ROYAL AIRCRAFT ESTABLISHMENT Technical Memorandum Space 347 Received for printing 26 November 1984 A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE POWER-SPECTRAL-DENSITY AND STATISTICAL- DISCRETE GUST METHODS OF AIRCRAFT RESPONSE ANALYSIS by - J. G. Jones ‘SUMMARY The power-spectral-density and statistical-discrete-gust methods have inthe past been contrasted as alternative approaches to the analysis and prediction of aircraft response to atmospheric gusts and turbulence. Recent work has clarified the relationship between the methods and provided a common framework, in the form of a statistical pattern theory, whereby a unified approach may be adopted. © copyright QinetiQ Ltd 1984LIST OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 2 GENERAL APPROACH 3 BRIEF OUTLINE OF APPLICATION OF SDG METHOD TO DESIGN LOADS 4 RE-FORMULATION OF PSD METHOD 5 OVERLAP BETWEEN SDG AND PSD METHODS 6 DIVERGENCES BETWEEN SDG AND PSD MODELS 7 AREAS IN WHICH PSD TECHNIQUES OFFER ADVANTAGES 7.1 Spanwise gradients 7.2 Errors due to SDG approximations 8 RELATED WORK BASED ON SDG METHOD References Tllustrations Report documentation page 10 12 12 13 14 16 Figure | inside back cover1 ENTROpUGTION Etkin!' has reviewed alternative theoretical descriptions of the turbulent wind developed for the prediction of the response of aircraft. He makes the point that our models of the wind have to accommodate chose events that are perceived as discrete, and usually described as gusts, as well as the phenomenon described as continuous turbulence, “even though some ‘discrete’ gusts are actually rare extreme excursions of a continuous process". Etkin goes on to outline current models for discrete gusts and random turbulenc: Discrete events he describe isolated encounters with steep gradients in the speed of the air, typically occurring at the edges of thermals and downdraft, in wakes of moun- tains etc, or at temperature inversions, They may also appear as rare extremes of turbu~ lence in clouds, storms, etc, possibly associated with organised structures embedded in organised: extremes are not adequately allowed for in the usual Gaussian models of continuous random turbulence!. the otherwisé chaotic background. The: Discrete gust models, as embodied in aircraft design procedures and requirements, have traditionally been defined by a specified profile, usually of (i-cosine) form (either a complete or half cycle), with amplitude (change in gust velocity) w, and 'gradi~ ent distance' d, United States Federal Air Regulations fix the gradient distance as 24 = 25% and specify values of w, corresponding to prescribed points of the flight envelope. British regulations, on the other hand, require that the distance d be varied to find peak response, More recently, the 'statistical-discrete-gust (SDG) model" has been proposed 7~®>!9, in which che variation of w, with € 5 s related explicitly to probability and a pro- cedure for evaluating the associated aircraft response, based on a worst-case analysis to find the associated tuned gust or gust pattern, is described which enables aircraft response to be derived in statistical terms. The statistical nature of turbulence has, however, more usually been treated by means of 'pover-spectral-density (PSD) methods', based on the theory of stationary random processes, Particular use is made of the formula, due originally to Rice’, for threshold exceedence rates, applicable when the aircraft response is evaluated for the case of a Gaussian-process input. Such methods are traditionally employed to meet current air- worthiness requirements for aircraft flight in ‘continuous turbulence’, although it is generally accepted! that, even in continuous turbulence, the more extreme fluctuations are not adequately represented by Gaussian models The roles of statistical-discrete-gust (SDG) and pover-spectral-density (PSD) models have been discussed by Hitch’? in the context of the design of gust-load allevi. tion systems using active controls. Hitch makes the point that the advent of active control systems, and gust load alleviation in particular, has emphasised the need for the gust and turbulence models employed in aircraft ai real atmosphere. To quote Ref 10, "The point is that any gust load alleviation system gn to match the properties of the mist alleviate appropriately real gust/turbulence and not just the idealised gust/turbu- lence of current regulations, which admittedly have produced satisfactory strengths ofcivil aircraft over the past 30 years and mori Hitch refers to the isolated gust (IG) concept as embodied in current requirements and raises the question as to whether the SDG model could act in a unifying role to meet the divisions of opinion that exist on the relative merits of the IG and PSD approaches. Again quoting Ref 10, "The IG description seems to represent rather better, goes the argument, the conditions of the extreme event which is presumed part of some special deterministic process such as a convective storm, The PSD description seems to rep- extreme events are embedded rather for example SDG - would resolve resent rather better the conditions in which the A unifying theory ~ than the events themselves such matters". A related conclusion was reached by Noback'! in a recent review and comparison of discrete and continuous gust methods for the determination of aircraft design load: “The discussion on the relative merits of the discrete gust method and the PSD method should in the first place be devoted to the relation between gust velocity and gust length. Agreement on this property of atmospheric turbulence should then result in either adopting a discrete gust method in which this relation is incorporated, for example the SDG method as developed by Jon ing the PSD method as being decisive for the determination of design loads" » or in rai Recent work! 2-16 bas clarified the relationship between the SDG and PSD methods and the conclusions are sumarised in this Memorandum. The principal step has been to show that the PSD method may be reformlated, and hence implemented, as a variational problem in which the aircraft response is evaluated on the basis of a worst-case analy- sis to find the associated tuned input pattern, exactly as in the SDG approach. Starting from this alternative variational formation of the PSD method, it is pos~ sible to expose the precise relationships between the SDG and PSD methods, relating each to a common approach in the form of a statistical pattern theory and thus pointing the way to a possible unified gust specification for the futur: 2 GENERAL APPROACH In section 3 we summarise briefly the standard formlation of the SDG method, as applied to design loads in design-envelope form. Mission-analy: derived, but are omitted from this summary. criteria may also be In section 4 we outline a recently developed!?"!> y, which makes possible a direct comparison with SDG. The analysis in section 4 is exact and in effect provides an alternative implementation of PSD. formulation of the PSD method Combining the results of sections 3 and 4 we arrive at a possible unified approach in which the SDG and PSD models give identical results for flight through so-called con- tinuous turbulence (as defined in the Regulations) but the SDG model provides an indepen- dent treatment of isolated gusts. In section $ ve summarise the common ground, in which the SDG method in effect provides an alternative, approximate, implementation of PSD. The nature of the approxi- mations are discussed.In section 6, divergences between the two methods are discussed. This covers not only the case of isolated gusts, as described in section 3, but includes the possible 1/6 1/3 use of an H!/® aw instead of H'/? , and the introduction of a family of vortex profiles. In section 7, we review cases in which either the SDG model is not applicable in its present form (eg effects of spanvise variations) or the standard implementation of PSD is preferable for other reasons. The contents of sections 5 to 7 are sumarised in diagram form in Fig 1. 3 BRIEF OUTLINE OF APPLICATION OF SDG METHOD TO DESIGN LOADS The following summary follows closely Ref 7. In its standard form, the statistical discrete-gust model of turbulence comprises gust patterns which employ the discrete ramp gust as a basic element or building brick. A statistical family of discrete ramp gusts is defined for valu HSL, where L is the scale length, such that ‘equi~probable’ gusts satisfy the relationship w~a'/3, the (1/3) exponent is related to the (-5/3) exponent in the of gradient distance "inertial subrange' form of the Von Karman power spectrum, ed ways in which the SDG model could be used as the basis of ion-Analysis' criteria for limit loads. However, In Ref 3, we sugg either 'Design-Envelope' or 'Mi: British industry has expressed doubts about the use of the Mission-Analysis concept (irrespective of the form of the particular turbulence model) and thus attention has subsequently been concentrated primarily on the development of the SDG model for use in Design-Envelope studies. A Design-Envelope procedure may be