ra
plka embado
h = kT.
To prshmo meon, tjetai diti h jermthta rei pro thn katejunsh pou h jermokrasa
elattnetai.
nmou tou
2.3
H exswsh pou katalxame apotele, pw ja dome, eidik perptwsh tou
Fick.
To Jerhma
To Jerhma
Taylor
Taylor se prosggish prth txh mia sunrthsh mia metablht grfetai
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) (x a) + R1 (x) ,
me
R1 (x)
= 0.
xa x a
lim
Aut shmanei ti to sflma enai mikr se sgkrish me thn dh mikr posthta

deterh txh prosggish to Jerhma
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) (x a) +
Taylor
grfetai
f (a)
(x a)2 + R2 (x) ,
2!
'Alloi trpoi graf tou Jewrmato
Taylor
me
R2 (x)
= 0.
xa (x a)2
lim
enai
f (x) 2 f (x) 3
x +
x + ...
f (x + x) = f (x) + f (x) x +
2!
3!
f (x + x) = f (x) + f (x) x + O x2 .
Se do diastsei , to Jerhma
Taylor
diatupnetai w ex .
x a.
Se
40
KEF
ALAIO 2.
Jerhma 2.3.1.
kje
txh
shmea
sto
sto
'Estw
pedo
:U R
U R2 .
na
orismo
tou
bajmwt
An
pedo
a = (a, b)
me
kai
suneqe
merik
r = (x, y)
enai
paraggou
duo
geitonik
tte
(x, y) = (a, b) +
pou
oi merik
pargwgoi
(x a) +
(y b) + R1 (x, y) ,
x
y
upologzontai
sto
(a, b)
kai
R1 (r)
= 0.
ra |r a|
lim
Se deterh txh prosggish ja qoume
(x, y) = (a, b) +
1 2
1 2
2
(x a) +
(y b) +
(x
a)
+
(y b)2 +
x
y
2 x2
2 y 2
2
(x a) (y b) + R2 (x, y)
xy
pou oi merik pargwgoi upologzontai sto
(a, b)
kai
R2 (r)
= 0.
ra |r a|2
lim
Se trth txh prosggish ja qoume

(x, y) +
+ (y b)
(x, y) = (a, b) + (x a)
x
y

2
1
(x a)
+ (y b)
(x, y) +
2!
x
y

3
1
(x a)
+ (y b)
(x, y) + R3 (x, y)
3!
x
y
lim
ra
An to uploipo
Rn (r)
(a, b)
kai
R3 (r)
= 0.
|r a|3
tenei sto mhdn kaj
kai mporome na gryoume
n ,
tte h
seir
Taylor
sugklnei

(x, y) +
+ (y b)
(x, y) = (a, b) + (x a)
x
y

2
1
(x a)
+ (y b)
(x, y) + ...
2!
x
y
'Allo trpo graf enai o akloujo :

2
x
x +
y +
+ y
(x, y) + ...
(x + x, y + y) = (x, y) +
x
y
2!
x
y
2.3.
TO JE
WRHMA
TAYLOR
41
akma
x +
y + O (2) ,
x
y
(x + x, y + y) = (x, y) +
(x, y).
To apotlesma genikeetai se trei diastsei kat profan trpo:
(x + x, y + y, z + z) =

2
(x, y, z) +
x
x +
y +
z +
+ y
+ z
(x, y, z) + ...
x
y
z
2!
x
y
z
Sunjw grfoume
(x + x, y + y, z + z) = (x, y, z) +
x +
y +
z + O (2) .
x
y
z
Paraleponta tou rou anterh txh ja qoume gia thn metabol
tou bajmwto
pedou
= (x + x, y + y, z + z) (x, y, z)
(x, y, z).
x +
y +
z,
x
y
z
'Etsi h shmasa th (2.1.3) gnetai
katanoht me austhr trpo.
Sumbolik morf th seir Taylor

Me th bojeia tou telest paraggish
D=
h seir
Taylor
d2
dn
d
, D 2 = 2 , ... D n = n ,
dx
dx
dx
mia sunrthsh mia metablht
f,
grfetai
h2 D 2
h3 D 3
hD
f (x) +
f (x) +
f (x) + ...
f (x + h) = f (x) +
1!
2!
3!

hD h2 D 2 h3 D 3
=
I+
+
+
+ ... f (x) ,
1!
2!
3!
kai sumbolik
f (x + h) = ehD f (x) .
Dexte ti sti trei diastsei to parapnw apotlesma genikeetai w
(x + h1 , y + h2 , z + h3 ) = eh. (x, y, z) ,
pou
h = (h1 , h2 , h3 ).
42
KEF
ALAIO 2.
2.4
'Estw
Akrtata bajmwtn pedwn

:U R
shmeo
topiko
U Rn .
B (a) ,
na bajmwt pedo orismno se na qwro
megstou
gia
thn
an
uprqei
mpla,
aU
a
To
kntrou
kai
lgetai
aktna
ttoia ste
x B (a) (x) (a) .

Anloga orzetai to shmeo topiko elaqstou.
Sto Logism sunartsewn mia metablht , h pargwgo mhdenzetai sta shmea topiko akrottou. To anlogo jerhma sthn perptwsh perissotrwn diastsewn diatupnetai w ex .
Jerhma 2.4.1.
pargwgoi
An
th
An
sto
enai
shmeo
topiko
akrottou
gia
/xi |x=a = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n,
oliko) megstou diti

(b) H sunrthsh
tte
le
oi
merik
mhdenzontai,

= 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
xi x=a
Pardeigma 2.4.1.
thn
tte lme ti to
enai
krsimo
(x, y) = 2 x2 y 2 to (0, 0) enai

(x, y) 2 = (0, 0) (x, y) R2 .
(a) Gia thn
(x, y) = x2 + y 2
(g) Gia thn
(x, y) = xy
(d) Gia thn
(x, y) = x2 y 2
qei (olik) elqisto sto
shmeo
gia thn
shmeo topiko (kai
(0, 0).
(0, 0) den enai shmeo ote megstou ote elaqstou diti

sto 1o kai 3o tetarthmrio enai (x, y) > (0, 0) = 0 en sto 2o kai 4o tetarthmrio
enai (x, y) < (0, 0) = 0. To (0, 0) qarakthrzetai w sagmatoeid shmeo.
to
to
(0, 0)
enai shmeo topiko elaqstou.
Sto Logism mia metablht na krsimo shmeo qarakthrzetai ap to prshmo th

deterh paraggou. To anlogo jerhma sthn perptwsh twn do diastsewn diatupnetai w ex .
Jerhma 2.4.2.
U R
enai
'Estw
shmeo
Jewrome ton
ti
topiko
:U R
pnaka
H () =
An
An
An
An
det H() > 0

det H() > 0
det H() < 0,
det H() = 0,
kai
kai
"
/x |(a,b) > 0,
2 /x2 |(a,b) < 0,
(a, b)
tte
to
tte
den
do
for
paragwgisimh
kai

=0=
.
x (a,b)
y (a,b)
akrottou gia
enai
enai
thn
2
x2
2
xy
dhlad
2
xy
2
y 2
tte
to
tte
to
a = (a, b)
(a,b)
(a, b)
(a, b)
sagmatoeid
enai
shmeo
topiko
elaqstou.
enai
shmeo
topiko
megstou.
shmeo.
mporome na apofanjome.
2.5.
TO JE
WRHMA TWN PEPLEGM
ENWN SUNART
HSEWN
Pardeigma 2.4.2.
to
(0, 0).
ln (x2 + y 2 + 1), monadik krsimo shmeo

deqnei ti to (0, 0) enai topik elqisto.
Gia thn sunrthsh
Efarmog tou Jewrmato
Pardeigma 2.4.3.
43
enai
(pro apofugn tou Jewrmato . Suqn oi merik pargwgoi d-
nontai ap polploke ekfrsei me sunpeia akma kai o entopism twn krsimwn shmewn
na enai dusqerstato . Prospajome tte na antimetwpsoume to prblhma me pio xupnh
prosggish. 'Etsi, gia thn sunrthsh
(x, y) = exp
1
2
x + 2 + cos2 y 2 cos y
g (x, y) = x2 + 2 + cos2 y 2 cos y pou grfetai

2
2
2
2
w g (x, y) = x + 1 + (1 cos y) . H g parnei elqisth tim tan x + (1 cos y) = 0,
dhlad sta shmea (0, 2k). 'Ara sta shmea aut h qei mgisto.
mporome pol apl na meletsoume thn
2.5
To jerhma twn peplegmnwn sunartsewn
Se mia distash, an mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh

kpoio shmeo
a,
tte uprqei h antstrofh
lsoume thn exswsh
y = f (x)
w pro
ikanopoie thn sunjkh
, dhlad topik kont sto
f (a) 6= 0
a,
se
mporome na
x,
x = f 1 (y) .
y
PSfrag repla ements
I)
II
Se do diastsei , to
y = g(x). ( II) Uprqei

y = g(x) x = h(y).
IV
III
Uprqei lsh
Mno topik uprqei lsh
Sqma 2.3:
lsh
snolo stjmh mia sunrthsh
mia kamplh pou paristnetai ap thn exswsh
x = h(y).
: R2 R
III)
kai (
enai en gnei
(x, y) = C.
(2.5.1)
(Upojtoume sto ex ti le oi sunartsei qoun suneqe merik paraggou ).

jetai to erthma an mporome na lsoume thn (2.5.1) w pro
IV)
( w pro
x),
T-
dhlad
44
KEF
ALAIO 2.
g : y = g(x) ( antstoiqa x = h(y)) pou to grfhma th na

tautzetai me to snolo stjmh th . Sto sqma fanontai merik paradegmata.
2
2
'Allo pardeigma: Sthn x + y = 1, mporome na lsoume w pro y (gia y > 0) kai na
qoume topik, dhlad sto disthma (1, 1), y =

1 x2 . 'Omoia, mporome na lsoume
p
1 y 2.
w pro x kai na qoume gia y (1, 1), x =
na brome mia sunrthsh
Qwr blbh th genikthta , mporome na jewrome to mhdenik snolo stjmh en
bajmwto pedou, dedomnou ti h
Jerhma 2.5.1.
'Estw
(x, y) = C
:U R
kai
(1)
uprqoun perioq
(x, y) = 0
tautzetai
dhlad
me
to
twn
uprqei
mhdenik
kai
ttoie
monadik
snolo
perioq
paraggish
tou
th
a
(x, y) = 0
.
Ep
plon,
ste
(a, b) U R2
na uprqei
sunrthsh
stjmh
g (a) = b
sthn
na shmeo
(a, b) = 0,

6= 0.
y (a,b)
(2)
Tte
mpore pnta na grafe w
th
ttoia
ste
to
ttoio
pro
ste
grfhma
th
exswsh
th
y = g(x)
Akribstera,
(x, g (x)) = 0
kai
pargwgo
Prgmati,
lsh w
(x, y) C = 0.
dy/dx = g (x)
paragwgzonta
mpore
pro
na
breje
thn
me
mmesh
(x, y) = 0,
parnoume
dy
dy
/x
+
=0
=
.
x y dx
dx
/y
To jerhma genikeetai kai se perisstere diastsei . P.q. an h exswsh
(x, y, z) = C
paristnei epifneia
(2.5.2)
S , enai dunatn na brome mia sunrthsh do metablhtn
tsi ste
z = (x, y)
na paristnei aut thn epifneia? (ousiwd na lsoume thn (2.5.2) w pro
Apnthsh: An se kpoio shmeo
(a, b, c) S
z ).
isqei
/z 6= 0,
tte topik uprqei monadik sunrthsh
pro
ttoia ste h (2.5.2) na mpore na luje w
z,
z = (x, y) .
Ep plon, oi pargwgoi
/x
kai
/y
mporon na brejon me mmesh paraggish th
(x, y, z) = C ,
/x z
/y
z
=
,
=
x
/z y
/z
2.5.
TO JE
WRHMA TWN PEPLEGM
ENWN SUNART
HSEWN
Pardeigma 2.5.1.
45
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, w mia isostajmik
2
2
2
epifneia th (x, y, z) = x + y + z . Sto shmeo (0, 0, 1) enai z 6= 0, ra mporome
na lsoume w pro z kai na qoume kont sto breio plo (0, 0, 1), z = 1 (x, y)
p
1 x2 y 2 me x2 + y 2 < 1. 'Omoia, kont sto ntio plo (0, 0, 1), z = 2 (x, y)
p
1 x2 y 2 me x2 + y 2 < 1. Sto shmeo (1, 0, 0) enai z = 0, ra den mporome na
lsoume w pro z kont sto shmeo aut.
Jewrome th monadiaa sfara
Asksei
1. Brete to polunumo
Taylor 2ou bajmo grw ap to (0, 0) th (x, y) = cos (x + y 2) .
2. Brete ta akrtata th
(x, y) = x2 + y 2 x y + 1
sto dsko
D : x2 + y 2 1.
/x = 0 = /y, ra 2x1 = 0 = 2y 1. Epomnw na krsimo

(1/2, 1/2) . H Hessian enai
# "
#
"
2 0
2 /x2 2 /xy
=
,
H (x, y) =
0 2
2 /xy 2 /y 2
Krsima shmea:
shmeo enai to
ra
2 /x2 |(1/2,1/2) > 0
kai
det H (1/2, 1/2) = 4 > 0,
shmeo topiko elaqstou. Exetzoume tra ti gnetai sto snoro

pou parametropoietai ap thn
(1/2, 1/2) enai

D : x2 + y 2 = 1
epomnw to
r (t) = (cos t, sin t) , t [0, 2] .
Tte
(r (t)) = cos2 t + sin2 t cos t sin t + 1 = 2 cos t sin t g (t) .

