ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL

TECHNICAL PAPER

Title no. 104-S07

Deflection Control of Concrete Members

Based on Utility Theory
by Young Hak Lee, Andrew Scanlon, and Heecheul Kim
Design provisions for deflection control of concrete structures are
generally empirical in nature and based on previous experience.
Due to the increasing use of high strength materials, longer spans,
and as a result more flexible members, a more rational approach is
desirable. This paper explores the applicability of the utility theory
as a basis for developing deflection control criteria. The approach
considers uncertainties in member behavior and loading as well as
lack of well-defined discrete serviceability limits. Monte Carlo
simulation is used to develop histograms of selected deflection
parameters. A serviceability loss function is then specified to define
the onset of serviceability failure and an upper limit representing
complete serviceability failure with associated costs. Optimum
structural parameter (member depth) is obtained by minimizing
total cost consisting of initial construction cost and probabilistic
cost of failure. Results for one-way slabs are developed and compared
with current ACI code provisions for minimum thickness.
Keywords: deflection; reinforced concrete; serviceability.

INTRODUCTION
In the design of concrete building structures, deflection
control for floors and roofs is an important design consideration.
While the current code procedures have provided adequate
designs in the past, developments in design practice such as
the use of higher strength materials and longer spans leading
to more flexible structures, as well as increasing expectations by
owners for building performance, suggest that a more
rational approach to design for deflection control may be
required in the future. Such an approach should consider the
uncertainties inherent in predicting deflections of concrete
members and structures as well as the difficulties associated
with defining acceptable limits for deflection of members.
Many researchers have used cost related analyses for optimization and serviceability problems (Hossain 2000; Koskisto
and Ellingwood 1997; Sarma and Adeli 1998). This paper
explores the application of the utility theory to the problem.
Because serviceability failure can occur in structures with
adequate safety against collapse, the question becomes an
economic issue. The utility theory approach balances the
initial cost of construction against the potential costs of
repair considering uncertainties associated with structural
behavior at service load levels, and lack of a well-defined
limit for deflection. It is assumed that the structure has
adequate strength to satisfy ultimate (strength) limit states.
The formulation of the approach is based on the work of
Reid and Turkstra (1980, 1981) and Turkstra and Reid
(1981) at McGill University. Reid and Turkstra applied the
method to two-way slab systems assuming the slabs were
uncracked. In this study, effects of cracking, creep, and
shrinkage are considered to provide a realistic assessment of
member behavior. A deterministic model is used to calculate
deflections for a member with defined time-dependent
material properties and loading history. Monte Carlo
60

simulation is then used to develop histograms of deflection

with assumed statistical distributions for the input parameters.
Loss functions are then defined that specify the onset of
damage due to deflection and an upper limit at which the
structure is assumed to be unusable. The utility theory is then
applied to the member by minimizing the total cost considered
as the sum of the initial cost and the probabilistically
determined cost of failure.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The approach presented in this paper provides a rational
approach to deflection control considering uncertainties in
structural behavior and deflection limits. The methodology
has the potential to produce improvements in design codes
related to serviceability.
DEFLECTION CONTROL
BASED ON UTILITY THEORY
Reid and Turkstra (1980, 1981) presented a formulation in
which serviceability can be considered as a specific type of
structural utility U that can be expressed as
U = B CI

i cF

(1)

where B equals the benefit derived from fully serviceable

structure; CI equals the initial construction cost; cFi equals
CFi Hi(x), cost due to failure in mode i; CFi equals the cost
of failure due to being completely unserviceable in mode i; x
equals the deflection ratio to span length; and Hi(x) equals
the serviceability loss function as a function of deflection to
span length ratio in mode i.
If the benefit associated with a fully serviceable structure
is considered to be constant, the utility can be maximized by
minimizing the total cost consisting of initial construction
cost and cost of failure. Figure 1 shows a schematic plot of
costs versus a structural parameter such as member depth for
a given span length. As the member depth increases, the
initial construction cost can be expected to increase while the
expected cost of serviceability failure can be expected to
decrease as the stiffness increases. Adding initial construction
cost to failure cost results in a plot of total cost. The optimum
member thickness occurs where the total cost is a minimum.
The cost of failure can be attributed to a number of sources
(modes), including direct cost of repairs, costs due to lost
production, and loss of rental income during repairs as
ACI Structural Journal, V. 104, No. 1, January-February 2007.
MS No. S-2006-103 received March 9, 2006, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright 2007, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the
making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent
discussion including authors closure, if any, will be published in the NovemberDecember 2007 ACI Structural Journal if the discussion is received by July 1, 2007.

ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

ACI member Young Hak Lee is a full-time Lecturer in the Department of Architectural
Engineering at The Kyunghee University, Yongin, Korea. He received his PhD from
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. His research interests include the
serviceability of reinforced and prestressed concrete members and developing analytical
models of concrete structures.
Andrew Scanlon, FACI, is a Professor of civil engineering at Pennsylvania State
University. He is a member of ACI Committees 224, Cracking; 318, Structural Concrete
Building Code; 318-C, Safety, Serviceability, and Analysis (Structural Concrete
Building Code); 342, Evaluation of Concrete Bridges and Bridge Elements; 348,
Structural Safety; 435, Deflection of Concrete Building Structures; and E 803, Faculty
Network Coordinating Committee.
Heecheul Kim is a Professor in the Department of Architectural Engineering at The
Kyunghee University. He received his PhD from New Mexico State University, Las
Cruces, N. Mex. His research interests include the behavior of reinforced concrete and
fiber-reinforced structures for earthquake resistance.

Fig. 1Function of member depth h.

examples. The expected cost of serviceability failure due to
floor deflection can be computed if the probability density
function (pdf) for deflection is known and a serviceability
loss function is defined as shown in Fig. 2. The pdf provides
a measure of the probability that a particular deflection value
will be exceeded. The serviceability loss function recognizes
that serviceability failures generally do not have well defined
limits. The loss function H(x), shown in Fig. 2, indicates the
onset of serviceability failure (that is, need for repair to
remedy the problem) at a deflection parameter x1 and a
gradual increase reaching a value of 1.0 at deflection parameter
x2, at which point the floor is assumed to be completely
unserviceable requiring a cost CF to remedy. For a deflection
parameter in the range x1 to x2, the repair cost is defined as
H(x) CF. As shown later in the paper, the loss function can
be continuous, as shown in Fig. 2 or may be discontinuous,
increasing in stepwise fashion.
The utility function for a given mode can be calculated as
ui(x) = B CI cFi(x)

(2)

where ui(x) equals the utility function for failure mode i and cFi(x)
equals the failure cost function for failure mode i = CFi Hi(x).
The expected utility is given by

E [ Ui ] =

ui ( x )f ( x ) dx

(3a)

where f(x) equals the probability density function of x.

Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (3a) gives

E [ U i ] = B C I C Fi

Hi ( x )f ( x ) dx

The continuous pdf can be replaced by a probability mass

function (pmf) or histogram obtained for example from
Monte Carlo simulation. Equation (3b) can then be
converted into discrete type as follows
n

Hi ( xj )p ( xj )

(3c)

j=1

where p(xj) is the probability mass function of xj in a

given member.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

For a given loss function H(x), as the member depth increases

and stiffness increases, the pdf f(x) or pmf p(x) shifts to the
left and the expected cost of failure decreases. The greater
the overlap between the deflection pdf and serviceability loss
function, the greater the expected cost of failure.
Total failure cost can be obtained by summing failure
costs for each mode. Figure 3 shows conceptual examples of
deflection histograms along with a single-step discontinuous
loss function, a two-step discontinuous loss function, and a
continuous loss function. In this study, a two-step discontinuous
loss function was used for calculating indirect cost of failure
such as loss of production and a continuous loss function for
direct cost of failure and cost of repair. Total cost of failure
could be calculated by summing these two types of failure costs.

(3b)

E [ U i ] = B C I C Fi

Fig. 2Deflection probability density function and serviceability loss function.

FLOOR MEMBER DEFLECTION

AND IMPACT ON SERVICEABILITY
The time-dependent development of deflection in a
concrete member is affected by structural configuration,
material properties, and load history. Figure 4 shows a
schematic load-time history for a slab in a multi-story
structure (Graham and Scanlon 1986). Depending on the
shoring and reshoring procedure used, the slab may be
heavily loaded during construction, causing cracking that
will affect the stiffness of the structure during its service life.
After installation of nonstructural elements, the slab is
subjected to sustained load and intermittent short-term live
load. A simplified version of the load history is shown in
Fig. 4(b) in which the maximum construction load is applied to
61

Fig. 4Simplified load-time history with probabilistic

approach and corresponding deflection-time history.
Table 1Statistical parameters of damaging
deflections (/L) (Hossain and Stewart 2001)

Fig. 3Probability histogram for deflection and serviceability loss functions.