formulated? in terms of a family of discrete ramp gusts satisfying wos Uj, H, p, and Pyin equation (3), The appropriate choice of theparameters Uj and p, for use in Design~ Envelope load requirements is discussed below. A principal objective of the SDG theory is to cover, in a single unified approach, the cases of encounters with relatively isolated severe to extreme gusts and flight in more extensive patches of continuous turbulence of generally less intensity. For flight in continuous turbulence the proposed” family of design gust patterns includes combinations of up to eight ramp components and the recomended design amplitude of response is given by a particular case of equation (3): (0) <7, 0.81(Ug),7 (limit load), = max - (3) 0.570), 0.40(U,) Fg where (Uo), defines the desiga-gust amplitudes for continuous turbulence and the p; factors are taken from equations (4). For relatively~isolated gust encounters the proposed family of design-gust patterns includes only isolated gusts and gust pairs and the proposed design amplitude of response is given by a particular case of equation (3): Gini toad), + ae) | ae © +80(09) 79 where p) has been taken equal to 0.80 and p, and pg have been equated to cero. MU) 5 defines the de: (Ug); > Wo), » Since the method is based on the practical observation that the more gn-gust amplitudes for relatively isolated gust encounters where severe to extreme gusts occur in relatively isolated form, The particular numerical choice made for the p, factors is subject to review on the basis of planned future data analysis. Combining equations (5) and (6) we obtain the overall limit-load formula proposed for use in a Design-Envelope method based on the SDG model: (limit load), Limit load = max (limit load), Anticipating that the specified values of (U,); and (Up), will satisfy 0,80(U,), >0.81(Up), we thus have (0) 57, 0,80(U,) .¥, limit load = max ai ” 0457(U) 6% 0.40(Uy) .%, - ‘The specification of the d ign-gust amplitudes (Uy), and (Up), for use in equation (7) requires the incorporation of measured data. This is a topic that requires furtherwork and discussion along the lines that led to the specification of De: values in the FAA PSD method. However, we show in Ref 7 that an initial short-cut to the gn-Envelope U, specification of (Up); and (Up), may be based on a comparison with the limit loads as given by the existing BCAR discrete-gust and FAA requirements, 4 RESFORMULATION OF PSD METHOD 12-15 In a recent series of menoranda'?~'>, we have shown how standard power-spectral procedures to quantify the stochastic response of linear systems may be implemented by ional technique: the 'method of equivalent deterministic variables’. ‘The method provide standard frequency-plane expression for the variance of linear-system response, viz: an alternative to the evaluation of the integral arising in the yt | lao) [Pocwrau 8) ° where $(w) is the PSD of the input. Instead of equation (8), the (exact) variational method is based on the equation 2 2 ost > 9) where |y|,, is the maximum amplitude of response, or ‘worst-case response, to a class of deter- ministic inputs x(t) subject to the constraint [xciu) |? sf eGR wed, (10) O X(iw) being the Fourier transform of x(t) . In addition, for single-input, mlti-output systems, the method may also be used to derive the correlation coefficient py 4, between two variabl to the same stationary stochastic input. ¥, and y) teeponding For example, when the input power spectrum takes the (Dryden) form (with T being the t-plane equivalent of scale Length) 22n ot ou) = oF Fi, ay "1+ (tw) the constraint equation (10) may be expressed in the form . «q2) where Uy is a 'spectral energy function’: ° con »-# [Facies 7 ja2 «]. a In Ref 13 a disorete-element technique is described for implementing numerically the above variational formulation. The input profiles used in this analysis are already familiar from existing discrete-gust methods. Using this numerical technique, con- straints, equivalent to equations (12) and (13), corresponding to the Von Karman spectrummay also be derived and we thus arrive at the overlap of SDG and PSD methods described in section 5. 