g (t) = 0 mno tan
sin t = cos t t = /4, 5/4. 'Ara upoyfia krsima shmea enai ta r (/4) , r (5/4)
kai ta kra r (0) = r (2) . Brskoume ti tim th sta shmea aut kai sumpera
2/2, 2/2
noume (elgxete!) ti to (1/2, 1/2) enai shmeo elaqstou kai to
Parathrome ti arke na brome ta akrtata th
g.
'Eqoume
enai shmeo megstou.
3. Exetste an h kamplh
kont sto
'Eqoume
(0, 0)
me
ap kpoia sunrthsh
(0, 0) = 0
peplegmnwn
(x, y) = 0
(x, y) = ecos(xy) + x2 + y e
y = f (x) .
/x (0, 0) = 0, /y (0, 0) = 1. 'Ara kat to jerhma

sunartsewn uprqei perioq (, ) tou 0 kai monadik sunrthsh
kai
y = f (x) :
f (0) = 0, (x, f (x)) = 0 x (, ) .
Epiprosjtw h klsh th
y = f (x)
sto
enai
0:
dy
/x
y sin (xy) ecos(xy) + 2x
= f (x) =
=
,
dx
/y
x sin (xy) ecos(xy) + 1
ra
perigrfetai
f (0) = 0.
46
KEF
ALAIO 2.
4. Apodexte ti h exswsh
(x, y, z) = 0
me
(x, y, z) = ln (x + y + z 2) ex+y 2x + y + z
(1, 1) pou pern ap to (1, 1, 1) kai perigrfetai
z = f (x, y) . Brete to efaptmeno eppedo sto (1, 1, 1).
orzei mia epifneia sthn perioq tou

ap mia sunrthsh
0.75
0.5
0.25
-0.25
-0.5
-0.75
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
5. To sqma paristnei ti isostajmik kample th sunrthsh
(x, y) =
x [1.8, 1.2] , y [0.8, 0.8] .
. Dikaiologeste th morf
1
1
, 0 . Sto
twn isostajmikn kampuln. Brete to gradient sta shmea , 0 ,
2
2
prto shmeo jewrome ti kateujnsei twn monadiawn dianusmtwn n1 = (1, 0) kai

1 1
n2 =
, 2 . Kat mko poia ap ti do kateujnsei metablletai taqter2
Sqediste to up klmaka (kat' ektmhsh) se tra shmea tou sqa h ?
mato . Apodexete ti h paramnei stajer kat mko twn troqin tou dunamiko
= y, y = x + x2 .
sustmato x
Dexte ti to
(1, 0)
y 2 x2 x3
,
2
2
3
enai shmeo topiko elaqstou th
(x, y, z) = x3 y + x/y z kai P to shmeo (2, 1, 1) . Upologste to gradient

sto shmeo P. Upologste thn (kateujunmenh) pargwgo th sto shmeo P
kat th diejunsh tou i + j k. Proseggste grammik thn tim tou sto shmeo
Q : (2.1, 0.9, 0.9) (parathreste ti to shmeo Q apqei l = 0.1 ap to P kat
th diejunsh u = i + j k). Jewrome thn isostajmik epifneia S th pou
periqei to shmeo P . Aut tmnei to eppedo z = 1 se ma kamplh C. Brete na
monadiao efaptmeno th C sto shmeo P .
6. 'Estw
Keflaio 3
OLOKLHRWSH SUNARTHSEWN
POLLWN METABLHTWN
Ja meletsoume oloklhrmata pnw se kample (epikamplia oloklhrmata), pnw se
qwra tou
R2
(dipl oloklhrmata), pnw se perioq tou
kai pnw se epifneie (epifaneiak oloklhrmata).
R3
(tripl oloklhrmata)
Se kje perptwsh, jewrome ma
diamrish tou sunlou oloklrwsh , sqhmatzoume to katllhlo jroisma
Riemann
kai
parnoume to rio tan h leptthta th diamrish tenei sto mhdn.
3.1
Epikamplia oloklhrmata
A upojsoume ti na ulik shmeo kinetai kat mko mia kamplh
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k,

kai dqetai mia dnamh
F.
t I = [t1 , t2 ]
Sta epmena ja jewrome kample apl kai lee , dhlad
kample pou den autotmnontai kai
dr/dt 6= 0, t I .
H dnamh exarttai en gnei ap th
jsh, enai loipn na dianusmatik pedo
F : R3 R3 .
Endiafermaste gia to rgo th dnamh , kat mko tou drmou
ti to swmatdio pern ap ta shmea
kat ta gnwst to drmo se
kai
ti stigm
stoiqeidh tmmata
kai
t2
Upojtoume
antstoiqa. Qwrzoume
pou proseggistik jewrontai
Riemann
eujgramma kai sqhmatzoume to jroisma
Wn =
ri
t1
A B.
n
X
Fi .ri .
i=1
To
|ri |
rio
tou
ajrosmato
tenei
sto
mhdn),
Riemann
lgetai
tan
epikamplio
(kai
tan
oloklrwma th
47
leptthta
th
kat mko
diamrish
th
kamplh
48
KEF
ALAIO 3.
kai
OLOKLHRWSH SUNARTHSEWN POLLWN METABLHTWN
sumbolzetai
F.dr,
F.dr.
O trpo upologismo en epikampulou oloklhrmato parqetai ap to paraktw

jerhma pou parajtoume qwr apdeixh.
Jerhma 3.1.1.
suneq pargwgo,
An
to
dianusmatik
tte
to
epikamplio
Z
Parathrsei .
F.dr =
C
th kamplh
x(t) = 1 + cos t
F.dr =
kai
kamplh
r = r(t)
qei
mlista
t2
F (r(t)) .r(t)dt.
r (t)dt
paristnei thn
= metatpish
apeirost
dr
metatpish
F.dr =
F.dr
enai kleist, tte to epikamplio oloklrwma tou
kat mko
F.dr.
C
r(t) = (x(t), y(t))

F(x, y) = y 2 i x2 j,
An na swmatdio kinetai kat mko tou hmikuklou
y(t) = 1 + sin t, t [0, ],
kai
Z0
0
uprqei
kai
t1
tte to rgo ja enai
suneq
sumbolzetai
Pardeigma 3.1.1.
me
enai
C enai h dia kamplh, all me ton antjeto prosanatolism,
tte
taqthtaqrno
(b) Enai profan ti an
oloklrwma
(a) To diaforik
kai ma jumzei th sqsh
(g) An h kamplh
pedo
F (r(t)) .r(t)dt =
kai dqetai dnamh

(1 + sin t)2 i (1 + cos t)2 j .( sin t i + cos t j)dt =

sin t (1 + sin t)2 cos t (1 + cos t)2 dt = 2 10/3.
An to swmatdio kinetai kat mko tou eujgrammou tmmato
(pou parstatai
y(t) = 1, t [0, 2]), tte to rgo enai

Z
Z 2
Z 2
Z 2

2
F.dr =
F (r(t)) .r(t)dt =
i (2 t) j .(i)dt =
(1)dt = 2.
parametrik ap ti
x(t) = 2 t
A B,
kai
Ap to pardeigma aut prokptei ti to epikamplio oloklrwma en dianusmatiko

pedou ap na shmeo
se na llo shmeo
akoloujome, dhlad ap thn kamplh
B,
exarttai en gnei ap ton drmo pou
pou sundei ta shmea
A kai B.
En totoi , pw
ja dome sto jerhma 3, uprqoun dianusmatik peda pou to epikamplio oloklrwma

tou ap na shmeo
peda aut onomzontai

isodunama.
se na llo shmeo
sunthrhtik peda
B,
enai pnta anexrthto tou drmou.
Ta
. Ekola mporome na apodexoume thn akloujh
3.1.
EPIKAMP
ULIA OLOKLHR
WMATA
Jerhma 3.1.2.
to
tou
drmou
kleist
an
To epikamplio oloklrwma en dianusmatiko pedou
kai
mno
kamplh
Apdeixh.
49
enai
an
to
epikamplio
oloklrwma
tou
kat
enai anexrth-
mko
opoiasdpote
mhdn.
'Estw ti gia to dianusmatik pedo
isqei ti to epikamplio oloklrwma
tou enai anexrthto tou drmou. 'Estw akma mia opoiadpote kleist kamplh
shmea th ,
kai
kai do
B.
Cb
C2
PSfrag repla ements
A
C
C1
Ca
Sqma 3.1: Do kample
Jewrome thn
Ca
kai
Cb
me koin kra.
Ca
w sunistmenh ap do kample
kai
Cb
me koin kra
kai
kai grfoume sumbolik
C = Ca Cb
opte
Epeid to oloklrwma
RB
A
F.dr =
C
F.dr
Cb
F.dr =
to antstrofo.
F.dr,
Cb
An to dianusmatik pedo
F = ,
F.dr.
Cb
enai anexrthto tou drmou ja qoume
F.dr =
Ca
kai epeid
F.dr+
Ca
F.dr,
Cb
sumperanoume ti
enai to
gradient
F.dr = 0.
'Omoia apodeiknetai kai
mia bajmwt sunrthsh
dhlad
tte to epikamplio oloklrwma tou enai anexrthto tou drmou. Akribstera
isqei:
Jerhma 3.1.3.
opoiadpote
Gia
kamplh
kje
pou
bajmwt
sundei
do
sunrthsh
opoiadpote
(pou
shmea
.dr = (B) (A) .
enai
toulqiston
kai
isqei
C1
ti
kai
gia
50
KEF
ALAIO 3.
Apdeixh.
C pou sundei do opoiadpote shmea A kai B,

r = r(t), t [t1 , t2 ]. Profan r(t1 ) = A, r(t2 ) = B.
'Estw mia tuqosa kamplh
me parametrik anaparstash
Smfwna me to jerhma 3.1.1, ja qoume
.dr =
t2
t1
(r(t)) .r(t)dt =
= (B) (A) .
t2
t1
d (r(t))
dt = (r(t2 )) (r(t1 ))
dt
To apotlesma aut deqnei ti to epikamplio oloklrwma en
gradient
exarttai
mno ap thn arqik kai telik jsh, enai dhlad anexrthto th diadrom .
'Ameso prisma tou parapnw jewrmato enai to ex :
Gia opoiadpote
C
I
kleist kamplh
.dr = 0.
Efarmog
'Estw na ulik shmeo pou kinetai kat mko th kamplh
dnamh
F.
To swmatdio pern ap ta shmea
Sumbolzoume me
WAB =
F.dr =
A B,
up thn epdrash mia
B ti stigm t1 kai t2 antstoiqa.

v (t) = |v(t)| = |r(t)| . To rgo th
kai
to mtro th taqthta , dhlad
dnamh , kat mko tou drmou
r(t)
dnetai kat ta gnwst ap
t2
F (r(t)) .r(t)dt =
t1
1 2
1
=
mv (t2 ) mv 2 (t1 ) .
2
2
t2
mv.vdt
t2
t1
t1
d
m
dt

1 2
v dt
2
H sqsh aut anafretai sunjw w jerhma metabol th kinhtik enrgeia
(JMKE), kai grfetai sumbolik
WAB = K (B) K (A) .

,
An uprqei sunrthsh dunamiko
dhlad
F = ,
F.dr =
tte,
B
A
.dr,
opte ap to jerhma 3 prokptei ti to (JMKE) grfetai
(B) + (A) = K (B) K (A) K (B) + (B) = K (A) + (A) .

H teleutaa sqsh ekfrzei th diatrhsh th mhqanik enrgeia kai gia to lgo aut
ta peda pou parrqontai ap sunrthsh dunamiko, dhlad
thrhtik (diathrhtik,
conservative).
F = ,
onomzontai sun-
3.1.
EPIKAMP
ULIA OLOKLHR
WMATA
Pardeigma 3.1.2.
'Estw mia kamplh
51
r = r(t), t
tou d.p.
F =
parametropoihmnh ap thn
[t1 , t2 ]. 'Ena llo trpo graf tou epikampliou oloklhrmato

(F1 , F2 , F3 ) kat mko th kamplh C enai
Z
Z
F.dr =
F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz.
C
'Etsi, gia to epikamplio oloklrwma
I=
x2 dx + xydy + dz
kat mko th
C : r(t) = (t, t2 , 1) t [0, 1],
I=
ja qoume
1
2
x (t) x + x (t) y (t) y + z dt =

11
t2 + 2t4 dt = .
15
Asksei
Upenjumzoume ti gia ton upologism en epikampliou oloklhrmato
h parametropohsh tou drmou oloklrwsh ,
F dr apaitetai
.
C : r (t) = x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k, t [a, b] ,

Z
F (x, y, z) dr =
.
F (x (t) , y (t) , z (t)) r (t) dt

.
1. Upologste ta paraktw oloklhrmata
to
4xyzdx + zdy + x2 y 2 dz pou C

(0, 0, 1) mqri to (1, 1, 1) .
enai to tmma th parabol
F dr pou F (x, y) = y 2 i + x2 j kai C h permetro tou trignou

H
(1, 0) , (1, 1) . 'Omoia to C G dr pou G (x, y) = x2 i + y 2j.
H
y = x2 , z = 1
me koruf
ap
(0, 0) ,
2. Brete ta mkh twn paraktw kampuln

a) Parabol
y = x2
b) Uperbol
x2 y 2 = 1
g) 'Elleiyh
ap to
(0, 0)
sto
ap to
x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1
me
(2, 4) .
(0, 1)
a>b
mqri to
1,

