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    Klotz and Coop (2001)

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    | | | | | Klotz, E. U. & Coop, M. R. 2001). Géotechnique 51, No. 9, 733-751 An investigation of the effect of soil state on the capacity of driven piles in sands E, U, KLOTZ* and M. R, COOPt [A series of model pile tests was carried out in the centrifuge, pushing the pile Into two sands of very different geological ‘origins and particle strengths. This was accompanied by series of triaxial tests allowing the critical state line of each sand to be established so that the initial in situ state of each sample, prior to pile installation, could be quantified. The ‘work demonstrated that the initial state, defined as the ‘combiation of density and stress level relative to the critical state line, isa controlling factor in determining pile capacity, fand hence that design approaches based solely on relative density could not be expected to be widely applicable. It was also found that state had to be defined as a ratio of stresses rather than the more usual state parameter in terms of volume. Attempts to verify the method using existing feld pile test data were hampered by a dearth of laboratory data Une série d’essais fur maquettes de piles a été effectuge en centrifugeuse : une pile a été enfoneée dans deux sables Corigines géologiques et de résistances particulaires.trés différentes. Cette expérience s'est accompagnée dune série Pessais triaxiaux permetiant de détermincr la ligne d'état critique de chaque sable de fagon & quantifier état intial in sinw de chaque éehantillon, avant installation de la pile. Ce travail a montré que I'tat initial, défini comme combinaison des niveaux de densité et de contrainte par rapport & la ligne d'état eritique est un facteur essentiel pour déterminer ln eapacité des ples; on ne peut done s'attendre a ce que les rméthodes de conception basées uniquement sur Ia densité relative sofent universellement applicables. Nous avons égale- iment trouvé que état devait étre déint comme rapport des contraintes plutot que comme paramétre d'état en termes de volume, comme on le fait habituellement. Les tentatives visant & vérifier In méthode au moyen des résultats d’essais sur le terrain ont échoué en raison d'un manque de données de Laboratoire accompagnant les essai in situ. INTRODUCTION ‘The capacity of driven piles in sands was identified by Randolph et al, (1994) as being the ‘area of greatest uncertainty jn foundation design’, Until recently, design methods were almost entirely empirical, end intended for use with quartzite ‘sinds, The failure to understand the underlying mechanisms involved meant that difficulties were inevitably encountered when piles had to be driven into soils of other mineralogies, such a5 the carbonate (or ealeareous) sands at the site of the ‘North Rankin offshore platform (King & Lodge, 1988). As a result carbonate soils have often been thought of as being in some vay special or different, even if Coop & Lee (1993) showed that their basic mechanics were very similar to those of other sands ‘While design methods for offshore tubular driven piles have improved significantly over the past decade (e.g. Jardine & Chow, 1996), these methods generally rely upon high-quality data. from relatively small field model piles conducted at shallow depths because of the impracticality of loading @ full- sized pile to failure. When centrifuge tests have been used 10 investigate deeper piles (eg. Fioravante et al, 1994; de Nicola & Randolph, 1999), the difficulty of instrumenting the very ‘small models has ‘meant that only measurements of shaft friction and end bearing have generally been made. No radial stresses have been measured, hindering 8 complete understand- ing of the mechanisms 'A three-year research project at City University therefore set cout to investigate the behaviour of driven piles in sand by ‘means of centifige model testing. An instrumented model pile wwas developed, which was tested in two sands: a typical “quartile sind” (Leighton Buzzardsand) anda” carbonate” sand Bs ‘Manuscript revived 25 October 2000; revised manuscript accepted 27 Jone 200 Discussion on this paper closes 1 May 2002, for fuer deals see inside back cover Ed Ziblia AG, Germany; forse City Unive ‘Imperial College, London: former City Univesity. London. accurately specific prototype piles, as to. accommodate the instrumentation the model pile was necessarily solid rather than open-ended, and therefore very much more rigid. No attempt was made to