5 OVERLAP BETWEEN SDG AND PSD METHODS In Ref 13 we describe a numerical implementation of the variational method outlined in section 4, Using input profiles, that we refer to as déscrete-elementa, of 'I-cosine’ form, the maximisation process required by equation (9) is cast in the form of a search for a worst-case discrete input exactly analogous to the procedure arising in the SDG method, Note, however, that the discretization is now entirely a numerical process (com pare the use of finite elements in structural analysis) and has nothing to do with the question as to whether turbulence is in reality continuous or discrete. Application of the discrete~element technique when the power spectrum of the input 8 2 1 +G)c.s30n0 22 3 +) = omer . (a) ™ {1 + (1.339 Tm) ae associated with the lateral and vertical components of turbulence, has been described in has the Von Karman form Ref 13. Only the asymptotic regions (constant spectral density for small w and a region proportional to u-/? for large u) have been considered in detail. In the o3 region, the constraint equation (10) may be satisfied to a good approximation by using ramp-gust profiles for which the amplitude x, is related to duration ¢ by the equation 8 1/2 x, 5 V3 2 = 0.933 \——255 | §) , as) J ma(1.339) (3) where a is the number of (non-overlapping) elements used to represent the input pattern. From the t!/3 factor in equation (15) it may be seen that the H!/? in the SDG method (s method (section 4). law arising ‘equation (1)) also arises naturally from the reformlated PSD In Ref 13 (Appendix A) we discuss the matching of SDG and PSD methods so that the former is essentially simply an approximate numerical implementation of the latter. In particular, adjustments of numerical factors are proposed to remove trends in the errors introduced by the numerical approximations. The conclusion is dravn in Ref 13 that, if we apply the SDG method using the p; factors of equation (4), which include the numerical adjustments referred to in the pre~ vious paragraph, then the SDG worst-case response ¥ , where x 0.81 Fem}? a) 0.57%, 0.40%, (compare equation (3)), is related to the PSD dynamic response A , where10 6, Re oe + an (gust) by the equation Y= 1048 , (1a) (using standard units of feet, seconds and L = 2500 ft). To conclude this section, we add some remarks concerning the relationship between discrete-elements, as we have defined them, and the time history of the stochastic input to the system, Firstly, we note that nowhere in the above review have these determinis- tic profiles been related directly to the stochastic input; they have been introduced simply as basis functions for the numerical solution of a variational problem which has been shown to provide a means of calculating 0,” , the variance of linear-systen response (equation (9)), However, one is led to suspect that they mist have some more direct relationship to the time history of the stochastic input. In the particular case of Gaussian random inputs, a clue to such a relationship was offered in Appendix B to Ref 12 where it w linear system to the worst-case input (subject to the constraint of equation (10)), is shown that the deterministic response of a identical to the conditional mean time history associated with an arbitrary prescribed Since the response is also Gaussian, it may be anticipated is also the most probable time history associated with value of stochastic respon: that the conditional mean respon: that prescribed valu: However, the concept of 'most probable time history’ requires that a probability distribution be defined on the sample time histories of the random process under con sideration. In Ref 14 we go on to review the manner in which relative probabilities of sample time histories from a Gaussian random process may be quantified and related to the power spectrum of the process, On this basis we show that the discrete-element method outlined “above provides an explicit representation of the most probable input subject to the occurrence of an arbitrary prescribed value of stochastic response, A practical application of this result is described in Ref 17, where, as a basis for relating struc~ tural design-Load conditions to a PSD analysis, a particular set of elementary load pat~ terns and an associated matching proc are proposed. Each elementary load pattern represents forces in equilibrium at a particular instant in the response to an elementary ramp gust. In the matching process the elementary load patterns are combined to forma representation of the load distribution which, according to the statistical analysis, is most probable under the condition that 4 specified load or stress is equal to its design value 6 -DIVERGENCES BETWEEN SDG AND PSD MODELS In its standard implementation, as described in section 3, the SDG model contains factors p;, , equation (3), which account for the reduced amplitude of the higher-order patterns of increased complexity such that all patterns correspond to a constant level of probability.u As explained in sections 4 and 5, it has recently been shown that by choosing the 1/3 particular set of factors given by equation (4), together with the u'/> 1aw, equation (1), the DG method may be viewed as an alternative approximate implementation of the PSD model. It follow of course, that by making alternative choices for the p, factors, or by varying from the x!