2 .
(to sqetik oloklrwma den upologzetai
sunartsei stoiqeiwdn sunartsewn, mpore mw na proseggiste se dunmei tou
b/a).
3. H dnamh pou aske h gh se diasthmploio dnetai w gnwstn ap thn
F (x, y, z) = GMm
r
,
r3
52
KEF
ALAIO 3.
pou
kai
oi mze g kai diasthmoploou,
enai to dinusma jsh kai
r=
krk. Dexte ti aut prorqetai ap gradient, dhlad uprqei sunrthsh dunamiko

U(x, y, z): F = U . Upologste to rgo th F kat mko th kamplh r (t) =

t
, t [0, ] , pou R enai h aktna th gh .
2R et , 2R sin t, 2R
4. Upologste to epikamplio oloklrwma
I=
cos z dx + ex dy + ey dz
kat mko th
3.2
C : r(t) = (1, t, et ) t [0, 2] .
Dipl oloklhrmata
A = [a, b][c, d] kai mia suneq sunrthsh ap na anoiqt snolo
to A me tim sto R, : A R. Upojtoume ti (x, y) 0 sto
Jewrome to orjognio
tou
R2
pou periqei
pedo orismo th
U.
f (x; y )
PSfrag repla ements
y
A
x
Sqma 3.2: Grfhma th
Tte o gko ktw ap thn epifneia

oloklrwma
ZZ
z = (x, y), (x, y) A,

ZZ
pou
ZZ
z = f (x, y), (x, y) A
(x, y) dxdy =
Z b Z
a
dnetai ap to dipl
(x, y) dxdy,
A
(x, y) dy dx.
Pardeigma 3.2.1. (x, y) = x2 + y 2, A = [1, 1] [0, 1].
Tte, o gko ktw ap
to paraboloeid dnetai ap
ZZ
(x, y) dxdy =
A
1
1
Z
1
2
x +y

4
1
2
dx =
dy dx =
x +
3
3
1

3.2.
DIPL
A OLOKLHR
WMATA
53
Dexte ti an ektelsoume ti oloklhrsei kat antstrofh txh, prokptei to dio apotlesma, dhlad
Z
1
2
x +y
dy dx =
Z 1 Z
0
1
2
x +y

dx dy.
: U R enai suneq (qi aparathta 0), gia na orsoume to dipl

th se na orjognio A = [a, b] [c, d] msa sto U jewrome mia diamrish
Genik an
oloklrwma
tou
A,
dhlad
a = x0 x1 ... xn = b,
c = y0 y1 ... yn = d
me
dc
ba
, yj = yj yj1 =
.
n
n
Se kje orjognio Aij = [xi1 , xi ] [yj1 , yj ], jewrome na tuqao shmeo (i , j )
sqhmatzoume to jroisma Riemann
xi = xi xi1 =
Sn =
n
n X
X
kai
(i , j ) xi yj .
i=1 j=1
PSfrag repla ements
( ; )
i
y
x
Sqma 3.3: Diamrish tou orjogwnou
Apodeiknetai ti
shmewn
(i , j )
msa
to
limn Sn
rio
se
kje
uprqei
orjognio
Aij .
kai
enai
to
dio
To rio lgetai
gia
opoiadpote
oloklrwma
th
epilog
sto
A,
sumbolzetai me
kai lme ti h
Shmewsh.
ZZ
enai oloklhrsimh sto
A.
ZZ
(x, y) dxdy,
A
Jewrsame diamersei se sa upodiastmata (dhlad
yj = y, i, j = 1, ...n),
xi = x
kai
qwr aut na enai aparathto gia thn parxh tou orou. Arke
54
KEF
ALAIO 3.
h lepthta th diamrish na tenei sto mhdn tan
maxj=1,...n yj 0
n ).
tan
n (dhlad maxi=1,...n xi 0 kai
Ap ton orism prokptoun oi paraktw idithte tou diplo oloklhrmato .
(a)
( + ) =
(b)
kai
c = c
A
(x, y) 0 (x, y) A
An
c R.
tte
Sunpeia:
An
(g) An h
AB
(x, y) (x, y) (x, y) A
enai oloklhrsimh sta orjognia
tte
kai
(Grammikthta)
0.
tte enai oloklhrsimh sto
kai mlista
AB
(Prosjetikthta)
O trpo upologismo en diplo oloklhrmato dnetai ap to Jerhma
Jerhma 3.2.1.
An h
Z b Z
a
PSfrag repla ements
enai
suneq
sto
(x, y) dy dx =
c
A = [a, b] [c, d],

Z
d
c
Z
b
a
Fubini:
tte

(x, y) dx dy.
y
2 (x)
d
1 (y )
1 (x)
x
2 (y )
Sqma 3.4: Qwra tpou I kai II
Jewrome tra na qwro
tou
R2
pou mpore na enai na ek twn tpwn:
(I) x [a, b] , 1 (x) y 2 (x) ,
(II) y [c, d] , 1 (y) x 2 (y) .

Tlo , ja lme ti to qwro
(I) ete w tpou (II).
enai tpou (III) an mpore na perigrafe ete w tpou
3.2.
DIPL
A OLOKLHR
WMATA
To dipl oloklrwma th
se kje na tpo ap aut ta qwra dnetai ap:
ZZ
(I)
55
f =
ZZ
(II)
f =
ZZ
(III)
f=
Pardeigma 3.2.2.
To
2 (x)
2 (y)
f (x, y) dy dx,
1 (x)
d
c
f (x, y) dx dy,
1 (y)
f (x, y) dy dx =
1 (x)
d
c
2 (y)
f (x, y) dx dy.
1 (y)
Na upologisje to
ZZ

x3 y + cos x dxdy
2 (x)
I=
sto trigwnik qwro
me koruf
(0, 0), (/2, 0), (/2, /2).
orzetai w
x [0, 2] , 1 (x) 0 y x 2 (x) ,

ra
I =
/2
x
3

x y + cos x dydx =
/2
Pardeigma 3.2.3.
3y
y=x
Z
+ y cos x
dx =
ZZ p
D
sto tetartokklio
y=0
/2

x5
+ x cos x dx
2
Na upologisje to
I=
To
2
/2
1 6
1
1 6
= +
x + x sin x + cos x
1.
12
2
768
0
kntrou
(0, 0)
a2 y 2 dxdy
kai aktna
pou ketai sto prto tetarthmrio.
orzetai w
0xa 0y
a2 x2
0ya 0x
Upologste to oloklrwma me tou do trpou . P.q. ja qoume
p
a2 y 2.
Z a
Z ah p
Z a2 y2 p
ix=a2 y2

2
2
2
2
dy =
a2 y 2 dy
I =
a y dxdy =
x a y
x=0
0
0
0 0 3 a
3
y
2a
= a2 y
=
.
3 0
3
Z
56
KEF
ALAIO 3.
3.3
Tripl oloklhrmata
'Estw mia perioq

leppedo
gkou) th
tou
R3
kai
:U R
pou periqetai msa sthn perioq
sto
suneq sunrthsh. Jewrome na parallh-
U.
Tte to tripl oloklrwma ( oloklrwma
ZZZ
(x, y, z) dV
ZZZ
(x, y, z) dxdydz,
Riemann.
orzetai w to rio en katllhlou ajrosmato
H kataskeu enai anlogh
th kataskeu tou diplo oloklhrmato . Dhlad jewrome mia diamerish tou
se
n3
V = xyz , kai se kajna ap aut jewrome na

sqhmatzoume to jroisma Riemann
stoiqeidh parallhleppeda gkou

tuqao shmeo
(i , j , k ).
'Etsi
Sn =
n X
n X
n
X
(i, j , k ) xi yj zk .
i=1 j=1 k=1
Apodeiknetai ti
(i , j , k )
sto V kai lme
shmewn
th
to
limn Sn
rio
uprqei
kai
enai
to
dio
gia
opoiadpote
epilog
. To rio lgetai oloklrwma
msa se kje stoiqeide parallhleppedo
ti h
enai oloklhrsimh sto
V.
Isqoun oi gnwst idithte tou diplo oloklhrmato kaj kai to Jerhma
Pardeigma 3.3.1.
Fubini.
V = [0, 1] [0, 1] [0, 1], tte

ZZZ
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
(x + y) z
(x + y) z
dxdydz =
=
dx
dy
dz
2
1+z
1 + z2
0
0
0
V

Z 1 Z 1 h

iz=1
Z 1
2 y=1
y
dx
dy (x + y) 1 + z 2
= 2 1.
=
21
dx xy +
2 y=0
z=0
0
0
0
'Estw
Gia qwra geniktera ap parallhleppeda, efarmzoume mejdou anloge autn pou

qrhsimopoiontai gia ton upologism dipln oloklhrwmtwn.
Pardeigma 3.3.2.
ZZZ
'Estw
dV =
Pardeigma 3.3.3.
h mpla
dx
R
x2 + y 2 + z 2 R2 ,
Z
R2 x2
R2 x2 y 2
dy
R2 x2
dz = ... = 4R3
R2 x2 y 2
An jewrsoume mia suneq katanom hlektriko fortou se mia
perioq tou qrou, tte puknthta fortou sto shmeo
(x, y, z) (fortou an monda gkou)
orzetai w
(x, y, z) =
Sunep , msa se gko
tte
dq
dV
perikleetai forto
q (V ) =
ZZZ
(x, y, z) dV.
V
3.4.
ALLAG
H METABLHT
WN
3.4
57
Allag metablhtn
Se mia distash, o tpo allag metablht enai
Z
arke h
x(u)
f (x) dx =
a
f (x (u)) x (u) du,
a = x (c) , b = x (d) .
na qei suneq pargwgo me stajer prshmo.
y
F
PSfrag repla ements
F(D)
D
u
Sqma 3.5: Allag metablhtn
Se do diastsei , allag metablhtn
x = x(u, v)
kai
(x, y) (u, v)
shmanei ti ja qoume do
x = x(u, v) kai y = y(u, v) pou ma metafroun

eppedo (x, y). Mporome na jewrome ti sunartsei x(u, v)
2
2
en d.p. F : R R dhlad
sunartsei
F(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v)),

H pro oloklrwsh sunrthsh
y = y(u, v)
ap to eppedo
kai
y(u, v)
(u, v)
sto
w sunistse
(u, v) D.
ja grfetai sti ne metablht
(x(u, v), y(u, v)) (u, v)
(u, v) D
kai o tpo tou metasqhmatismo parnei th morf
ZZ
(x, y) dxdy =
F(D)
ZZ
pou
J (u, v) = det
enai h
kai w
x
u
y
u
x
v
y
v
(3.4.1)
Jacobian tou metasqhmatismo (x, y) (u, v). Apodeiknetai ti o tpo

an J(u, v) 6= 0 gia (u, v) D . Thn orzousa Jacobi, J(u, v), sumbolzoume
Iakwbin (
(3.4.1) isqei
"
(u, v) |J (u, v)| dudv
J (u, v) =
(x, y)
.
(u, v)
58
KEF
ALAIO 3.
Pardeigma 3.4.1.
I=
Gia
ZZ
a, b 0,
jewrome to oloklrwma
2 y 2
D : a2 x2 + y 2 b2 ,
ex
D
x, y 0.
Eisgoume polik suntetagmne
x = r cos , y = r sin ,
a r b,
opte
(x, y)
= det
J (r, ) =
(r, )
"
x
r
y
r
0
#
.
2
= r > 0,
ra
I=
/2
r 2
rdrd =
2
er rdr =

b2
2
e ea .
4
Gia ta tripl oloklhrmata, o tpo allag metablht enai anlogo tou tpou
sti do diastsei .
F:V R
An h allag metablhtn ekfrzetai ap to (toulqiston
C 1)
d.p.
me
F(u, v, w) = (x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)),
(u, v, w) V,
tte o tpo tou metasqhmatismo parnei th morf
ZZZ
(x, y, z) dxdydz =
F(V )
ZZZ
pou
(x, y, z)
= det
(u, v, w)

(x, y, z)
dudvdw,
(u, v, w)
(u, v, w)
x
u
y
u
z
u
x
v
y
v
z
v
Gia aplopohsh tou sumbolismo qoume jsei kai pli
x
w
y
w
z
w
(u, v, w) (x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)).

Apodeiknetai ti o tpo tou metasqhmatismo isqei an h
Jacobian
enai diforh tou
mhden ,
(x, y, z)
6= 0,
(u, v, w)
Pardeigma 3.4.2.
'Estw
(u, v, w) V.
sfara aktna
kai
fairik suntetagmne
x = r cos sin ,
y = r sin sin ,
z = r cos ,
I =
RRR
dxdydz .
Eisgoume s-
(3.4.2)
3.4.
ALLAG
H METABLHT
WN
59
Sqma 3.6: Sfairik suntetagmne
0 < r R, 0 2, 0 < < ,
(, , r)
opte prokptei ti
(x, y, z)
= r 2 sin ,
(r, , )
ra
I=
Pardeigma 3.4.3.
2
0
R
0
4
r 2 sin drdd = R3 .
3
H puknthta fortou tou hlektroniko nfou sto tomo H enai
(x, y, z) = Ce2r/a ,
pou
enai mia stajer kai
h aktna
ZZZ
pou
V = R3 .
Bohr.
Upologste th stajer
ap th sunjkh
(x, y, z) dV = qe ,
V
Poia enai h aktna th sfara pou periqei to 90% tou oliko fortou
qe ?
Asksei
To smbolo
dy
(x, y) dy
dhlnei ti prohgetai h oloklrwsh w pro
y.
Upenjum-
zoume ton tpo allag metablhtn
ZZ
(x, y) dxdy =
D(x,y)
ZZ
D(u,v)

(x, y)
dudv.