the slab followed immediately by application of sustained load.
The corresponding deflection-time history is shown in Fig. 4(c).
In design, when deflections are to be calculated, ACI 318-05
(ACI Committee 318 2005) requires checks to be made for
deflection due to live load and incremental deflection after
installation of non-structural elements. Most damage related to
deflection, particularly visual sagging and damage to nonstructural elements, is due to long-time deflection under sustained
load. Available data on deflection-related damage is obtained
from deflection surveys based on total long-time deflection.
Hossain and Stewart (2001) reviewed survey data and
presented results for damage due to perception (noticeable
visual sagging, slanting furniture, and damage to floor
finishes) and damage to non-structural elements (partition
walls). Statistical data from their survey are presented in
62

Parameter

Perception damage

Sample size

60

Partition wall damage

51

Minimum value

0.0030

0.0006

Maximum value

0.0171

0.0135

Mean

0.0077

0.0054

COV

0.42

0.57

Distribution

Truncated lognormal

Gamma

Table 1. According to their study, the minimum value of

deflection-to-span ratio for which perception damage was
reported is 0.003 (1/333). An earlier study by Mayer and
Rusch (1967) concluded that a deflection-to-span ratio of up
to 1/300 is not found to be visually disturbing.
In the present study, the data presented by Hossain and
Stewart were used to establish upper and lower bounds for
continuous loss function for direct costs of repair. For convenience, the cumulative density function was used to define
the loss function H(x) between the two limits because it is
assumed in this study that expected repair costs follow the
probability of damaging deflection. In addition, the floor
member is assumed to be completely unusable when deflection
to span length ratio exceeds 0.02.
COST INFORMATION
To implement the approach outlined previously, cost data
are needed for initial construction cost and cost of failure.
Cost data for initial construction cost were obtained from RS
Means building construction cost data (RS Means 2002a).
Two types of failure cost data were considered to
demonstrate the application of the method. Data for the
direct cost of repair were obtained from RS Means repair and
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

remodeling cost data (RS Means 2002b). Data on the cost of

loss of production during the repair process were obtained
from national compensation survey data published by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor
(2003). The two types of repair costs were summed to obtain
the total cost of repair.
Cost of initial construction
Construction costs include costs of formwork, reinforcement,
concrete placing, finishing, curing, installation of reinforcement,
and shoring and reshoring. For the sake of simplicity, only
the direct costs of one-way slab construction were considered.
A more refined analysis would consider the effect of changing
slab thickness on the supporting structure (columns and
foundations). Unit costs obtained from RS Means are
summarized in Table 2.
Cost of repair
In the present study, two types of repair cost were considered:
direct cost of slab repair and costs related to loss of production
for an office building. The former uses the continuous loss
function and the latter uses the two-step discontinuous
loss function.
Cost of failure for repairThe cost of repair depends on
the type of repair required. At the onset of damage due to
deflection, repairs might consist of cosmetic repairs of
cracking in drywall partitions. In the extreme case, damage
may be sufficient to require replacement of the floor
member. To establish the cost of failure at the upper limit of
the loss function, costs for demolition and replacement were
obtained from RS Means repair and remodeling cost data
(2002b) and are summarized in Table 3.
Cost of failure for loss of productionFor this case, it is
assumed that the floor is in an office building and that repairs
prevent access to the floor by the office workers during the
repair work. The loss of production cost is then taken as the
wages or salaries of office workers prevented from using the
space affected by repairs. An upper bound to this cost is
assumed to correspond to roughly 4 weeks of lost production
for the affected work area.
According to the survey data conducted by Bureau of
Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor (2003), annual
average earnings of full-time workers is approximately
$36,484. Assuming that an office worker occupies roughly
150 ft2 (13.94 m2) of office floor area, a typical office
production rate is roughly $243/year/ft2 ($2617.22/year/m2)
of serviceable floor area. This amount is converted to
$20.25/4 weeks/ft2 ($218.10/4 weeks/m2). Assuming that
the area disrupted for repair is twice the failed floor area, this
unit cost should be multiplied by 2. In this study, incremental
deflection of L/240 was used as critical point to apply this
assumption because the current ACI 318 code (ACI
Committee 318 2005) defines L/240 as deflection limit for
members not supporting nonstructural elements. If the
incremental deflection is greater than L/240, it is assumed
that the level below will also be affected by the repairs. Thus,
a reasonable upper bound to the disruption cost of serviceability failure is estimated to be $81/ft2 ($872.40/m2) of
failed floor area.
The upper limit on the cost of loss of production is therefore taken as CF equal to $81/ft2 ($872.40/m2) of failed floor
area and the loss function for loss of production is defined as
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