investigate stain rate effects, as the delicate instrumentation required the pile to be jacked into the soil instead of being driven. Rather, it was the intention that the ‘work examine the fundamental mechanisms involved. In parti- cular, many design methods quantify the state of the si simply. bby means of relative density, D,, whereas. there is aviealth of research to suggest that the behaviour of a sand depends not ‘only on the density but also on the stress level (eg, Been & Jefferies, 1985; Coop & Lee, 1993). Some form of state Parameter should therefore be used, an approach that has Already been employed, for example, in the analysis of the cone penetrometer test (eg. Konrad, 1998) Dog's Bay and Leighton Buzzard sands were chosen because of the very different nature of their mineralogies and particle strengths, the Dog's Bay sand being much more susceptible to particle breakage. Dog's Bay sand was one of three sands used bby Coop & Lee (1983) and Jovicic & Coop (1997) to establish a general framework For the behaviour of sands. It is formed of shell agments, and is poorly graded with a mean particle size, Dao, of 0-2 mm. For consistency with the existing) work on this sand, the same grading as was used previously was used in the centrifuge tests, and the soil was reconstituted with the correct proportions of each particle size prior to the tests. For the Leighton Buzzard sand, paticle sizes of 0-15—0-212 mm, cover- ing only one sieve interval, were used, simplifying ‘sample preparation, Because of particle breakage, particularly of the Dog’ Bay sand, the soil used in the tests was regularly re- ‘eved otherwise the~change~of-gradingwould-have~had-ar lost! " ‘and therefore on tie~normalisation™of-the~data-usedater- Re-sieving was not carried out after every test, as the sieving nd reconstitution ofthe soil inthe correct initial grading was a time-consuming. process It was therefore done only when the particle breakage vas siffcient to start having a significant tect on the particle size dstrbution—on average every three tests, but more frequently for the Dog's Bay sand than for the Leighton Buzzard sind, and more frequently for tests at higher gravity levels andlor denser samples. (CHARACTERISATION OF THE SANDS | In parallel with the centifuge tess, the behaviour ofthe two soils was characterised by means of triaxial tests. The principal ‘objective of tis was to locate the citcal state lines forthe two Soils in the specific volume-log mean normal stress plane (Gein), which will be the basis of the normalisation of the pile tet data. The centrifuge tests were carried out on dey sand, partly because this ensured the highest in situ stresses, thereby modelling the deepest piles, but also because difficulty was experienced in making the pile instrumentation work in the presence of water. However, Coop & Lee (1994) found thatthe Tocation of the critical state lines in the Dog's Bay sand is sensitive to the presence of pore water, o the ttiaxial tests also had to be conducted on dry Sand. “The tests were carried out in two computer-contolled triaxial apparatuses, one of a Bishop & Wesley (1975) type and one high-pressure apparatus (Cuceovillo & Coop, 1999). The sam- ples of Dog's Bay sand were all created by pouring the dry soil into the triaxid membrane, with or without compaction. For the Leighton Buzzard sand many of the tests were also carried out Ary, while some, particularly those on looser samples, were created by light compaction of the soil in a damp state, and = few were on completely saturated samples. Coop & Lee had found that for quartz sands the presence of water did not affect the location of the ertical state line, and no differences were sven here between the behaviour of the wet compacted, dry and saturated samples. The suction inthe partially saturated samples was insignificant, and was estimated to be less than 1 kPa by means of unconfied compression tests “The volumetric strains were measured by one of two meth- cds, For most of the tess a set of local instrumentation was attached ditectly to the sample. These were based on LYDTS (Caccovillg & Coop, 1997), with two LVDTs measuring the axial strait on opposite sides ofthe sample, and a strain belt— also fited with LVDTs—measuring the radial strain at the Sample mid-height, The second method used was the inner cylinder technique (Bishop & Henkel, 1962), in which the sample is surrounded by a steel eylinder maintained at the same pressure as that in the rest ofthe triaxial cell. The movement of ‘water into or out of this chamber may then be