(x (u, v) , y (u, v))
(u, v)
Dexte gewmetrik ti se prth txh prosggish, to stoiqeide embad se polik

suntetagmne enai
rr.
'Omoia to stoiqeide embad sthn epifneia sfara tan
60
KEF
ALAIO 3.
auxnei kat enai r 2 sin . 'Omoia o stoiqeidh gko

2
se sfairik suntetagmne enai r sin r. Tra qete katalbei th shmasa
tou pollaplasiastiko pargonta |Jacobian| ston tpo allag metablhtn.
auxnei kat
kai
1. Upologste ta paraktw oloklhrmata
Z 1Z
0
1
2
2x+y
x +y e
0
dxdy,
2. 'Estw
ZZ
I (R) =
y + 2xy dxdy,
ex
2 y 2
dx
xdy
dxdy
D(R)
2
2
D (R) = {(x, y) : x2 +
y R, x 0, y 0} . Me katllhlh allag metabl2
htn dexte ti I (R) =
1 eR /4. Sunep limR I (R) = /4. 'Ara, se
olklhro to 1o tetarthmrio D = {(x, y) : x 0, y 0} , ja qoume
ZZ
2
2
I=
ex y dxdy = /4.
pou
All
I=
x2 y 2
dxdy =
'Etsi prokptei to
x2
dx
oloklrwma tou
y 2
dy =
x2
2
dx .
Gauss,
x2
dx =
.
2
3. Upologste to embad sto eswterik th lleiyh
x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1
RR
dxdy. Upologste to dio oloklrwma

ar cos , y = br sin , 0 r 1, 0 2.
oloklrwma
Z
w na dipl
me allag metablhtn
x=
G to tetredro pou orzetai ap ta eppeda x = 0, y = 0, 2x + 2y + z = 2

x + y + z = 1. Tte
ZZZ
ZZ
Z 22x2y
dxdydz
dz
I=
dxdy
,
4 =
(1 + x + y + z)
(1 + x + y + z)4
1xy
4. 'Estw
pou
D = {(x, y) : x + y 1, x 0, y 0} .
Upologste to
I.
5. Upologste to
I (R) =
ZZZ
ear dxdydz,
pou
enai h mplla
x +y +z R
kai
a > 0.
Brete to
limR I (R) .
kai
3.5.
EPIFANEIAK
A OLOKLHR
WMATA
61
6. Upologste to
I=
ZZZ
G
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2
a2
b
c
dxdydz,
G enai to elleiyoeid x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 + z 2 /c2 1. (Updeixh: Allag

htn x = ar cos sin , y = br sin sin , z = cr cos me katllhla ria).
pou
3.5
metabl-
Epifaneiak oloklhrmata
'Estw na dianusmatik pedo
F : R3 R3 kai mia epifneia S .
Qwrzoume thn epifneia se
n stoiqeidh tmmata Si pou proseggistik jewrontai eppeda. An ni enai to monadiao

kjeto sto Si , tte to dinusma Si = ni Si qei mtro Si . Epeid to embad Si
enai pol mikr, mporome na jewrsoume ti to dianusmatik pedo qei thn dia tim, Fi ,
se opoiodpote shmeo tou tmmato Si .
S
PSfrag repla ements
Sqma 3.7: H stoiqeidh ro msa ap kje stoiqeidh epifneia
Sunep , h stoiqeidh ro,

stoiqeide tmma embado
Si ,
i ,
enai
Si
enai
Fi .ni Si
tou dianusmatiko pedou pou pern msa ap kje
i = Fi .Si .
n =
n
X
Kat sunpeia, to jroisma
Fi .Si ,
i=1
paristnei kat prosggish thn olik ro tou dianusmatiko pedou pou pern msa ap thn
epifneia
Si ,
S.
To rio tou ajrosmato tan
(kai tan h leptthta th diamrish ,
tenei sto mhdn), lgetai epifaneiak oloklrwma tou
sumbolzetai
ZZ
F.dS.
pnw sthn epifneia
kai
62
KEF
ALAIO 3.
Pardeigma 3.5.1.
R.
'Estw na shmeiak forto
sto kntro mia sfara
aktna
H ro tou hlektriko pedou
E=
1 Q
r,
40 r 3
msa ap th sfara enai
1 Q
R.dS =
=
E.dS =
3
S
S 40 R
Q
1 Q
4R2 = .
=
2
40 R
0
ZZ
ZZ
Gauss
To apotlesma aut lgetai nmo tou
ZZ
1 Q
1 Q
dS =
2
40 R
40 R2
ZZ
dS
kai pw ja dome argtera, isqei gia
opoiadpote kleist epifneia pou peribllei to forto.
3.5.1
Parrthma: Upologism tou epifaneiako oloklhrmato

z
v
r
PSfrag repla ements
r=u
r=v
y
x
Sqma 3.8: Parametrik anaparstash epifneia
r = r(u, v)
Prin suneqsoume me ton trpo upologismo en epifaneiako oloklhrmato , ja perigryoume thn parametrik anaparstash epifanein. 'Estw trei diaforsime sunartsei
ap to
R2
sto
R,
x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), z = z(u, v),
(u, v) D R2 .
(u, v) tou qwrou D antistoiqe na shmeo (x, y, z) tou qrou R3 kai kaj
to shmeo (u, v) sarnei to qwro D , h eikna tou, (x, y, z), sqhmatzei mia epifneia S sto
R3 . Lme ti oi sunartsei x, y, z suniston mia
th epifneia
S . Dianusmatik,
Se kje shmeo
parametrik anaparstash
r(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)), (u, v) D.
3.5.
EPIFANEIAK
A OLOKLHR
WMATA
Pardeigma 3.5.2.
63
H sfara parstatai parametrik ap ti
x (, ) = r cos sin , y (, ) = r sin sin , z (, ) = r cos ,

0 , 0 < 2
(bl. (3.4.2) kai to antstoiqo sqma).
'Estw
r(u, v)
mia parametrik anaparstash mia epifneia
S.
Gia stajer
v = v0 ,
apeiknish
u 7 r(u, v0 )
paristnei mia kamplh ep th
enai
'Omoia gia stajer
r/u
To efaptmeno dinusma th kamplh sto shmeo
(u, v0 )

x (u, v0 )
r
y (u, v0 )
z (u, v0 )
=
i+
j+
k.

u v=v0
u
u
u
u = u0 , h kamplh qei efaptmeno dinusma sto shmeo (u0 , v)

r
x (u0 , v)
y (u0 , v)
z (u0 , v)
=
i
+
j
+
k.
v u=u0
v
v
v
'Ara, ap kje shmeo

diansmata,
S.
kai
r(u0 , v0 ) th epifneia S , pernon do kample

r/v . An aut den enai suggrammik, dhlad an
me efaptmena
r(u0 , v0 ) r(u0 , v0 )
6= 0,
u
v
tte orzoun na eppedo, efaptmeno sthn epifneia
ti to dinusma
Ja lme
r/u r/v enai kjeto

r : D R3
ti h
apeiknish
sto shmeo
r(u0 , v0 ).
Shmeinoume
sthn epifneia.
paristnei
mia
lea epifneia
an
r
r
6= 0 (u, v) D.
u v
r/u r/v = 0,
shmeo aut, dhlad h S parousizei gwne .
Jewrome tra na shmeo (u0 , v0 ) D kai
An se kpoio shmeo
r(u, v0 ), u [u0 , u0 + u] ,
u, v
r(u0 , v0 ) kat
Gia mikr
to
to dinusma jsh
r proqwre
tte den uprqei efaptmeno eppedo sto
ti kample
r(u0 , v), v [v0 , v0 + v] .

kat mko th
r1 = r(u0 + u, v0 ) r(u0, v0 ) =
kai kat mko th
v -kamplh
kat
r2 = r(u0, v0 + v) r(u0 , v0 ) =
u-kamplh pou pern ap

r
u + O u2 ,
u

r
v + O v 2 ,
v
64
KEF
ALAIO 3.
r/u kai r/v upologzontai sto (u0 , v0 ).

pleur r1 kai r2 qei embadn

r r

uv.
S = |r1 r2 |
u v
pou fusik oi pargwgoi

allhlgrammo me
O tpo aut deqnei
uv sto
|r/u r/v|. Enai
to embadn
ti to stoiqeide embadn pnw sthn epifneia
eppedo
(u, v),
loipn elogo na orsoume w embadn th epifneia
O parapnw tpo grfetai sunartsei twn upoorizousn
ZZ
Pardeigma 3.5.3.
s
(x, y)
(u, v)
isotai me
pollaplasiasmno ep ton megejuntik pargonta

ZZ
r r

A (S) =
u v dudv
D
A (S) =
To sqedn par-
2
(x, z)
(u, v)
2
Jacobi
(y, z)
(u, v)
2
dudv.
Embadn hmisfairou. Me thn parametrikopohsh (3.4.2), dhlad
r (, ) = a cos cos i + a sin sin j + a cos k,
(, ) [0, ] [0, 2] ,
(3.5.1)
qoume
Sunep
A (S) =
ZZ

r
r
2

= a sin .
2
a sin d d = a
sin d d = 4a2 .
Ap thn parapnw anlush prokptei ti to stoiqeide embadn se mia epifneia

pou parstatai parametrik ap
r = r(u, v), dnetai ap th

r
r

dudv
dS =
u v
sqsh
kai to monadiao kjeto enai to dinusma
n=
r/u r/v
.
|r/u r/v|
Mporome fusik na proume do kjeta diansmata,

na ap aut, p.q. to
n1
na orzei thn
exwterik
n1 = n
(3.5.2)
kai
n2 = n.
Epilgoume
pleur th epifneia . Gia pardeigma,
sth monadiaa sfara me parametrik parstash
r (, ) = (cos cos , sin sin , cos ) ,
(, ) [0, ] [0, 2] ,
brskoume ti to d. p.
r
r
= sin r

3.6.
GAUSS
TO JE
WRHMA
enai antrropo tou
65
exwteriko monadiaou n = r.
antistrfei ton prosanatolism.
ja parnoume w
Sthn perptwsh pou h parametrikopohsh diathre ton
r/u r/v
prosanatolism, dhlad to
exwteriko
monadiaou,
tpo
upologismo
tou
epifaneiako
oloklhr-
en dianusmatiko pedou:
ZZ
F.dS =
enai omrropo tou
to orizmeno ap thn (3.5.2).
Emaste tra se jsh na dsoume ton

mato
Lme loipn ti h dojesa parametrikopohsh
tpo
apotele
kai
ton
austhr
ZZ
F.
D
orism
tou
Si
...
r r
u v
dudv.
epifaneiako
. . . qwrzoume
goume thn m kal orismnh diadikasa

tmmata
oloklhrmato
. 'Etsi apofe-
thn epifneia se
stoiqeidh
pou qrhsimopoisame gia th diaisjhtik eisagwg th nnoia tou epi-
faneiako oloklhrmato .
Pardeigma 3.5.4.
Gia to d.p.
me kntro thn arq kai aktna
ja
(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 kai S to hmisfario

qoume = 2r kai me parametropohsh pw sthn
(3.5.1) all
me
(, ) D = [0, /2] [0, 2] ,

ja qoume
ZZ
3.6
/2
To Jerhma
Gauss
.dS =
r
r
2r.
Jewrome th ro en d.p.
d d = 2
/2
0
dia msou mia kleist epifneia
ZZ
r 3 sin d d = 4r 3 .
S,
F.dS.
Sa kai Sb . Sqhmatzontai tsi do

kleist epifneie S1 kai S2 me koin epifneia Sab (dhlad S1 = Sa Sab kai S2 = Sb Sab ).
Epomnw to tmma th S1 qwr to koin snoro Sab enai h epifneia Sa (kai antstoiqa
gia thn Sb ). H ro tou d.p. F msa ap ti kleist epifneie S1 kai S2 enai
H kamplh
kbei thn epifneia
ZZ
F.dS =
S2
ZZ
F.dS +
F.dS =
ZZ
Sb
ZZ
F.n1 dS,
Sab
Sa
S1
ZZ
se do epifneie
F.dS +
ZZ
Sab
F.n2 dS.
66
KEF
ALAIO 3.
S1
PSfrag repla ements
n2
n1
Sab
S1
Sqma 3.9: Do kleist epifneie
'Opw fanetai sto sqma, enai
Sab
n1 = n2 ,
S2
kai
S2
me koin epifneia
Sab
ra ta epifaneiak oloklhrmata pnw sthn
enai antjeta. Prosjtonta kat mlh ja qoume
ZZ
F.dS +
ZZ
ZZ
F.dS =
F.dS +
Sa
S2
S1
ZZ
Sb
ZZ
F.dS
F.dS.
Edexame loipn thn paraktw prtash.
Lmma 1.
An qwrsoume na gko tou
R3
pou periblletai ap thn kleist epifneia
S1
se do gkou pou peribllontai ap ti kleist epifneie
dia msou th
S,
kai
isotai me to jroisma twn ron tou d.p.
S2 ,
tte ro en d.p.
dia msou twn
S1
kai
S2 ,
dhlad
ZZ
ZZ
F.dS =
F.dS +
ZZ
F.dS.
S2
S1
An qwrsoume ton gko pou periblletai ap thn kleist epifneia
V1 , V2 , ..., Vn ,
pou peribllontai ap ti kleist epifneie
S1 , S2 , ..., Sn ,
se
gkou
tte h parapnw
prtash ekola genikeetai, dhlad ja qoume
ZZ
F.dS =
S
ZZ
F.dS + ... +
S1
ZZ
F.dS.
Sn
(x, y, z) me akm
epifneia S tou par-
'Estw tra na parallhleppedo prosanatolismno kat tou xone
x, y, z .
Ja upologsoume th ro en d.p.
dia msou th
allhlepipdou. Arke na ajrosoume ta epifaneiak oloklhrmata tou d.p. pnw sti xi

dre , dhlad
ZZ
F.dS =
ZZ
F.dS +
ZZ
ZZ
F.dS + ... +
Sto sqma sumbolzoume me 1 to kntro th dra sto eppedo
(x, y, z),
ZZ
F.dS.
S6
S2
S1
(x, z)
pou pern ap to
me 2 to kntro th apnanti dra klp. Gia thn prth dra, qoume
F.dS =
S1
ZZ
S1
F.ndS =
ZZ
S1
Fy dxdz Fy (1)
ZZ
S1
dxdz = Fy (1) xz,
3.6.
TO JE
WRHMA
GAUSS
67
x; y; z
PSfrag repla ements
+ )
z
4
n
x; y; z
( +
x
x; y; z
2
x; y
( +
x
x; y
=j
+ )
y; z
+ )
y; z
Sqma 3.10: Ro msa ap parallhleppedo
Fy (1) sumbolzoume thn tim th Fy (x, y, z) sto shmeo 1. Dhlad gia na gryoume
tim tou oloklhrmato prosseggistik Fy (1) xz, qrhsimopoiome to jerhma
pou me
thn
msh tim gia ta oloklhrmata (exhgeste). 'Omoia brskoume
ZZ
S2
Ap to Jerhma
Taylor,
F.dS Fy (2) xz.
ja qoume
Fy (2) = Fy (1) +
pou h tim th paraggou
Fy /y