Table 2Initial construction cost data

Unit price

Remarks

Formwork,
$/ft2 ($/m2)

Item

5.40 (60.00)

Plywood to 15 ft
(4.57 m) high,
three use

Reinforcement,
$/ton [short]
($/ton [metric])

1300.00 (1444.44)

Grade 60, A614

Concrete,
$/yd3 ($/m3)

f c = 3000 psi
(20.69 MPa)

76.00 (100.00)

f c = 4000 psi
(27.58 MPa)

81.50 (107.25)

h < 6 in.
(152.4 mm)

25.00 (32.90)

Concrete ready
mixed, normalweight

Placing concrete, 6 in. h 10 in.

(152.4 mm h 22.00 (28.95)
$/yd3 ($/m3)
254.0 mm)
h > 10 in.
(254.0 mm)

Pumped

19.30 (25.40)
Integral topping
and finish, using
1:1:2 mixture,
3/16 in. thick

Finishing,
$/ft2 ($/m2)

1.10 (12.22)

Curing, $/ft2 ($/m2)

0.55 (6.11)

Curing blankets

$78.00 each

7800 lb (34.70 kN)

capacity

Shoring

Table 3Repair cost data

Type

Item

Unit price
3

6 ft (0.17 m3)

Cutout demolition,
$/ft3 ($/m3)

Slab
Replacement,
$/ft2 ($/m2)

39.50 (1395.76)

>6 ft (0.17 m )

35.50 (1254.42)

7 in. (177.8 mm) thick

15.20 (168.89)

8 in. (203.2 mm) thick

16.15 (179.44)

9 in. (228.6 mm) thick

16.90 (187.78)

10 in. (254.0 mm) thick

17.90 (198.89)

x in. (interpolation
function)

0.9x + 8.9

0,

H ( x ) = 0.5,

1,

x < 0.003
L
0.003 < x < --------240
L
x > --------240

(4)

It is assumed for all practical purposes that the timedependent deflection reaches a maximum at 5 years and this
is the time at which the incremental deflection is calculated.
Because cost data are highly dependent on local market
conditions, construction costs and repair costs were simply
taken as average present values based on published data.
Further refinement of the methodology could be incorporated
by considering discounted values.
DEFECTION HISTOGRAMS FROM
MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
It is assumed that the critical deflection affecting serviceability is the total long-time deflection as illustrated in
Fig. 4. To account for uncertainties in material properties
and loads, deflection histograms are developed using the
approach presented by Choi et al. (2004). This approach is
based on a deterministic layered beam finite element model.
63

Table 4Probability model of random variables

Variable

Concrete
(in place)

Mean

Standard
COV deviation

0.675f c + 1100
1.15f c
fc , psi
0.176
(Mpa) (0.675f c + 7.58
1.15f c )

Mirza et al.
1979

fr , psi
0.218
(MPa) 8.3 f c (0.69 f c )

Mirza et al.
1979

Mirza et al.
1979

Mirza and
MacGreagor
1979

Ec, psi
(MPa)

60,400 f c

0.119

(5015.21 f c )

As

0.99An

Es, ksi
(MPa)

29,200
(201,326.91)

0.024

Julian 1966

b, in.
(cm)

bn + 5/32
(bn + 0.397)

0.045

Naaman
1982

dst,
dsh, in.
(cm)

dsn + 1/16
(dsn + 0.159)

0.68/hn
(0.27/
hn)

Naaman
1982

(sh)u

780 106

121.66
106

Choi et al.
2004
Choi et al.
2004

0.024

Reinforcement

Beam
dimension

Shrinkage

Creep

Tension
stiffening

Source

1.0

3.33 102

55 days

25 days

Choi et al.
2004

2.35

0.6

ACI
Committee
209 1992

0.6

6.66 102 Baant 1985

10 days

6.66 days

Choi et al.
2004

3.0

0.11

0.33

Choi et al.
2004

Note: All variables follow normal distribution.

