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The Quantum Theory and Reality PDF
The Quantum Theory and Reality PDF
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CORRELATIONS BETWEEN DISTANT EVENTS can form the hasis of conclusions about
the structure of the world. Suppose a physicist sets up an experiment in which subatomic par
ticles such as protons are fired one at a time into an instrument that can give only two possible
readings, plus and minus
(a).
He finds that for some protons the reading is plus and for others
it is minus, but he cannot tell whether the instrument measures some real property of the pro
tons or merely records random fluctuations. The physicist then arranges two identical instru
ments with a source that emits two protons simultaneously
(b).
correlation: whenever one instrument reads plus, the other reads minus. On the basis of this cor
relation the physicist concludes that a real property of protons is responsible for the readings
and that its value
is
determined before the protons leave the source. If the sample of particles
measured meets certain statistical tests, he can go on to infer that every pair of protons emitted
by the source consists of one proton with the property plus and one with the property minus,
even if neither proton is submitted to a measurement (c). The conclusions are reasonable if
three premises are accepted as valid: that at least some properties of the world have an existence
independent of human observers, that inductive inference can be applied freely and that a mea
surement made with one instrument cannot influence the result of a measurement made with
the other instrument. A more restrictive form of the last premise forbids such influences only
faster than light. The premises can be identified as realism, the free use of induction and sep
arability; the more restrictive version of the separability premise is called Einstain separabil
ity or Einstein locality. Any theory that incorporates them is called a local realistic theory.
158
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
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159
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
REALISM
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LOCAL REALISTIC
THEORIES
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QUANTUM MECHANICS
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BELL INEQUALITY
IS VALID
BELL INEQUALITY
IS SOMETIMES INVALID
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EXPERIMENTAL
TEST
RESULT
LOCAL REALISTIC THEORIES and quantum mechanics make conflicting predictions for
certain experiments in which distant events are correlated. In particular, local realistic theories
predict that a relation called the Bell inequality will be obeyed, whereas quantum mechanics
predicts a violation of the inequality. There is strong experimental evidence that the inequality
is violated in the
to be untenable,
160
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
:>
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23,
or
8,
+ N(A+B-C-),
from
if all signs
+ N(B+C-).
N(A-C+)
The last two inequalities can be added to yield a relation among all
individual particles for which two properties have opposite values.
162
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
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163
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
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165
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
PAI RS OF N EGATIVELY
CORRELATED
PARTICLES
DEDUC E D
PROPERTIES
N UMBER OF
TEST RES ULTS
N UMBER OF PARTICLES
WITH
DEDUCED PROPERTIES
N(A+B-)
N(A-C+)
THEREFORE
N(B+C-)
N(B-C+)
INE QUALITY
DEMONSTRATE D
PREVIO USLY
is
property. The pairs are created in sucb a way that there is always a strict negative correlation
for any property considered separately, that is, if one particle in a pair has the property
the otber must bave tbe property
found to be
A +,
A + and the otber is found to be B+, it is possible to deduce both properties of both
particles. The doubly positive test result can arise only if one particle has the two properties
proportionality depends only on tbe number of pairs submitted to eacb set of tests and on the
total number of pairs, and so tbe constant is the same in all three cases. It follows that the tbree
ratios of the number of doubly positive test results to tbe number of individual particles tbat
can give rise to tbose results must also be equal. A relation has already been dem onstrated
between tbe numbers of individual particles with tbe indicated properties; it is tbe inequali
ty proved in the illustration on page
162.
lar inequality between tbe numbers of doubly positive test results. This is the Bell inequality.
Tbe proof is valid only if tbe tbree premises of local realistic theories are assumed to be valid.
166
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
AXIS OF MEASURED
SPIN COMPONENT
AXIS OF MEASURED
SPIN COMPONENT
,'-----<..
ANALYZER
ANALYZER
DETECTOR
suitable pair of protons bad been emitted. Each proton would then
suring tbe components of tbe spin of protons or otber elem entary par
depending on tbe value of its spin component along tbe axis defined
ton's intrinsic angular mom entum; eacb component can bave only
two possible values, wbicb can be designated plus and minus. Tbe
by tbe analyzer. If tbe analyzers were set to measure the spin compo
would tben be broken up, and the protons would fly apart in opposite
167
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
Medicine.
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rived above :
Establishing
A Vineyard
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added
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recently
surface by
ours
Sam]. Sebastiani
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V I N EYAR D S
EST. 1825
P.O.
171
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
EXPERIMENT
DATE
PARTICLES STUDIED
RESULTS
In agreement with
quantum mechanics.
In agreement with
Bell inequality.
In agreement with
quantum mechanics.
In agreement with
quantum mechanics.
In agreement with
Bell inequality.
In agreement with
quantum mechanics.
In agreement with
quantum mechanics.
1 972
R. A. Holt and F. M. Pipkin,
Harvard University
1 973
John F. Clauser,
University of California at Berkeley
1 976
Edward S. Fry and Randall C . Thompson,
Texas A. & M. University
1 976
1 974
l.
1 975
1 976
REAL TESTS OF THE BELL INEQUALITY have been carried out by seven groups of in
vestigators. Only one of the experiments measured the spin components of protons; the others
studied the polarization of photons, or quanta of electromagnetic radiation. In four experi
ments pairs of low-energy photons with opposite polarization were emitted by atoms that had
been raised to an excited state. Pairs of oppositely polarized gamma rays, or high-energy pho
tons, were created in two other experiments by the mutual annihilation of electrons and their
antiparticles, positrons. In the remaining experiment protons from a particle accelerator struck
a target made up partly of hydrogen; the accelerated protons and the hydrogen nuclei formed
pairs in the singlet state. Five of th e experiments gave results in violation of the B ell inequality
and in agreement with quantum m echanics. That the Bell inequality is violated is now generally
accepted. The cause of the discrepancy in the results of the otber two experiments is uncertain.
172
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
BEAM OF ATOMS
DETECTOR
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DETECTOR
LENS
POLARIZATION FILTER
LENS
POLARIZATION FILTER
LENS
DETECTOR
ELECTRONS
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POLARIZATION ANALYZER
./
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POLARIZATION ANALYZER
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POSITRONS
DETECTOR
PROTON
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PROTON ACCELE RATOR
DETECTORS
173
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
- .25
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QUANTUM MECHANICS
- . 75
-1
15
30
45
60
90
75
-1
would indi
cate that the com ponents invariably had opposite values. The Bell inequality states that the cor
relation at any angle must be on or above the colored line. The observed correlations at
and
60
30, 45
degrees are below the line. The results not only violate the Bell inequality but also are in
good agreement with the predictions of quantum m echanics, which fact adds to their credibili
ty. The violation of the Bell inequality implies that at least one of the three premises of local
realistic theories must be false; Einstein separability is considered the most plausible candidate.
174
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
.
how Mye rs's i m proves on col a . sod a . ton i c . frui t j u i c e .
Fre e Rec i pe Book : Myers's R u m , P. O . Box 1 622. FDR Station , New Yor k . N . Y. 1 0022. Offe r e x p i res Dece m ber 3 1 . 1 980.
CTORS
/B
\\
UJ
cG
ii
I
POLARIZATION ANALYZERS
POLARIZATION ANALYZERS
I
I
<
SO URCE OF
LOW-E N E RGY PHOTONS
not pass from one detector to the other in time to influence the result
optical switch will determine which analyzer the photon enters only
when it is too late for the decision to influence the other measurement
(assuming that the hypothetical influence propagates no faster than
if
met. Two sets of analyzers and detectors will be provided for each
1 77
1979 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
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