Fy
y + O y 2 ,
y
upologzetai sto shmeo
1.
Sto rio
h tim th plhsizei sthn
x, y, z 0,

Fy
.
y (x,y,z)
Epomnw , se prth txh prosggish ja qoume
ZZ
F.dS +
S1
ZZ
F.dS =
S2
Fy
xyz + O (2) .
y
Me moio trpo, brskoume gia ta lla do zegh apnanti edrn
Fz
xyz + O (2) ,
z
S4
S3
ZZ
ZZ
Fx
xyz + O (2) .
F.dS =
F.dS +
x
S6
S5
ZZ
F.dS +
ZZ
F.dS =
Sunep to telik apotlesma enai
ZZ
F.dS =
Fx Fy Fz
+
+
x
y
z
xyz + O (2) = .F xyz + O (2) .
Gia na genikesoume to apotlesma aut gia mia tuqosa epifneia

nan gko
V,
jewrome mia diamrish tou gkou
pou periblei
se mikr parallhleppeda.
Kat to
68
KEF
ALAIO 3.
prohgomeno lmma, h olik ro msa ap thn
ja proseggzetai ap to jroisma twn
ron msa ap ta stoiqeidh parallhleppeda,
ZZ
F.dS
.F xyz.
'Otan to pljo twn parallhlepipdwn tenei sto peiro kai o gko tou kajen tenei
sto mhdn, to rio tou ajrosmato
Riemann
enai to oloklrwma gkou tou
parapnw apotelon mia skiagrfhsh th apdeixh tou epomnou jewrmato .
Jerhma 3.6.1. Gauss

(
se
mia
kleist
perikleei
epifneia
An
enai
isotai
me
na
to
C1
d.p.,
tte
oloklrwma
to
gkou
epifaneiak
tou
div F
tou
ston
.F.
Ta
oloklrwma
gko
pou
epifneia,
ZZ
F.dS =
ZZZ
.F dxdydz.
Efarmog: Exswsh sunqeia

'Estw na reust me puknthta
To dianusmatik pedo
J = v
= (x, y, z, t)
onomzetai
kai pedo taquttwn
puknthta
remato
Gia na antilhfjome th
shmasa tou, a jewrsoume tmma flba kai mia stoiqeidh epifneia

taqthta.
Tte msa se qrno
opte h mza auto tou gkou enai
to reust ja qei gemsei na gko
m = S(vt).
v = v (x, y, z, t).
S kjeth sthn
V = S(vt),
'Ara h paroq mza msa ap thn
enai
m
= vS.
t
Sumperanoume ti h x-sunistsa tou J isotai me thn paroq mza an monda epifneia
PSfrag repla ements
v t
S
Sqma 3.11:
S (vt) .n enai h mza pou pern ap th bsh tou kulndrou msa se qrno
t.
topojethmnh kjeta sthn
x-sunistsa
th taqthta tou reusto.
Geniktera, an
S , tte h mza pou dirqetai an

monda qrnou ap thn S, enai J.nS , pou fusik J upologzetai se kpoio shmeo
th S . Sto sqma fanetai ti to yo tou kulndrou enai h = (vt) .n, sunep to
enai to monadiao kjeto sth stoiqeidh epifneia
3.6.
TO JE
WRHMA
GAUSS
69
S, gemzei msa se qrno t klindro

mza m = S (vt) .n), sunep
reust pou pern ap thn
= S (vt) .n
(ra
(yo )
gkou: (bsh)
dm
= v.nS.
dt
An ant stoiqeidou epifneia
qoume peperasmnh epifneia
S,
o parapnw tpo
ja grfetai
dm
=
dt
ZZ
ZZ
v.ndS =
'Estw tra mia posthta reusto gkou
v.dS
S
pou perikleetai ap kleist epifneia
S.
S , o rujm metabol th mza ja dnetai
Lgw th ekro tou reusto ap thn epifneia

ap th sqsh
dm
=
dt
ZZ
J.dS.
H mza tou reusto msa ston gko enai
m (t) =
ZZZ
dV =
ZZZ
(x, y, z, t) dxdydz.
(3.6.1)
Paragwgizonta thn (3.6.1) ja qoume
d
dm
=
dt
dt
ZZZ
dV =
ZZZ
dV.
t
Ap ti do parapnw sqsei prokptei
ZZZ
Qrhsimopoiome tra to Jerhma
dV =
t
ZZ
J.dS.
Gauss gia na metatryoume to detero ro th parapnw
sqsh se oloklrwma gkou th apklish tou remato , opte ja qoume
ZZZ
Epeid o gko
dV =
t
ZZZ
.J dV
ZZZ
V
+ .J
t
dV = 0.
enai aujareto , ja qoume
+ .J = 0,
t
H sqsh aut onomzetai
exswsh
th
+ . (v) = 0.
t
sunqeia
kai qei meglh shmasa sth melth twn
reustn. Eidik , an to reust enai asumpesto (
.v = 0.
(x, y, z, t) = = const)
ja qoume
70
KEF
ALAIO 3.
3.7
To Jerhma
Gia na d.p.
orzoume
Stokes
kuklofora
kat mko mia kleist kamplh
to kleist
oloklrwma
F.dr.
C
CAB pou sundei ta shmea A kai B th C . Sqhmatzontai do

kleist kample , C1 kai C2 me C1 = Ca CBA , kai C2 = Cb CAB (Sqma 3.1). Tte
'Estw mia kamplh
isqei
F.dr =
C
F.dr +
F.dr.
C2
C1
H apdeixh enai entel anlogh me autn tou lmmato pou qrhsimopoisame gia thn
apdeixh tou Jewrmato
Upojtoume tra ti
Gauss.
C enai
to snoro mia epifneia
mikro kleisto brgqou pou kentai sthn
S.
Qwrzoume thn
se
kai jewrontai perpou w parallhl-
gramma. Genikeonta to prohgomeno apotlesma ja qoume
F.dr =
F.dr + ... +
F.dr.
Cn
C1
A upojsoume ti na ap ta stoiqeidh parallhlgramma enai prosanatolismno tsi
PSfrag repla ements
x; y
+ )
y
( +
x
+ )
x; y
F(1)
( )
x; y
( + )
x; y
Sqma 3.12: H epifneia me to snor th kai na stoiqeidh brgqo
ste na ketai sto eppedo
x, y ,
opte h kuklofora tou
s' aut ja enai
= Fx (1) x + Fy (2) y Fx (3) x Fy (4) y

= (Fx (1) Fx (3)) x + (Fy (2) Fy (4)) y,
pou me
Fy (1) sumbolzoume thn tim th Fy (x, y, z) sto shmeo 1 klp.
To Jerhma
Taylor
epitrpei na brome th diafor twn timn tou d.p. sti apnanti pleur , dhlad
Fy (2) = Fy (4) +

Fy
Fx
x + O x2 , Fx (3) = Fx (1) +
y + O y 2 .
x
y
3.7.
STOKES
TO JE
WRHMA
71
'Ara se prth txh prosggish ja qoume gia thn kuklofora
=
pou
Fy Fx
x
y
xy = ( F)z xy = ( F) .k xy
enai to monadiao dinusma kat ton xona
tou d.p.
z.
Sumperanoume ti h kuklofora
S me
thn S ,
se na stoiqeidh brgqo me tuqao prosanatolism (dhlad epifneia
monadiao kjeto
n),
ja dnetai ap thn sunistsa tou strobilismo sto
ep
= ( F) .n S
Riemann
Sqhmatzoume to jroisma
n
X
i =
i=1
n
X
i=1
( Fi ) .ni Si
n (kai h leptthta th diamrish tenei sto mhdn, Si

mlo gnetai to epifaneiak oloklrwma tou strobilismo sthn S,
kai parnoume to rio tan
0).
Tte to detero
kai to prto mlo qrh sto lmma gnetai h kuklofora se olklhrh thn kleist kamplh
C.
Ta parapnw apotelon mia skiagrfhsh th apdeixh tou epomnou jewrmato .
Jerhma 3.7.1. Stokes

(
kamplh
pou
qei
isotai
me
snoro
to
).
An
epifaneiak
thn
kamplh
lrwma tou
Apdeixh.
An
gia
metax do
to
d.p.
Stokes,
ZZ
isqei
opoiwndpote
Kat to Jerhma
tou
curl F
se
mia
opoiadpote
epifneia
F.dr =
F
d.p., tte h kuklofora tou se mia kleist
oloklrwma
Prisma 3.7.2.
C1
enai na
( F) .dS.
panto
shmewn
F = 0
enai
tte
anexrthto
to
tou
epikampulio
olok-
drmou.
ja qoume
F.dr = 0
kat mko opoiasdpote kleist kamplh

epikamplio oloklrwma tou
C.
Ap to jerhma 3.1.2, prokptei ti to
enai anexrthto tou drmou.
F = 0, tte to F
3
sunrthsh : R
R ttoia
Ja dome argtera ti ap to prisma aut prokptei ti an

prokptei w
gradient
bajmwto pedou, dhlad uprqei
ste
F = .
Prisma 3.7.3.
Gia
kje
(toulqiston
C1
bajmwt
= 0.
pedo
isqei
72
KEF
ALAIO 3.
Apdeixh.
Epeid gia kje kleist kamplh
ap to Jerhma
Stokes
isqei
.dr = 0,
ja qoume
ZZ
( ) .dS = 0
S pou qei w snoro

= 0 panto.
gia opoiadpote epifneia

aujareth, prokptei ti
Pardeigma 3.7.1.
thn kamplh
C.
Dedomnou ti h
enai
F(x, y, z) = (x2 , 2xy + x, z), C o monadiao kklo x2 + y 2 =

1, z = 0 kai S o monadiao dsko x2 + y 2 1, z = 0 . Upologzoume thn kuklofora
tou d.p. F kat mko th C kai th ro tou F msa ap thn S .
I
Z 2
2

F.dr =
cos t i + (2 cos t sin t + cos t) j . ( sin t i + cos t j) dt = ,
C
ZZ
Z0Z
ZZ
( F) .dS =
[(2y + 1) k] .kdS =
(2y + 1) dxdy
S
S
S
Z 2 Z 1
=
(2r sin + 1) rdrd = ,
'Estw
se sumfwna me to Jerhma
Pardeigma 3.7.2.
Stokes.
H
F(x, y, z) = (x2 , xy, 0). Upologzoume to C F.dr kat mko
tou monadiaou tetragnou C . Mia parametropohsh th kamplh C enai C1 : r1 (t) =
(t, 0, 0), t [0, 1], C2 : r2 (t) = (1, t, 0), t [0, 1], klp. Sto dio apotlesma ja katalxoume
RR
an upologsoume to
( F) .kdS, me S ton dsko pou qei w snoro thn C .
S
'Estw
To Jerhma Stokes sto eppedo.
kamplh
Stokes
kai
F(x, y) = (F1 , F2 )
na d.p.
'Estw
na qwro tou
orismno sto
S.
R2
me snoro mia
H isthta tou Jewrmato
grfetai
F1 dx + F2 dy =
C
ZZ
( F) .kdxdy,
ra
F1 dx + F2 dy =
C
H isthta aut anafretai w
Pardeigma 3.7.3.
ZZ
Jerhma
Green.
F2 F1
x
y
dxdy.
P (x, y) = y, Q(x, y) = x kai D o dsko me

snoro C : kklo aktna a me parametrik anaparstash r(t) = (x(t), y(t)) = (a cos t, a sin t) , t
[0, 2]. Tte ja qoume
I
I
P dx + Qdy =
ydx + xdy = 2a2 .
'Estw oi sunartsei
3.7.
STOKES
TO JE
WRHMA
73
To detero mlo tou Jewrmato
ZZ
D
Green
Q P
x
y
enai
dxdy =
ZZ
2dxdy = 2a2 .
D
Me to paraktw jerhma, sunoyzoume sa gnwrsame gia sunthrhtik peda.
Jerhma 3.7.4.
tou, oi
(a)
(b)
(g)
(d)
paraktw protsei
RC
F.dr = 0
C1
To
C2
enai
enai
kat mko
F.dr =
F
Gia na dianusmatik pedo
to
F.dr
gia
gradient
pou enai toulqiston
C1
sto pedo orismo
isodname :
opoiasdpote
opoiesdpote
mia
kleist
kample
bajmwt
kamplh
C1
sunrthsh
kai
C2
me
dhlad
F=0
ta dia
kra.
F = .
Apdeixh.
Ja dexoume thn alussda sunepagwgn (a)
(b)
(g)
(d)
(a).
(b) edeqjh sto jerhma 3.1.2, h sunepagwg (g) (d) enai to prisma
2 tou Jewrmato Stokes, kai h sunepagwg (d) (a) prokptei ap to prisma 1 tou
Jewrmato Stokes kai to jerhma 3.1.2. Apomnei sunep na apodeiqje h sunepagwg
(b) (g). Jewrome mia opoiadpote kamplh C pou sundei to (0, 0, 0) me to (x, y, z)
kai orzoume thn w
Z
(x, y, z) =
F.dr,
sunepagwg (a)
pou
F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ).
Ap thn (b), h
enai anexrthth th
C.
Epilgoume loipn w
(x; y; z )
PSfrag repla ements
(x; 0; 0)
(x; y; 0)
Sqma 3.13: H kamplh oloklrwsh .
thn kamplh tou sqmato , opte
(x, y, z) =
F1 (t, 0, 0) dt +
0
F2 (x, t, 0) dt +
0
F3 (x, y, t) dt.
0
/z = F3 . Me metjesh twn x, y, z kai antstoiqh

moia ti /x = F1 , kai /y = F2 , dhlad F = .
Prokptei amsw ti
puln deqnoume
epilog kam-
74
KEF
ALAIO 3.
Asksei
Upenjumzoume tou kriou tpou .
a) An h epifneia
qei parametrik anaparstash
(u, v) D R2
r (u, v) = x (u, v) i + y (u, v) j + z (u, v) k,