Fig. 5Effect of variation of lower bound of continuous

serviceability loss function on total unit cost for 180 in.
(4.57 m) span simply-supported one-way slab.
The age-adjusted effective modulus of elasticity is used to
compute time-dependent deflections under sustained load.
Tension stiffening is modeled using a bilinear stress-strain
diagram for concrete in tension with a linear descending
branch beyond the peak stress. Contributions of shrinkage
warping to the long-time deflection are computed using the
simplified approach reported by ACI Committee 209 (1992).
Using the deterministic model and statistical data on input
parameters obtained from the literature, Monte Carlo
64

Table 5Probabilistic load models

Load
Formwork
load
(additional
dead load)

Statistical parameters
Mean = 0.11Dn,
COV = 0.10

Distribution
Normal

Source
El-Shahhat
et al. 1993

Construc- Sustained
Ayoub and
Mean = 6.0 psf (0.29 kPa),
tion load construction
Gamma Karshenas
COV
=
1.10
live load
1994
Stacking
load
Dead load

Ayoub and
Mean = 20 psf (0.974 kPa) Gamma Karshenas
COV = 0.60
1994
Mean = 1.05Dn,
COV = 0.10

Normal

Stewart
1996

EllingSustained lsus = 11.6 psf (0.56 kPa), Gamma wood and

2
Culver
live load
lsus = 26.2 + (6500/A)
1977
Live load
Extraordinary
live load

E = (QR)/A,
E2 =

Ellingwood and
Gamma
2 2
2
2 2
Culver
( Q R + R Q + Q Q )
--------------------------------------------------------------1977
2
A

Note: Dn = nominal dead load; = 2.76, A = influence area; (Q, Q) = (150, 25 [psf]),
A 155
------------------ ; A 400 ft2 (36 m2); Wco
6.3
= construction load + dead load; Wlvar = extraordinary live load; Ws = sustained load =
dead load + sustained live load.
(7.305, 1.218 [KPa]); (R, R) = (4, 2), =

simulation was used to generate the required deflection

histograms. Statistics for material properties and loads are
summarized in Table 4 (material properties) and Table 5
(loads). The material and load parameters are summarized in
the Notation. The schematic load-time history shown in
Fig. 4 was used as the basis for computing long-time deflection.
Assuming two levels of shoring and one level of reshoring,
the construction load due to shoring and reshoring was taken
as 1.84 times the slab self-weight (Rosowsky and Stewart
2001). The total long-time deflection was assumed to occur
at age t3 years equal to 5 years. In this study, a simplified
loading history is assumed in which it is assumed that the
construction load and dead load is initially applied at 28 days.
Some of the variability due to age at loading is assumed to be
included in the assumed variability in concrete material
properties. This, however, is a variable that could be looked
at more closely in future studies. The Monte Carlo simulation
results of slab deflections were discussed in a previous paper
(Choi et al. 2004).
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
A simply supported slab spanning 15 ft (4.57 m) with a
design live load of 50 psf (2394 kPa) was analyzed to determine
the sensitivity of the results to variations in the assumed loss
functions and initial construction costs. Five slab thicknesses
were considered. Analyses were performed with the
following variations.
1. Lower bound on serviceability loss function varied by
plus or minus 30%;
2. Lower bound on loss of production function varied by
plus or minus 30%;
3. Upper bound on loss of production function varied by
plus or minus 30%;
4. Initial construction cost varied by plus or minus 10%;
5. Cost of repair varied by plus or minus 10%;
6. Cost of loss of production varied by plus or minus
10%; and
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

Fig. 6Effect of variation of lower bound of two-step

discontinuous loss function (loss of production) on total unit
cost for 180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported one-way slab.

Fig. 10Effect of variation of cost of loss of production on

total unit cost for 180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported
one-way slab.

Fig. 7Effect of variation of upper bound of two-step discontinuous loss function (loss of production) on total unit cost for
180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported one-way slab.

Fig. 11Effect of variation of cost of failure on total unit

cost for 180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported one-way slab.

Fig. 8Effect of variation of cost of initial construction on

total unit cost for 180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported oneway slab.

Fig. 12Effect of live load and span length on span-depth

ratio for simply-supported one-way slabs.
Table 6Summary of one-way slabs
Boundary condition

Simply supported, both ends

continuous, one end continuous

Span length (in. [m])

for simply supported

120 (3.04), 180 (4.57), 240 (6.09),

300 (7.62), 360 (9.14), 420 (10.66)

Span length (in. [m]) for both ends 180 (4.57), 240 (6.09), 300 (7.62),
continuous and one end continuous 360 (9.14), 420 (10.66), 480 (12.19)
6.0 (152.4), 9.0 (228.6), 12.0 (304.8),
Simply supported 15.0 (381.0), 18.0 (457.2), 21.0 (533.4)
Thickness
(in. [m])