/3 models will occur, law, divergences between the conclusions drawn from the two Put simply, we may choose the parameters in the SDG method by matching to the PSD model or, alternatively, by matching directly to the real atmosphere when this is more s important that techniques for matching the SDG model 6,30 appropriate. In this context it to measured gust and turbulence records do exist and have been used extensively’ In section 3 we have already described, equation (6), a preliminary proposal’ for Pj values to represent severe to extreme isolated gusts. Clearly a requirement based on the inclusion of such a model for isolated gusts, as in the combined gust specification of equation (7), would diverge from a requirement based on the PSD model. A further possible divergence has been described in Refs 8 and 18. The introduc~ tion of this perhaps speculative proposal at the current stage of debate may appear to be rather premature, but in the author's view it should be taken into account if only to ensure that all the relevant information is extracted in the future from measured data. It is now widely accepted that the influence of a discrete atmospheric gust on the response of an aircraft is dependent on two primary parameters, the maximum change in gust velocity w and the gradient distance H. An important feature of the statistical description of discrete gusts is thus the manner in which w varies with H. Dimensional analysis suggests a scaling law of the form yva!/? and such a law is broadly supported by analysis of experimental data, It is also implicit in the PSD model (equation (15)) as well as being basic to the standard SDG method (equation (1)). Recent work on the fluid mechanics of turbulence has, however, refined the dimen- sional approach by taking into account the phenomenon of intermittency, This has led to a suggested revision®*!® o¢ che scaling law relating wv and H. On this basis a smaller exponent than one-third would be called for, the revised law being typically waal/® | such a modification can easily be incorporated into the SDG (but not the PSD) model, The underlying physical arguments are based on the concept of ‘fractal dimension’ due to B.B Mandelbrot®!, In particular, Mandelbrot has introduced revised scaling laws based on the fractal dimension D where, for the ‘support’ of turbulence, 2SD<3, The case D=3 in fact corresponds to the standard turbulence model and leads to the law w~al/3, However, theoretical vork reviewed in Refs 8 and 18 suggests that a value closer to D = 2.5 is more consistent with current understanding of the physics of tur~ bulence. In particular, the choice D= 2.5 leads to the scaling law w~u)/®, As pointed out in Ref 8, the H!/® tay lies between che H!/? aw and the Law w~u® = constant, in the current BCAR (UK civil) load requirements. Perhaps this indi- cates the way to a future compromise between the BCAR requirements and the PSD approach.12 Recent unpublished work at RAE Bedford, involving the analysis of extensive data obtained from flights by a Gnat aircraft, has included a comparison of the #!/3 and ul/® scaling laws (together with intermediate values). At this stage ve simply note the Ma) and wl/6 scaling can have ty relevant to broad conclusion that, whilst the distinction between H quite significant effects on gust amplitudes at the levels of inten: Limit loads, at the levels of intensity typical of measured turbulence records the data do not point unequivocally to a single optim choice for k , in the law w~He . Finally, we note a suggestion originally made in Ref 4 concerning the nature of large gust disturbances, Whilst analysis of real turbulence samples has indicated that the SDG model is compatible with much of the atmospheric turbulence encountered, extremely large wind changes of order 100 ft/s (30.48 m/s) are sometimes found over relatively short distances, of order 150 ft (45.72 m) or less (substantially less than the scale Jength of the surrounding turbulence). These velocity increments suggest the possibility of a class of relatively rare phenomena of independent significance. whilst