F
ZZ
tte to epifaneiak oloklrwma tou d.p.
ZZ
F.dS =
pou
dnetai ap ton tpo
F.(ru rv ) dudv,
ru = r/u, rv = r/v.
b) Jerhma
Stokes
I
F dr =
.
S
g) Jerhma
ZZ
( F) .dS.
Gauss
ZZ
F.dS =
ZZZ
.FdV
1. Sthn arq twn axnwn brsketai na hlektrik dpolo me rop
M = mk, m > 0
pou
pargei hlektrik pedo
E (x, y, z) =

m 1
3xzi + 3yzj + 2z 2 x2 y 2 k .
5
40 r
Upologste th ro tou hlektriko pedou msa ap to hmisfario

kai
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2
z 0.
2. 'Estw
z = 2.
G to sma pou periorzetai
ap to paraboloeid
z = 2x2 + 2y 2
kai to eppedo
Na upologiste to
ZZ
F.ndS,
me
F (x, y, z) = (x + y) i + (y + z) j+ (x + z) k
G
tmma S2
to exwterik monadiao kjeto.
S1 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 1, z = 2}
dhlad G = S1 S2 . Mia parametropohsh
H epifneia
apoteletai ap to dsko
kai to
tou paraboloeido ,
enai: gia to dsko
kai
x = r cos , y = r sin , z = 2,
me
(r, ) [0, 1] [0, 2] ,
kai gia to paraboloeid
x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z = 2u2,
me
0 u 1, 0 v 2.
3.7.
TO JE
WRHMA
STOKES
To monadiao kjeto sthn
75
S1
enai to
n1 =
kai to monadiao kjeto sthn
m=
Parathrome ti
S2
rr r
=k
krr r k
enai to
ru rv
= 4u2 cos vi 4u2 sin vj + uk.
kru rv k
m.k > 0,
dhlad to
sqhmatzei oxea gwna me ton xona
S2 .
ra den kateujnetai pro to exwterik th
n2 = m.
ZZ
F.ndS =
d
0
Epomnw ja qrhsimopoisoume to
F.n1 dS +
S1
ZZ
(r cos + 2) dr +
0
dv
ZZ
F.n2 dS
S2
1
0

u 2u2 + 4u2 cos v sin v + 8u3 sin v u cos v du
= 2 + 2
1
= 3.
2
Gauss. 'Eqoume .F = 3,
ZZ
ZZZ
ZZ
Z z=2
F.ndS = 3
dxdydz = 3
dxdy
dz =
Sto dio apotlesma katalgoume me to jerhma
ZZ
2 2x 2y
S1
3. Apodexte ton
z,
dxdy = 6
S1
2 Z 1
0
ra
z=2x2 +2y 2

1 r 2 rdrd = 3.
Green,
ZZZ
ZZ
2
. + dV =
dS.
n
tpo tou
F = sto jerhma Gauss.) Prisma:

ZZZ
ZZ
2
2
dS.
dV =
n
n
(Updeixh: Jsete
F dr tou F (x, y, z) = ez (y i + x j + xy k) pou C o monaeppedo xy kntrou (1, 1, 0) . (Updeixh: Poi enai to F?).
4. Brete thn kuklofora

diao kklo sto
5. Upologste to
y 3 dx + x3 dy z 3 dz,
C
pou
enai h tom tou kulndrou
x2 + y 2 = 1
me to eppedo
prosanatolism antjeto th for twn deiktn tou rologio.
x+y+z = 1
me
76
KEF
ALAIO 3.
6.
F kai G enai dianusmatik peda.

F
kai
kai
Apantste sti paraktw erwtsei kai exhgeste.
enai sunthrhtik. Enai dunatn to
enai m sunthrhtik (kai ta do).
FG
Enai dunatn to
thrhtik?
enai sunthrhtik kai
sunthrhtik?
na mhn enai sunthrhtik?
enai m sunthrhtik.
FG
Enai dunatn to
na enai sun-
FG
na enai
Keflaio 4
OI EXISWSEIS THS
MAJHMATIKHS FUSIKHS
4.1
Klassik diaforik exissei me merik paraggou
Oi perisstere exissei th Majhmatik Fusik enai diaforik exissei me merik

paraggou . 'Eqoume dh sunantsei kpoie ap aut .
H exswsh
Laplace
2 u
2u 2u 2u
+
+
= 0.
x2 y 2 z 2
H exswsh didosh th jermthta
T
= h2 T,
t
pou sunjw
enai stajer.
'Omoia enai kai h exswsh th diqush (
diffusion
equation),
u
=D
t
u (t, x, y, z) parist
cles/cm3 klp) kai D enai
pou

2u 2u 2u
+
+ 2 ,
x2 y 2
z
sugkntrwsh ( ulik
o suntelest diqush .
H kumatik exswsh
1 2u
= 2 u,
c2 t2
pou
an monda gkou,
enai h taqthta didosh tou kmato .
77
mol/lt, parti-
78
KEF
ALAIO 4.
H exswsh
Schrodinger
OI EXISWSEIS THS MAJHMATIKHS FUSIKHS
sthn kbantomhqanik
~2 2
+ V ,
i~
t
2m
pou
(t, x, y, z)
H exswsh
enai h kumatosunrthsh kai
Poisson
V (x, y, z)
to dunamik.
sthn hlektrostatik
1
2 = ,
0
(x, y, z) enai to dunamik
Poisson enai eidik perptwsh twn
pou
kai
(x, y, z)
h puknthta fortou.
exissewn tou
Maxwell
H exswsh
pou dipoun la ta hlek-
tromagnhtik fainmena.
H exswsh th sunqeia
+ . (v) = 0,
t
pou
(t, x, y, z)
Eidik an
ro
v (t, x, y, z) to pedo taquttwn.

.v = 0, tte h exswsh th sunqeia
enai h puknthta tou reusto kai

enai
, dhlad
asumpesth
grfetai
+ v. = 0,
t
kai an akma to reust enai astrbilo, dhlad v = 0, tte uprqei sunrthsh
dunamiko U ttoia ste v = U , opte h exswsh .v = 0, angetai sthn
exswsh Laplace
2 U = 0.
Navier-Stokes pou dipoun thn knhsh twn reustn

v
+ v.v = p + 2 v+ ( + ) (.v) ,
t
Oi exissei
p h pesh, kai o prto kai detero suntelest ixdou kai to dunamik

barthta . Eidik gia asumpesth ro oi exissei Navier-Stokes parnoun th morf

v
+ v.v = p + 2 v.
(4.1.1)
t
pou
Sthn exswsh
katastsei .
Laplace
angontai sunjw ta problmata pou perigrfoun stsime
Gia pardeigma,
an h jermokrasa tou sustmato pou exetzoume enai
anexrthth tou qrnou, tte h exswsh didosh th jermthta angetai sthn
2 T = 0.
4.2.
L
USEIS TWN MDE
79
Navier-Stokes, le oi lle exissei pou gryame enai gramtou Euler oi exissei aut qoun apotelsei antikemeno entatik
Ekt ap ti exissei
mik . Ap thn epoq
reuna kai smera uprqei sqedn plrh jewra twn grammikn diaforikn exissewn me
merik paraggou . Akma kai problmata me polploke arqik sunoriak sunjke
mporon na antimetwpisjon, idiaitrw me qrsh arijmhtikn mejdwn. Oi mh grammik
exissei , pw enai oi exissei
Navier-Stokes
oi exissei
ra Sqetikthta , paramnoun lute sth genik perptwsh.
Einstein
th Genik Jew-
Eidik lsei tou qoun
epiteuqje, idw an to prblhma parousizei kpoio edo summetra . Ja mporose kane

na pei ti to megaltero mro twn majhmatikn kldwn tou eikosto aina qei prokyei
ap thn prospjeia na anaptuqje h genik jewra twn MDE.
4.2
Lsei twn MDE

Laplace
A jewrsoume thn exswsh
se do diastsei
2u 2u
+
= 0.
x2 y 2
H exswsh aut qei peire lsei , p.q. oi sunartsei
arctan (y/x)
ikanopoion thn (4.2.1).
(4.2.1)
u me tpo x+y, x2 y 2 , ln
x2 + y 2,
Poi ap aut perigrfei th lsh tou fusiko
problmato pou antimetwpzoume kje for? Gia na sugkekrimenopoisoume ta prgmata,

a upojsoume ti se mia abaj lmnh qei apokatastaje jermik isorropa kai
enai h jermokrasa
sth jsh
(x, y)
to qwro pou parist th lmnh kai me

kamplh ston
R2
me eswterik
th epifneia th lmnh . Sumbolzoume me
to snoro th .
Profan
u (x, y)
R2
enai mia kleist
A upojsoume ti gnwrzoume th jermokrasa sto
snoro, p.q.
T (x, y) = f (x, y) ,
pou
(x, y)
enai gnwst sunrthsh. H (4.2.2) kajorzei ti
(4.2.2)
sunoriak sunjke
kai to prblh-
ma
2T
2T
+
= 0,
x2
y 2
lgetai
prblhma
sunoriakn
T (x, y) = f (x, y)
me
timn
tan
(x, y) ,
(4.2.3)
Apodeiknetai ti to prblhma sunoriakn timn
(4.2.3) qei monadik lsh.
'Estw ti h jermokrasa sto snoro
mia jalssia perioq
enai stajer.
'Eqoume loipn to prblhma sunoriakn timn
2 T = 0
tan
(x, y, z) ,
Dexte ti h lsh tou problmato enai
T (x, y, z) = c
tan
(x, y, z) .
T (x, y, z) = c (x, y, z)
80
KEF
ALAIO 4.
W na detero pardeigma, a jewrsoume thn kumatik exswsh se ma distash
2u
1 2u
=
.
c2 t2
x2
Ekola deqnoume ti an
metablht
(4.2.4)
enai opoiadpote (do for paragwgsimh) sunrthsh
mia
, tte h sunrthsh
u1 (t, x) = f (x ct)
enai lsh th DE. All kai kje sunrthsh th morf
u2 (t, x) = g (x + ct)
(me
aujareth sunrthsh mia metablht klsew
C 2)
enai epsh lsh.
Sth jewra
twn diaforikn exissewn me merik paraggou apodeiknetai ti h genik lsh th DE

grfetai w
u (t, x) = f (x ct) + g (x + ct) ,

D Alembert 1747).
H genik lsh deqnei ti h kumatik exswsh qei peire lsei . Par'
lo pou enai gnwst h genik lsh, den enai pnta efikt na epilxoume ti katllhle
sunartsei
kai
gia kje sugkekrimno prblhma. Ta fusik problmata epiblloun
kpoie sunjke sth lsh
u(x, t).
Oi sunjke aut enai do tpwn: arqik sunjke
kai sunoriak sunjke tou sustmato pou exetzoume. A upojsoume ti h kumatik

exswsh perigrfei thn pallmenh qord, dhlad
isorropa tou shmeou
th stigm
t.
u (t, x)
enai h apomkrunsh ap thn
Upojtoume ti ta kra th
x=0
kai
x=L
enai
stajer (paktwmna), opte h lsh prpei na ikanopoie ti sunoriak sunjke
u(0, t) = 0,
u(L, t) = 0,
t0
(4.2.5)
Ep plon, gia ton prosdiorism th knhsh , apaitetai h gnsh twn arqikn jsewn kai
arqikn taquttwn lwn twn shmewn th qord . Oi arqik aut sunjke ekfrzontai
msw twn
u (x, 0) = f (x) ,
pou
na
kai
prblhma
u
(x, 0) = g (x) ,
t
jewrontai gnwst sunartsei .