Both ends
continuous

6.5 (165.1), 8.5 (215.9), 11.0 (279.4),

13.0 (330.2), 15.0 (381.0), 17.0 (431.8)

One end
continuous

7.5 (190.5), 10.0 (254.0), 12.5 (317.5),

19.0 (482.6), 17.5 (444.5), 20.0 (508.0)

Live load when CDF = 0.95

Fig. 9Effect of variation of cost of repair on total unit cost

for 180 in. (4.57 m) span simply-supported one-way slab.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2007

50 psf (2.44 kPa), 100 psf (4.87 kPa)

Note: Mean of extraordinary live load was magnified so that 100 psf (4.87 kPa) was
sum of sustained live load and extraordinary live load corresponding to 0.95 of CDF.

65

Fig. 13Effect of live load and span length on span-depth

ratio for both ends continuous one-way slabs.

Fig. 14Effect of live load and span length on span-depth

ratio for one end continuous one-way slabs.
7. Total cost of failure varied by plus or minus 10%.
Analysis for upper bound on serviceability loss function
was not performed because quite a few deflections were
generated in a given design situation so as to investigate
uncertainty of the limit. As shown in Fig. 5 to 11, variations
of these magnitudes did not lead to changes in the thickness
corresponding to minimum total cost.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THICKNESSES
OBTAINED BY PROPOSED METHOD AND
CURRENT ACI 318 CODE MINIMUM THICKNESSES
A parametric study was performed to compare the thickness
of one-way slabs obtained by the proposed procedure and the
minimum thickness values given in ACI 318-05 (ACI
Committee 318 2005). The range of parameters considered
is summarized in Table 6. The results are presented in Fig. 12 to
14 in terms of span-to-depth ratio versus span length. In each
case, the ACI 318 minimum thickness value is constant with
span length, whereas the optimum span-to-depth ratio based
on minimum total cost decreases as span length increases.
Also, there is a slight decrease in span-to-depth ratio as live
load increases. In general, the proposed procedure results in
smaller thicknesses than ACI 318-05 for shorter spans and
larger thicknesses than ACI 318-05 for longer spans except
simply supported case, which showed smaller thicknesses
than ACI 318-05 in all the given span lengths. The results
suggest that the ACI 318-05 minimum thickness rules are
adequate for minimum thickness up to approximately 20 ft
(6.10 m) span, the typical span range for both ends continuous
and one end continuous one-way slabs.
66

DISCUSSION
It is in the interests of the concrete industry and the
engineering community to produce concrete structures that
not only have an adequate margin of safety against collapse
but also provide acceptable performance in service at
minimum cost. The preliminary results presented previously
suggest that the proposed approach to design for
serviceability can provide a rational base for deflection
control criteria covering a wide range of design situations.
Further work is needed to better define costs for both initial
construction and repair costs in specific situations. Other costs,
such as the impact of a serviceability failure on the engineers
reputation, should be considered.
Serviceability loss functions can be developed for specialized
applications. For example, a floor supporting sensitive
equipment may have upper and lower limits more stringent
than those used in the present study. Loss of production costs
will vary depending on the application. The definition of the
loss function between the upper and lower limits can also be
improved by considering costs of various repair scenarios
associated with increasing deflection values.
It is not anticipated that analyses of the type outlined
previously would be employed in routine building design.
The methodology, however, may provide a basis for more
generalized code deflection control criteria in the future.
In the present study, the long-time deflection was selected
as the basis for analysis. The procedure can be extended to
consider other deflection criteria including deflections occurring
at any time between initial construction and long-time in-service
use. The methodology can be extended to other structural
systems such as two-way slabs and prestressed members.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported in part by the Brain Korea 21 (BK21), Level II.
The support is gratefully acknowledged.

NOTATION
A
As
b
COV
Dn
dsb
dst
Ec
Es
f c
fr

(sh)u
u
, f
, D

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

influence area
area of reinforcement
width of beam
coefficient of variation
nominal dead load
distance from top fiber to centroid of bottom steel
distance from top fiber to centroid of top steel
concrete modulus of elasticity
steel modulus of elasticity
concrete compressive strength
modulus of rupture
tension stiffening parameter
ultimate shrinkage strain
ultimate creep coefficient
constants of shrinkage equation
constants of creep equation
constant of sustained live load
parameter for extraordinary live load
mean
standard deviation

Subscripts:
E
= extraordinary live load
lsus = sustained live load
Q
= weight of single concentrated load in cell uniformly divided
from influence area
R
= number of loads per cell

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