measured much ‘more accurately than the change in the volume of water in the triaxial chamber. To minimise the errr in the volumetric stain caused by barrelling, lubricated end platens (Rowe & Barden, 1968) were used i all tests, All samples were 60mm in diameter, but a variety of heights was used, from I:1 to 2:1 height t0 diameter ratios. ‘Space does not permit a full discussion of the triaxial test data and the details of the identification of the extcal state lines, which will be the subject of another paper. The voli ‘metric paths followed by the tests are shown in Fig. 1 along ‘with the chosen critical sate ines forthe two sands. All tests ‘were drained, some following constant p' paths while others hhad the more usual constant radial effective sttess, 0, condi tion, The data inthe figures have been subjected to a number of corrections. Fist, a membrane restraint correction has been applied (Kolymbas & Wu, 1990). Second, discrepancies were noticed between the volumetric strains measured for tests that used the local instrumentation and those that used the inner cylinder, These diserepancies arise because the local instrumen- tation measures the strains only over the central part of the sample, whereas the inner cylinder measures the overall, or lobe, volumetric strain, Part of the problem arises from the barelled shapes of the samples at large strains, even with the lubricated ends, This was corrected for by assuming thatthe shapes of the sides of the samples were cireular ares. A ‘compromise between the local and global methods of measuring the strains was then adopted, in which the ‘correct’ radial strain —was-assumed-1o-be-the-average™Tadialstrain-over-the-central S0mr0 mh mage-fengt “axial transducers, The radial strains calculated from the~inner cylinder measurements of volumetric strain were therefore ine creased, and thote made by the local radial strain belt at the sample mid-height were reduced, g Bie 5 4 i Nearest ref \ 4 f= = + caromma \ — | catnaund 4 T i) rT 204 Bas 144 =. covtejura send XY 4 = csv meets @ 387 30: he fos g i foo cot nsneods 5 (Sento 1S] @ End of test (© Estimated crt state ee Mean orl etch tes, KPa © Fig 1. Telaial shearing data for the two sands: (a) corrected data for Leighton Buzzard. sand; (0) uncorested data for Leighton Buzzard sand; (€) corrected data for Dog's Bay st ‘The second reason for the discrepancy between the 10 measurements of volumetric stain is that, for the samples in ‘hich the stains localise on shear bands the local redial stain increases continually, so that the volume shows no tendency towards a constant value. This is because of a rigid body failure mechanism illustrated in Fig 2. This generally occurred at axial strains-in the-range-8~H5%-and-the-shearing-data-were-termi— ipo f nae esum —O- 209den0 ~O~ ‘00cene «o-| ~ © sop ceee © crane 109 madi : . stone reste. Pa 2009 hose 109 eee 509 ose 2009 median 1009 medion 2009 dense 1009 nso 50 donso ‘Overcome. 009 dense (Overcensel. 2009 dnae © Fig. 6, Unit ase resistance during pile installation: (a) Leighton Buzzard sand; (b) Dog's Buy sand gy —reduees-towands—unity-—For=the—Lxighton—Buzzard-—sand=the— there is a peak in unit resistance for the overconsolidated effets of overconsolidation are much less clear. This is because samples, but at greater depths the resistances reduce back for the more crushable Dog's Bay sand the preconsolidation towards ‘values similar to those measured for the samples that stress was sufficient to take the soil state to the one-dimensional AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL. STATE ON THE CAPACITY OF DRIVEN PILES IN SANDS 739 ‘verge wt hat tn, 9 MPa ° 005 010 @ ° oot o 018 020 02s —— vg ose —~ 1000086 509 bose 1009 meson 2009 dense 1009 dense Sg dense vercontot. 1009 medium vere ut hat tn, 4 MPa 08 on 20090080 , 00g cose 50 ose ‘ 2009 madum 009 medium ee 2009 dense 1009 dns 5g dense ‘veconol. 