arqikn-sunoriakn
timn
0 x L,
(4.2.6)
Oi (4.2.4), (4.2.5) kai (4.2.6) suniston
Apodeiknetai ti kai aut to prblhma qei
monadik lsh.
'Opw qoume anafrei kai allo, mia fusik jewra prpei apant sto akloujo erthma:
Dnetai h katstash en sustmato th stigm
sustmato kpoia llh stigm
t?
t = 0.
Poia enai h katstash tou
Me lla lgia, h fusik jewra enai epituq an mpore
na problyei thn qronik exlixh tou sustmato .
H jewra isquropoietai an h prob-
lepmenh telik katstash den ephrezetai ap amelhte diaforopoisei th arqik
4.3.
H EX
ISWSH DI
AQUSHS
81
katstash , akribstera, an mikr metabol sthn arqik katstash, epifroun epsh

mikr metabol sthn telik katstash.
Sto pardeigma th tentwmnh qord anamnoume ti h gnsh th arqik metatpish
kai arqik taqthta th qord , arkon gia ton prosdiorism th epakloujh knhsh .
Me lla lgia perimnoume to prblhma arqikn-sunoriakn timn (4.2.4), (4.2.5), (4.2.6)
t 0.
na qei monadik lsh gia kje
Ja lme ti na prblhma pou upeisrqetai mia diaforik exswsh enai

jethmno
well-posed)
(a)
Uprqei
(b)
lsh enai
(g)
lsh
kal
topo-
an:
lsh tou
problmato
monadik
exarttai kat suneq
trpo
ap ta
dedomna
Up orismne propojsei ta problmata arqikn timn kai ta problmata sunoriakn timn enai kal topojethmna. H melth th pleioyhfa twn fusikn susthmtwn
odhge se problmata arqikn, sunoriakn, arqikn-sunoriakn timn pou enai kal
topojethmna. Kat th melth twn MDE qoume w kriou skopo :
Na
brome ti
Na
brome mejdou eplush ,
Na
prosdiorsoume genik
4.3
sunjke
up
ti
opoe
na prblhma enai
prosggish
idithte
th
lsh
kal
tou
topojethmno.
problmato .
th
lsh
H exswsh diqush
'Opw qoume dh tonsei, h exswsh sunqeia ekfrzei thn arq diatrhsh mza , fortou
klp.
A to epanalboume se ma distash.
swmatdia/
cm
sto disthma
n (t, x) h (grammik) puknthta (se

Epomnw n (t, x) x = arijm swmatidwn
'Estw
moles/cm otidpote/cm).
[x, x + x] th stigm t. An loipn
qoume ro, h arq diatrhsh th lh
epiblei
(n (t, x) x) = (rujm
t
eisdou sto
x) (rujm
exdou sto
x + x).
Sumbolik to isozgio aut grfetai
n (t, x)
x = J (t, x) J (t, x + x) ,
t
pou to rema
J (t, x)
enai o arijm swmatidwn pou pernon sth jsh
monda qrnou. Parnonta to rio tan
x 0,
th stigm
an
prokptei
J
n
= .
t
x
(4.3.1)
82
KEF
ALAIO 4.
( )
( )
t; x
n t; x
+
( + )
t; x
Sqma 4.1: Monodistath ro.
Se trei diastsei h exswsh sunqeia ja grfetai
n
= .J.
(4.3.2)
t
Sntomh apdeixh. 'Estw n (t, x, y, z) h puknthta (p.q. swmatdia an monda gkou)
kai J (t, x, y, z) h puknthta remato (dhlad J.S J.nS = arijm swmatidwn pou
pernon ap thn S an monda qrnou). Tte to isozgio aut grfetai
ZZZ
ZZ
d
n (t, x, y, z) dV =
J.dS,
dt
pou
R3
opoiadpote perioq tou
kai
h kleist epifneia pou periqei thn
epifaneiak oloklrwma metatrpetai se oloklrwma gkou qri sto jerhma
. To
Gauss,
opte ja qoume
ZZZ
To ouside epiqerhma enai ti,

n
+ .J dV = 0.
t
epeid
gko
enai
aujareto
, prokptei h (4.3.2).
Montellopohsh th ro .
H morf tou remato mpore na basisje se do diaforetik upojsei , me apotlesma
do diaforetik majhmatik montellopoisei :
a) Jewrome to rema (akribstera thn puknthta remato ) anlogo th taqthta ,
pw kname mqri tra dhlad,
1D
3D
J (t, x) = n (t, x) v (t, x)
J (t, x, y, z) = n (t, x, y, z) v (t, x, y, z) .

J = v, me = dm/dV, puknthta mza )
= dQ/dV, puknthta fortou). Sti periptsei
Ttoia enai h perptwsh th udrodunamik (
J = v,
kai th hlektrodunamik (
me
aut h exswsh sunqeia (4.3.2) parnei th morf pou dh gnwrzoume,
+ . (v) = 0.
t
4.3.
H EX
ISWSH DI
AQUSHS
83
b) Sth fsh qei parathrhje rema anlogo tou
gradient
th puknthta (empeirik
Fick)
nmo tou
n
x
J = Dn,
1D
J (t, x) = D
3D
dhlad qoume ro pro thn katejunsh elttwsh th puknthta .
diffusivity).
diqush (
D enai o suntelest
Sthn perptwsh aut h exswsh sunqeia (4.3.2) parnei th morf
n
= D2 n,
t
me thn upjesh ti o suntelest
enai stajer . H (4.3.3) lgetai exswsh diqush .
Gryte thn exswsh diqush an o suntelest
Dexte ti h sunrthsh
(4.3.3)
exarttai ap th jsh.
me tpo

1
x2
u (t, x) =
exp
,
4Dt
2 Dt
enai lsh th exswsh diqush se mia distash.
suntelest diqush
D?
Poi enai oi diastsei tou
Sqediste tra diadoqik stigmitupa th
u (t, x) .
'Opw gnwrzoume, h exswsh didosh jermthta enai moia me thn (4.3.3). Upenjumzoume ti to dianusmatik pedo
enai to monadiao kjeto sto
h.n.
Fick,
monda embado) enai

msw tou nmou tou
h ekfrzei th ro jermthta , akribstera an n
dS , tte h ro
jermthta (an monda qrnou kai an
Eqame dexei ti to pedo
sundetai me th jermokrasa
h = kT,
pou
enai o suntelest agwgimthta .
th jermthta ap na gko
Dikaiologeste prta ti rujm ro
pou periblletai ap kleist epifneia
mpore na
grafe ete w
d
dt
ZZZ
cT dV,
ete w
ZZ
kT.dS
pou
enai h puknthta.
suntelest k , apodexte ti
enai h eidik jermthta tou uliko,
puknthta, eidik jermthta kai
T
k
= 2 T.
t
c
Jewrnta stajer
84
KEF
ALAIO 4.
4.4
Oi exissei
Maxwell
Maxwell genkeuse tou tte gnwsto nmou tou hlektrismo kai magnhtismo
kai tou sunyise se tsserei exissei , gnwst w exissei Maxwell. Sta epmena,
E = (E1 , E2 , E3 ) enai to hlektrik pedo, B = (B1 , B2 , B3 ) enai to magnhtik pedo, enai
h puknthta tou fortou, j = (j1 , j2 , j3 ) einai h puknthta tou remato kai 0 kai 0 enai
To 1861 o
antstoiqa h hlektrik kai magnhtik diaperatthta tou keno. Oi tim twn stajern sto
diejn ssthma mondwn enai
h ekplhktik sqsh
0 = 8.85 1012 Fm1

0 0 =
kai
0 = 4 107 NA2 ,
1
c2
c 3 108 m/ sec . Ta peda (E kai B) kai
isqei de
(4.4.1)
kai j) metabllontai sto qro

kai to qrno, dhlad jewrontai sunartsei tou qrnou t kai th jsh (x, y, z) , p.q.
E = E (t, x, y, z) . Oi exissei tou Maxwell enai (bl. sqetik rjro sto Wikipedia)
pou
oi phg (
(Ro tou
msa ap kleisth epifneia) = (forto sto eswterik th epifneia )/
(Ro tou
msa ap kleisth epifneia) = 0
(Kuklofora tou
(Kuklofora
d
(ro tou
+ 0 0
dt
tou
se kleist brgqo) =
se
kleist
dtd (ro
brgqo)
tou
msou
tou
brgqou)
mia kleist epifneia kai
Gia to detero zego twn exissewn,
mia opoiadpote epifneia pou qei w snoro thn
twn exissewn tou
dia
dia msou tou brgqou)
gko pou perikleei.
dia msou tou brgqou)
0 (rema
Gia to prto zego twn exissewn, sumbolzoume me
kai
Maxwell
ZZ
ZSZ
C.
ton
enai mia kleist kamplh
'Etsi, h oloklhrwtik morf
enai
1
E.dS =
0
ZZZ
dV,
B.dS = 0,
ZZ
d
B.dS,
E.dr =
dt
IC
Z ZS
ZZ
d
B.dr = 0
j.dS + 0 0
E.dS.
dt
I
Oi do prte exissei enai o
nmo
antstoiqa.
H trth ekfrzei to
nmo
to
Amp`
ere.
nmo
tou
tou
th
Gauss
gia ton hlektrism kai to magnhtism
epagwg
tou
Faraday
kai h ttarth genikeei
4.4.
OI EXIS
WSEIS
MAXWELL
85
Gauss
Qrhsimopointa ta oloklhrwtik jewrmata twn
kai
Stokes,
oi parapnw ex-
issei metasqhmatzontai sthn diaforik tou morf
1
,
0
.B = 0,
B
E =
,
t
.E =
(4.4.2)
B = 0 j + 0 0
Epomnw oi exissei
Maxwell
E
.
t
grfontai w na ssthma 8
issewn 1h txew me merik paraggou .
grammikn
Dojntwn twn phgn
kai
diaforikn ex-
j,
to ssthma
(E1 , E2 , E3 , B1 , B2 , B3 ).
Maxwell grfontai
periqei 6 gnwste sunartsei

Sto ken, oi exissei
.E = 0,
E =
B
,
t
.B = 0,
B = 0 0
E
.
t
(4.4.3)
To detero zego deqnei th szeuxh tou hlektriko kai tou magnhtiko pedou: h qronik
metabol en pedou prokale strobilism tou llou.
Maxwell
H paratrhsh aut odghse ton
sthn meglh tou anakluyh, ti oi exissei tou problpoun thn didosh hlek-
tromagnhtikn kumtwn sto ken me thn taqthta tou fwt . Prgmati, paragwgzonta
w pro
ma exswsh ap to detero zego twn (4.4.3), p.q. thn trth, prokptei
2B
( E) = 2
t
t
(Dikaiologeste thn enallag twn telestn
/t
kai
thn ttarth twn (4.4.3), ja qoume
E
2B
= 2 .
t
t
).
Antikajistnta to
E/t
ap
1
2B
B = 2 .
0 0
t
B = (.B) 2 B. Epeid
tou B enai mhdn, parnoume telik
Upenjumzoume thn tautthta

exswsh
Maxwell
h apklish
ap thn deterh
2B
1
2 B = 2
0 0
t
kai qrhsimopointa thn (4.4.1), prokptei
2 B =
1 2B
.
c2 t2
(4.4.4)
Me entel moio trpo apodeiknetai ti (pw ?)
2 E =
1 2E
.
c2 t2
(4.4.5)
86
KEF
ALAIO 4.
Oi do parapnw kumatik exissei , deqnoun ti to hlektrik kai to magnhtik pedo

diaddontai sto ken me thn taqthta tou fwt .
'Etsi, o
Maxwell
enopohse ta hlek-
trik kai magnhtik fainmena me ta fainmena tou fwt kai probleye ti to f enai
morf hlektromagnhtik aktinobola .
'Otan loipn milte sto kinht sa , na jumste
ti energopoiete th szeuxh (4.4.3) pou bzei mpr ti kumatik exissei (4.4.4) kai
(4.4.5).
Sthn perptwsh pou ta peda kai oi phg den exartntai ap to qrno, oi exissei
Maxwell
angontai sti exissei th hlektrostatik
1
,
0
.E =
E = 0,
(4.4.6)
kai th magnhtostatik
.B = 0,
B = 0 j.
A dome pi analutik thn hlektrostatik. Epeid to hlektrostatik pedo enai astrbilo,
E = 0,
sumperanoume ti uprqei sunrthsh dunamiko
ttoia ste
E = .
Tte h prth ap ti (4.4.6) grfetai
1
2 = ,
0
Poisson. Eidik xw ap forta, pou
2
exswsh Laplace, = 0, fusik me ti
dhlad h hlektrostatik angetai sthn exswsh tou
= 0,
h hlektrostatik perigrfetai ap thn
katllhle sunoriak sunjke .
Oi exissei
Maxwell
emperiqoun to nmo diatrhsh tou fortou. Prte thn apk-
lish th ttarth ap ti (4.4.2) gia na apodexte thn exswsh sunqeia
.j +
4.5
= 0.
t
Oi exissei knhsh twn reustn
Jewrome na reust pou den parousizei trib kai exetzoume ti dunmei pou askontai
se na stoiqeidh gko tou ugro. H pesh metablletai ap shmeo se shmeo, enai dhlad
sunrthsh th jsh . Gia na brome thn olik dnamh lgw pesh se na stoiqeidh gko
(x, y, z) me akm
dnamh pyz .
tou ugro, jewrome na mikr kbo prosanatolismno kat tou xone
x, y, z .
x prokale
x + x enai
H pesh sthn mia dra sto
H pesh sthn apnanti dra sto
p (x + x, y, z) = p (x, y, z) +
pnw sthn dra

p
x + O x2
x
4.5.
OI EXIS
WSEIS K
INHSHS TWN REUST
WN
87
Sqma 4.2: Kbo prosanatolismno kat tou xone .
'Ara h dnamh sthn dra aut ja enai

p
2
x + O x
yz,
p (x, y, z) +
x

kai h olik dnamh ston kbo tan
x 0
qei
sunistsa
p
xyz
x
Fx =
Anloge enai kai oi lle sunistse th dnamh , opte ja qoume telik
F=
'Ara,
dnamh
an
monda