the majority of outstanding wind velocity increments encountered in the atmosphere may be associated with sections of shears that are adequately modelled by the standard ramp-gust profile, inter gradients have been observed in the vicinity of storm tops that have been con~ vincingly interpreted as encounters with vortex cores’*, In Ref 4 we thus make the explicit suggestion that, to complete the picture, we should include in our discrete gust model, at a level corresponding to low probability but relatively high intensity, a ‘discrete gust’ profile to represent velocity fluctuations associated with sections of vortex cores. on this basis, a possible overall discrete-gust model of the atmosphere is outlined in Ref 4 which is based on the standard SDC approach but which includes a sum of terms each corresponding to a particular class of atmospheric disturbances. In effect equation (7) is already a two-term model vith separate account taken of continuous turbulence and relatively isolated gust encounters. The inclusion of a separate family of profiles to represent sections of vortex cores would be a further step in this direction, A parti~ cular advantage of the approach is that effects of aircraft operating procedures, and ia particular storm-avoidance procedures, would be more easily taken into account in the a 7 AREAS IN WHICH PSD TECHNIQUES OFFER ADVANTAGES To redress the balance, somewhat, in this which PSD techniques, in their standard implementation, offer advanta; 7.1 Spanwise gradients The SDG model, in its standard form, is applicable to inputs in the form of func~ ign criteria, ‘The reader is referred to Ref 4 for details of this proposal. ction we refer to two specific areas in tions only of a single variable, Whilst this is true also of the usual formlation for to cover the PSD techniques, the PSD model has been developed to a significant degri case of twondimensional inputs, including the problem of spanwise-gradient effects. For example, Etkin in Ref 1 discusses the extension of power-spectral theory to the two~ dimensional case.13 It should be noted, hovever, that one particular possible extension of SDG theory to cover spanvise~gradient effects has been studied”°, In an extended model the inputs are taken to be swept ramp gusts, of standard profile, having arbitrary orientation in a plane. Assuming a random distribution of orientations it may be shown that both the standard one-dimensional theory for normal acceleration (and associated loads) and effects on aircraft rolling response may be derived from a single model. The standard SDG phenomenon of ‘tuning to a worst case’ occurs, the normal acceleration and associ- ated ‘symmetric! loads tuning to gusts at right angles to the flight path and rolling response and associated loads tuning to oblique gusts whose orientation depend on the particular aircraft characteristics. Further work is required to confirm (or otherwise) the viability of this model which is based on the hypothesis that the significant spanwige-gradients arise from oblique entry into one-dimensional gust fronts. 7.2 Errors due to SD¢ approximations An important assumption in the standard SDG model is that, in the case of a discrete gust pattern comprising more than one component, the individual component gusts have relative amplitudes such that, individually, they would occur with equal probability. Elsewhere we show that this assumption corresponds to an 'equipartition’ of the overall energy of the pattern amongst its components. When matching the SDG model to measured data, or when applied to non-Gaussian pro~ cesses, this hypothesis is central to the viability of the method. However, when the SDG method is applied to give a numerical implementation of the PSD model, as outlined in section 5, the equipartition hypothesis introduces numerical errors that would not be present in a standard PSD implementation based on equation (8), The nature of the addi~ tional errors may be appreciated as follows. Tt is a well-known and inevitable consequence of introducing additional constraints into a maximisation problem that the maximum values resulting from the numerical solu- tions are reduced. In the present case the additional constraint of equipartition influences the magnitude of the worst-case response |y|,, to be substituted into equation (9). Provided, however, that there is a regular trend in the form of a consistent under— estimation of the worst-case response, the results may be significantly improved by a imple adjustment of numerical factors which removes