1009 danse (vrconsel 2009 dense Fig. 7, Average uni shaft ition during plle installation from globel shaft friction measurements: (2) Leghion Buzzard san () Dog's Bay sand ‘normal compression line, so causing large volumetric strains, as will be discussed later. In contrast, for the Leighton Buzzard sand the preconsolidation stress did not reach the normal com- pression line, so the volumetric strain during preconsolidation, and the effect on the soil behaviour, were smal ‘The values of unit shat ffieion in Fig. 7 are the average’ values over the embedded length of the pile taken ffom the ‘difference between the end bearing load and the total load ‘measured at the head of the pile, For comparison, in Fig. 8 values of g, forthe Dog's Bay sand have been derived by taking an average of the local measurements of q, on the SRT over the current embedded length. The averaging method has ac- counted for the different lengths of the various SRTS and also for estimates of the shaft fiction on the pile segments between ne Ge Fig. 8. Average unit shaft friction dering pile ‘leon measurements Si fe wich gs ot mes. The wee eps SRTs that have yet to penetrate the soil, and if an SRT is pparilly embedded the average accounts for the current em- ‘bedded length of that SRT. The agreement between the average value of gy from the SRT with the more reliable measurements in Fig. 7is generally good, Figure 9 shows average values of the total radial stress, 0, fiom the RST transducers over the current embedded length, ‘Agnin it is an average value of radial stess that has been calculated so that direct comparisons can be made with the average unit shaft fiction in Figs 7 and 8, The averaging technique used is also similar to that for the SRTS in that a weighted average has been calculated, Each value of 0, has ‘been assigned to a length of the pile shaft that runs from the ‘mid-point between the RST under consideration and that below to the mid-point between it and the one above. The weighted average is then calculated by dividing the product of a, and the assigned shaft length by the total embedded length, As for the 'SRTS the method again disregards transducers that have not yet penetrated the soil. Similar features ean be seen in the 2, plots fo the g, plots for both soils. ‘Taking the ratio of the mean g, to the mean 0, interfice fiction angles, 6 (= tan'g,/o7), can be calculated (Fig. 10) ‘These are very low, with values between around 10° and 20° for both soils, which remain constant with depth. Interface shear box tests ‘between the soils and metal interfaces of similar roughness to the pile gave much higher interface ‘fiction angles, of 265° and 25° for titanium and aluminium respectively” for both soils. Although the values of & calculated forthe pile shaft tnd the interface shear Dox tests are very different, in both cases there was litle difference between the values of 8 for the two sands, despite their very different critical state fiction angles (43° for DBS and 33° for LBS), A traitional_approach-would-be-to-interpret-pile-resistanc 08 ote —— 2009 0000 1009 oo8e 50g ose 2009 meu 1009 mes 2009 dense 1009 dense 80g dense varconsl 1009 donee ‘vrconsok 2009 dence tallation in Dow's Bay sand from local shaft reduces with increasing penetration, and is very sensitive to the density of the sample. The values for Ny are also very much Tower than they would be for the Leighton Buzzard sand, so the method of analysis as little applicability across different sand types. The increase of D, towards the base of each trace reslts from the inerease of the initial D, ofthe soil wth depth due to compression under the sel-eight of the sol In Fig. 12 the mean g, values during penetration have also been normalised with respect to 0%, although inthis case itis @ rican inital of forthe embedded pile depth rather than that at the pile tip. The resulting values of f decrease with increasing pile penetration, and are again dependent on the density of the sample. Contours of equal D, could be picked out that resemble ‘hose that Toolan eal. (1990) proposed in their design method. AA similar plot can be produced for the Dog's Bay sand, but the values of fare generally less than half of those for similar D, values in Leighton Buzzard sand, This again emphasises the 0 os 10 18 eons 4 Z sig. 14, Normalised distribution of radial stress along pile ‘Leighton Buzzard sand 20 Fre 925460 Mesum £25 KPa Cosese 925 kPa Median 904 Pa a= Fine 148 KPa =O Nedum 48 402 = © Coarse 1484P2 ° 1000 2000 000 orzontal placomant mm Fig 1S. Interface ring shear tests om Leighton Buzzard sand against fitaniom, Fine, 16m D180 um; medium, 150 ym <= 212 pms coarse, D> 300 jum) (ater Cavalier, 2000) Seta mgr ck ce erect v fo mph Bog ay hr wn perce en el Part of the tend oF inereasing with stress level effect on d; however, it believed that most of the increase of 8 with gy results from the increase of particle crushing and consequent inerease in Ry, The trend is steeper for Test oop cote, 188m 09s, 207m cons, 40m 088-0, 578m 005-0, 559 consi, 86m ins. 180m cuss. 207m cis16,240m cise 276m 85-18, 853 AdPBeeADPOOSO 185-18, 694m - => Mean 08s —— ean tas 2» 25 aft during installation. DBS, Dog's Bay sand; LBS, Tendtor08 a; . oye 