p
p
p
i+
j + k xyz.
x
y
z
gkou
lgw
pesh
enai
p.
Sti perisstere periptsei , h monadik exwterik dnamh pou asketai sto ugr enai
h barthta. Oi exissei knhsh en reusto prokptoun ap thn efarmog tou nmou
tou Netwna se na stoiqeo gkou.
Sumbolzonta me
thn olik dnamh an monda
gkou, o nmo tou Netwna grfetai
(epitqunsh) = f.
Gia lgou eukola upojtoume ti h puknthta enai perpou stajer, me lla lgia oi
qronik kai qwrik pargwgoi th
enai amelhte . H olik dnamh enai to jroisma
trin rwn: dnamh lgw pesh , exwterik dnamh (p.q. barthta) kai dnamh trib pou
ofeletai sto ixde tou reusto.
'Opw upojsame ap thn arq, agnoome to ixde ,
opte h exswsh knhsh grfetai w
(epitqunsh) = p + fext .
Gia thn epitqunsh, h prth skyh enai ti dnetai ap th merik pargwgo th taqthta
w pro to qrno, dhlad
v/t.
'Omw
v/t
enai o rujm metabol th taqthta
88
KEF
ALAIO 4.
v (t, x, y, z)
se kpoio stajer shmeo
(x, y, z)
tou qrou.
Endiafermaste gia to rujm
metabol th taqthta en stoiqeidou tmmato tou reusto.
A fantastome ti
qrwmatzoume mia stoiqeidh stagna kai parakoloujome thn knhsh th . Msa se qrno
vy t kai sth
h taqthta th pou th stigm t sth jsh (x, y, z) tan
enai v (t + t, x + vx t, y + vy t, z + vz t). Ap to
ja qei metakinhje sth diejunsh
z kat vz t. Sunep ,
v (t, x, y, z), th stigm t + t ja
jerhma Taylor, ja qoume
diejunsh
kat
vx t,
sth diejunsh
kat
v (t + t, x + vx t, y + vy t, z + vz t)

v
v
v
v
= v (t, x, y, z) +
vx t +
vy t +
vz t +
t + O t2 .
x
y
z
t
Sqhmatzonta to phlko
Newton
v (t + t, x + vx t, y + vy t, z + vz t) v (t, x, y, z)
,
t
kai parnonta to rio tan
t 0,
vx
H parstash aut, lgetai
telest andelta
v
v v
v
+ vy
+ vz
+
.
x
y
z
t
olik
astol me th merik pargwgo
brskoume ti h epitqunsh dnetai ap th sqsh
pargwgo
v/t)
th taqthta w pro to qrno (se antidi-
kai sumbolzetai me
Dv/dt.
Qrhsimopointa ton
h olik pargwgo th taqthta grfetai kai w
Dv
v
= (v.) v +
.
dt
t
(4.5.1)
'Etsi oi exissei knhsh tou reusto parnoun th morf

v
= p + fext .
(v.) v +
t

Euler kai
exissei Euler
(4.5.2)
Oi exissei aut diatupjhkan ap ton
froun to nom tou.
Navier-Stokes
diti perigrfoun sumpiest reust
me trib.
(u, v, w),
(4.1.1) genikeoun ti
Oi exissei
Shmeiste ti oi wkeanogrfoi sumbolzoun ti sunistse th taqthta w

dhlad
(vx , vy , vz ) (u, v, w).
Paratrhsh 1.
'Osoi adunaton na parakoloujsoun th fusik epiqeirhmatologa gia
thn exagwg tou tpou th olik paraggou, mporon na perioriston apl sthn pargwgo kat mko kamplh .
Upenjumzoume ti gia mia bajmwt sunrthsh
pargwgo kat mko kamplh me efaptmeno dianusmatik pedo
v.,
pou
v. vx
+ vy
+ vz .
x
y
z
(x, y, z) ,
dnetai ap ton tpo
4.5.
OI EXIS
WSEIS K
INHSHS TWN REUST
WN
Profan an
exarttai kai ap to qrno
t,
89
tte h (olik) pargwgo kat mko th
kamplh ja dnetai ap thn
D
= v. +
.
dt
t
Gia dianusmatik pedo
F,
ja qoume
F
DF
= (v.) F +
,
dt
t
kai o tpo (4.5.1) enai plon profan .
Navier-Stokes
Oi exissei
rou
(v.) v.
pw kai oi exissei
Euler,
enai m grammik lgw tou
Par' lo pou arijmhtik lsei pargontai kajhmerin (p.q. sthn prgn-
wsh tou kairo sta plasia th parktia mhqanik ), oi idithte twn lsewn apotelon
akma anoiqt majhmatik prblhma.
To prblhma th parxh lsh kaj kai to
smoothness problem), an dhl. uprqoun lsei , aut enai suneqe kai den emfanzoun
idiomorfe (singularities), enai ajlojethmno gia 1.000.000 $ ap to Clay Mathematics
Institute, w na ap ta ept shmantiktera majhmatik problmata th qilieta . Sunaf
enai kai to prblhma gia lsei pou perigrfoun thn trbh (turbulance), apl prwtar-
qik prodo pro mia majhmatik jewra pou qarakthrzei thn trbh.
W efarmog ja dexoume to Jerhma tou
Bernoulli
gia
, dhlad reust
idanik reust
me mhdenik ixde . Kat' arq qrhsimopointa thn tautthta
1
(v.) v = ( v) v + (v.v) ,
2
oi exissei
Euler
gia reust msa se pedo barthta me dunamik
parnoun th morf
v
1
p
+ ( v) v + v 2 =
.
t
2
(Upenjumzoume to sumbolism
v 2 |v|2 = v.v).
Upojtoume
(4.5.3)
stsimh
ro
, dhlad h
taqthta se opoiodpote shmeo den metablletai,
v
= 0.
t
Pollaplasizonta eswterik thn (4.5.3) me
prokptei
v (kai epeid o ro ( v) v
p
1
v.
+ + v2
dnei mhdn),
= 0.
H sqsh aut ma lei ti o rujm metabol th sunrthsh msa sthn parnjesh kat
thn diejunsh
flba
(kateujunmenh pargwgo ) enai mhdn.
Epomnw ,
kat
ja qoume
1
p
+ + v 2 = C,
2
pou h stajer
enai diaforetik gia kje flba (Jerhma tou
Bernoulli).
mko
mia
90
KEF
ALAIO 4.
Paratrhsh 2.
Se perptwsh astrbilh ro , o ro
gia stsimh ro ap thn (4.5.3) prokptei
1
p
+ + v2
( v)v enai mhdn, epomnw
= 0,
ra
1
p
+ + v 2 = C,
2
pou h stajer
qei
thn
dia
tim
panto
Sthn perptwsh ugro se stajer pedo barthta sthn epifneia th gh , jewrome

to ssthma suntetatagmnwn twn wkeanogrfwn, dhlad xona
junsh
W-E,
xona
yy
kat th diejunsh
S-N,
xona
z z
x x
kat th die-
katakrufo .
Gryete
thn trth sunistsa twn exissewn (4.5.2) kai thn trth sunistsa twn exissewn
(4.1.1).

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DIANUSMATIKOS LOGISMOS

Dianusmatik sunartsei mia metablht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distash kai bsh en dianusmatiko qrou . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Efarmog sth lsh Grammikn Susthmtwn

Gewmetrik ermhnea twn grammikn susthmtwn

2 SUNARTHSEIS POLLWN METABLHTWN

Pragmatik sunartsei polln metablhtn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grfhma kai snolo stjmh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pargwgo kat mko kamplh kai

O telest andelta. Apklish kai strobilism . . . . . . . . . . .

Efarmog: Metdosh jermthta

Akrtata bajmwtn pedwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

To jerhma twn peplegmnwn sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 OLOKLHRWSH SUNARTHSEWN POLLWN METABLHTWN

Parrthma: Upologism tou epifaneiako oloklhrmato

4 OI EXISWSEIS THS MAJHMATIKHS FUSIKHS

Klassik diaforik exissei me merik paraggou

Lsei twn MDE

Oi exissei knhsh twn reustn

enai gnwst ap to mjhma tou

genikeei thn lgebra tou

se afhrhmnou dianusmatiko qrou . Arqzoume me thn

gnwst nnoia th parametrik anaparstash kampuln.

Upenjumzoume ti sti trei diastsei me

to dinusma jsh kai

z 2 . Gia elfrunsh tou sumbolismo sunjw

Dianusmatik sunartsei mia metablht

'Opw dh gnwrzoume, sunartsei tou tpou

enai kpoio disthma

sto eppedo ston tridistato

stajer diansmata, tte

qei w eikna thn eujea pou pern ap to shmeo

a kai qei th diejunsh tou diansmato

r(t) = (x(t), y(t))

enai parametrik parstash kklou kntrou

r(t) = (x(t), y(t))

sunrthsh mia metablht .

pou algebrik parstatai ap thn

qei w parametrik anaparstash,

Ap ta paradegmata prokptei ti ma kamplh mpore na qei poll anaparastsei ,

x (t) = t, y (t) = t, z (t) = t, t [0, ),

x (t) = t2 1, y (t) = t2 1, z (t) = t2 1, t [1, ),

r : t 7 (x(t), y(t), z(t))

x(t), y(t), z(t)

enai paragwgsime kai mlista

r(t) = a cos t i + a sin t j,

(0, 0)), grfetai

H taqthta ja enai loipn

v(t) = a sin t i + a cos t j.

kai enai diark kjeth sto

enai antrroph th dianusmatik aktna ,

kat sunpeia enai kjeth sthn taqthta.

To ginmeno pragmatik sunrthsh

ep dianusmatik sunrthsh

q = r pou orzetai w , q(t) = (t)r(t), t R. H pargwgo th

q dnetai ap ton tpo q(t)

Ma kamplh lgetai apl kamplh an den autotmnetai

mia apl kamplh enai mia

kpoio disthma kai

Ma kamplh lgetai

to dinusma jsh en shmeou th kamplh .

lea n h pargwgo th den mhdenzetai poujen sto pedo orismo

(Dikaiologeste ton orism).

C sundei do shmea A kai B, mporome na epilxoume ton prosanatolism ap to

Gewmetrik ermhnea twn grammikn susthmtwn

Akrtata bajmwtn pedwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oi exissei knhsh twn reustn

enai gnwst ap to mjhma tou

se afhrhmnou dianusmatiko qrou . Arqzoume me thn

Upenjumzoume ti sti trei diastsei me

'Opw dh gnwrzoume, sunartsei tou tpou

enai kpoio disthma

sto eppedo ston tridistato

qei w eikna thn eujea pou pern ap to shmeo

enai parametrik parstash kklou kntrou

pou algebrik parstatai ap thn

Ap ta paradegmata prokptei ti ma kamplh mpore na qei poll anaparastsei ,

enai paragwgsime kai mlista

H taqthta ja enai loipn

kai enai diark kjeth sto

enai antrroph th dianusmatik aktna ,

kat sunpeia enai kjeth sthn taqthta.

ep dianusmatik sunrthsh

q = r pou orzetai w , q(t) = (t)r(t), t R. H pargwgo th

q dnetai ap ton tpo q(t)

Ma kamplh lgetai apl kamplh an den autotmnetai

mia apl kamplh enai mia

Ma kamplh lgetai

to dinusma jsh en shmeou th kamplh .

lea n h pargwgo th den mhdenzetai poujen sto pedo orismo

(Dikaiologeste ton orism).

C sundei do shmea A kai B, mporome na epilxoume ton prosanatolism ap to

H seir aut apotele epanlhyh tou sqetiko ke-

falaou ap ton Apeirostik Logism.

enai grammik exarthmna tte

2. Upenjumzoume ti h exswsh tou epipdou pou pern ap to shmeio

a kai enai kjeto

3. Upenjumzoume ti h exswsh th eujea pou pern ap to shmeio

Brete thn exswsh th eujea pou pern ap to shmeio

(1, 1, 1) kai enai kjeth sto

4. Brete th dianusmatik taqthta kai to mtro th sti paraktw kample

r(t) twn paraktw kampuln: eujea pou pern

5. Brete parametrik anaparastsei

6. Upologste ta mkh twn kampuln

stoiqea tou mporon na prostejon metax tou kai na pollaplasiaston me pragmatiko

Uprqei na stoiqeo tou

ttoio ste gia kje stoiqeo

To prtupo ma enai fusik o

tou opoou oi algebrik idithte tjentai w oris-

Ta pio endiafronta snola sta majhmatik, kajstantai

dianusmatiko qroi an oriston katllhla oi prxei th prsjesh dianusmtwn kai o

ikanopoion ti idithte DQ1 w DQ10, an orzoume jroisma dianusmtwn

enai dianusmatik qro , arke na elgxoume ti:

ankoun epsh sto

pinkwn kai pollaplasiasm me pragmatik arijm, enai dianusmatik qro .

H tom do upoqrwn enai upqwro . Brete do upqwrou tou

Gia pardeigma, ap ta stoiqea

enai pragmatiko arijmo, tte

enai pli stoiqeo tou

enai epsh grammik sunduasm twn

na apantsoume sto erthma, ja qreiastome thn nnoia th grammik anexarthsa .

enai grammik anexrthta.

enai grammik anexrthta, to dio kai ta

C (a, b) o qro twn paragwgismwn

enai grammik exarthmna. 'Estw

enai grammik exarthmna, tte na ap

sunduasm twn upolopwn,

enai grammik exarthmna. Tte uprqoun

x1 mpore na grafe w grammik

sunduasm twn upolopwn, tte

enai grammik exarthmna.

Sto eppedo uprqoun do grammik anexrthta diansmata (brete

enai grammik anexrthta diansmata en

, tte kje stoiqeo tou