the trend. The accuracy of the method then depends on the remaining residual errors. In Ref 13 this problem is studied and conclusions drawn as follows. Firstly, it must be appreciated that the variational, or worst-case, implementation of the PSD method described in section 4 and based on equation (9) is an exact equivalent of the standard implementation, equation (8). The approximations under discussion involve the application of the constraint, equation (10), not to an arbitrary function x(t) but to a function represented numerically as a pattern of discrete elements, as used in the SDC model, including the scaling of relative amplitudes to satisfy equipartition.The conclusion i: drawn in Ref 13 that the use of patterns of discrete elements rather than arbitrary functions itself results in an average reduction in worst-case response of approximately 81%. Secondly, for patterns comprising two or more elenents, the additional constraint of equipartition introduces a further reduction in worst-case response of approximately 12%. Compensation factors to offset these trends are described in Ref 13, residual errors being (provisionally) estimated as typically less than 5%, within the accuracy normally achievable by numerical simulation studies. Despite the introduction of compensation factors, there will however be situations in which the uncertainty of the residual errors arising from a discrete-element implemen— tation of the PSD method is unacceptabli At least until further detailed comparisons of the alternative PSD implementations have been made in the context of practical applica~ tions, the need for standard PSD calculations will remain. Furthermore, the direct PSD calculation based on equation (8) will in general be quicker and more efficient. We have introduced the alternative approach, based on equation (9), not as a proposed replacement but to provide supplementary information. Firstly, a bridge is provided between the SDG and PSD methods such that a uniform treat- ment, based on equation (7), of continuous turbulence and isolated gusts is now possible. Secondly, the 'SDG’ or 'discrete-element' implementation may be used, as described in section 5, as the basis for a new method!’ for developing structural design-load condi- tions in relation to a PSD requirement. 8 RELATED WORK BASED ON SDG METHOD The present Memorandum has been concerned primarily with the problem of aircraft desi gn loads. In particular we have shown how the power-spectral-density and statistical-discrete-gust methods may be related to a common framework. The way has thus been pointed to a possible unified gust specification for the future. To complete the picture, in this section we refer to areas other than design loads to which the SDC method has been applied in recent years. In Ref 21 the method is applied to the synthes lation of turbulence and wind-shear time histories. A generalised shot-effect represen- tation of turbulence, incorporating both standard power spectra and the statistics of the SDG model, is outlined and the application to digital synthesis for ground-based of random signals for the sim~ piloted similators is reviewed. This technique is currently in use as a standard tool both at RAE (Bedford)?? and, in modified form, at NLR, The Netherlands”*, A second application is to the analysis of wind~shear, As described in Ref 24, RAE, with support from the United Kingdom CAA and British Airvays, have analysed wind- shear data from over 9000 landings by 26 BA B747 aircraft at 71 airports around the world during 1981 and 1982, The daca are analysed using the SDG model, using both indi- vidual ramp-gust components and ramp patterns. Suggestions are made for design cases of shear that could be used for testing autopilots and wind-shear measuring systems, Related work on the application of the SDG model to the certification of automatic land- ing systems has been described in Ref 25.Finally, the SDG model has been applied to control-system design, particularly in the context of non-linear systens”©?5, rr is in the area of non-linear system response that the time-plane approach using deterministic inputs, as employed in the SDG method, shows to greatest advantage’, on the basis of the unified PSD and SDG turbulence model, outlined in this Memorandum, the response of both linear and non-linear control systems, such as gust-load alleviation systems, may now be assessed in a consistent manner that is compatible with existing statutory requirements.16 No. 10 Author B. Etkin J.G, Jones J.G. Jones J.G. Jones J.G. Jones J.G. Jones Ann Haynes J.G. Jones J.G. Jones 8.0, Rice HAP.Y, Hitch R. Noback J.G. Jone REFERENCES le, ete Turbulent wind and its effect on flight. J. Atveraft, 18, No.5, 327-345 (1981). ‘A theory for extreme gust loads on an aircraft. RAE Technical Report 68030 (1968). Statistical discrete gust theory for aircraft load RAE Technical Report 73167 (1973). Modelling of gusts and wind shear for aircraft assessment and certification, Proc. Indian Acad. Set., (Enng Sct), 3, Pt 1, 1-30 (1980). Response of linear and non-linear systems to an atmospheric turbulence model. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 429 (1981). A peakspotter program applied to the analysis of increments im turbulence velocity, RAE Technical Report 84071 (1984). On the formulation of gust load requirements in terms of the statistical discrete-gust method. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 208 (1978), A reappraisal of the statistical characteristics of extreme atmospheric gusts. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 269 (1979). Mathematical analysis of random noise. (from Bell System Tech Journal, 23 and 24) Selected papers on noise and stochastic proces: Ed N. Wax, Dover (1954). Active controls for civil aircraft. Aeronautical Journal, pp 389-398, October 1979. Review and comparison of discrete and continuous gust methods. National Aerospace Lab NLR, The Netherlands, MLR TR 82134 U (1982). ‘Also ICAS paper ICAS-84-4.3.2 (Toulouse, September 1984), On the implementation of power - spectral procedures by the method of equivalent deterministic variables. Part 1, Analytical background. RAE Technical Memorandum FS(F)485 (1982).No. 13 15 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 IG. Author Jones Jones Jones Jones Jones Jones Jones R, Bradley IG. BN, ea. AA. IF. KW. Jones ‘Tomlinson Jansen Woodfield Woods Rosenberg, REFERENCES (continued) Title, ete On the implementation of power - spectral procedures by the wethod of equivalent deterministic variables. Part 2, Discrete-element technique. RAE Technical Memorandum Space 335 (1984). As above. Part 3, Gaussian functionals and threshold exceedance rates. RAE Technical Memorandum Space 346 (1984). Response of linear systems to Gaussian process inputs in terms of probability functionals. RAE Technical Report (in preparation). Processing of fractal functions by linear and nonlinear operators. RAE Technical Report (in preparation). On the development of structural design - load conditions from statistical analyses of aircraft response to turbulence. RAE Technical Memorandum FS(F)504 (1983). On self-similarity, fractal dimension and aircraft response to gusts. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 244 (1979). Summary notes on statistical discrete gust method. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 323 (1980). Modelling response to oblique gust. Newcastle-upon~Tyne Polytechnic, unpublished memorandum (1981). Random signal synthesis to similate turbulence and wind-shear time histories. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 311 (1980). Developments in the AGARD CP 198 (1975). imilation of atmospheric turbulence. A digital turbulence model for the NLR moving-base flight simulator. NLR Memos VS-77-024 U and VS-77-025 U (1977). Worldwide experience of wind-she: AGARD CP 347 (1983). during 1981-1982. Hybrid computer investigation of discrete gust and wind-shear effects on automatic landing system performance. AGARD CP 260 (1979).No 26 27 28 29 31 32 Author Je8. Winter Lesley M. Murphy LW. DE. AG. Gwe BB. Raynes Fry Purcell Foster Mandelbrot Burns REFERENCES (concluded) Title, ete A non-linear control law for a ride~control system. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 238 (1979), Description of a non-linear flight control system. RAE Technical Memorandum FS 414 (1981). Gust load alleviation on a flexible aircraft. RAE Technical Report 82063 (1982). ‘The response of aircraft to discrete ramp gusts: RAE Technical Report 77165 (1977). Examples of low altitude atmospheric turbulence measurements by Gnat xP505. RAE Technical Report 83026 (1983). The fractal geometry of nature. WH, Freeman and Co., 1982, On the nature of large clear air gusts near storm tops. RAE Technical Report 72036 (1972).Fig] Spoyzau gsd Pue NUS UsBMRaq SdiysuoLze{a1 Jo UOLSsnostG yore sow Cypouypseayy Gee quouaydon peepurys) asd JO wigp yrs? wi ryreidde qou 5s L woryaeg TSg M$ 2793 WH 837152) rnb op weseyr PPow bqs fo sysywosey — g wo3226 sd J? vor ypquawajdu peryawrru sapiaoid yepow GS ¢ u 1 6a