7 reno i oe ai hag” ° cs . g E & - ee es a es 188 oveconso BS overoneat (oe MPa Fig. 16, Influence of mean unit end resistance during installation, (pins 0% mobilsed fletion ange on shat, pid-increase-of-par akege—and-he - esl fem the —of i, a8 gy increases The breakage is very loesed around te pile, but, as an indication, soil retrieved from within about 50mm of the pile shaft in tet CDBSI3 was found to have its ‘Dey reduced from about 0-27 mm prior to the test to 0-2 mm, i | ance ete Dept atte tts or te—(LESN) analy pure ion t-win-n AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL STATE ON THE CAPACITY OF DRIVEN PILES IN SANDS 745 The change of Di immediately adjaceat tthe pile shaft would be very dificult to measure, but from observation was signif cl greater thn this. ‘Borghi et al. (2001) have noted that as shaft fiction in- creases 50 does gy because the greater ficon along the ple Shaft increases the vertical effective ses i the sol around the pile tip, s0 increasing the end bearing resistance. There is therefore interaction between 5 and gy in both directions. How fever, this later effect would be very mich smaller than the trends in Fig 16 ‘The problem ofthe variability of the mobilised 8 is one that is unique to centrifuge testing, and may not bea dificly for rototype piles. A prototype ile is very much rougher, s0 that ‘yi higher, taking it out of th range where small changes will atfect 8 significantly. The displacements along a prototype pile fue also much larger, so the value of 6 will be more stable. Centrifuge tests are necesarly conducted on smooth machined model piles, giving low R values and values of 6 that ae therefore sensitive to changes in particle size LOAD TESTS Load tests were conducted ata vatiety of penetrations during ‘number of the tests. This was done by halting penetration at the required depth, releasing the load on the pile, waiting a desired period and then reloading. More data were collected uring the load tests to define the load better transfer curves. ‘Two types of load test were conducted. For some the pile head load was reduced to zero during the waiting period. For others the pile was put into full tension by pulling it out by about b6mm, The data for the Leighton Buzzard sand are summarised in Fig. 17. Both the base resistance and shaft fiction measured during the load test have been normalised by the value meas- tured immediately prior to halting penetration at that depth (qx(2) and 9,(2). The displacement has been normalised by the pile diameter, dy As expected, the load tests conducted from a Zero head load ‘condition were much stiffer in their response, ‘but for both conditions the base resistance and shaft ftiction require similar displacements to mobilise the ultimate value. For the base resistance the final value is always the same as that prior to halting penetration, whereas for the shaft fiction there is an increase of around 12%, which corresponded to an increase in oy. For the Dog's Bay sand very similar data were ‘obtained, with an identical inrease in q,, and generally similar ssiffnesss, Chow er al. (1996) have emphasised the importance of ereep in increasing the capacity of piles in sand. Waiting petiods of vp t0 2h were therefore allowed, which was the maximum that could be achieved while still maintaining sufficient temperature stability in the centrifuge. In each ease the immediate increase ‘of gas observed, but no further consistent changes could be detected over such a relatively short time. TOWARDS A DESIGN METHOD In this paper itis proposed that a method of design should bbe based ona correct quantification of the in sit state of the soil relative to the eritical state line. Fig. 18 shows the in situ States for each of the centrifuge tests, the values of p' having been estimated using the values of ky measured in the triaxial tests, For the Leighton Buzzard sand the states remain on the mI approach the ‘mined from one-dimensional compression tests conducted in the ‘wiaxial apparatus, The use of LVDTs to measure the compres- sion of the sample at different depths has allowed the change of specific volume with depth to be cocrectly evaluated, which is particularly important for the Dog’ Bay sand. The four data Points for each test represent the four stata within the sample Sefined by the three LVDTs at different depths and the meas- ‘urements of the surface settlement. The curent specific volume ‘compression line-deter-—stressof-about 3 MPs=correspo 12 Foe & a 8 i Jo ae 42. zero head ood === Fulteneto erates shat ton 762) ° on 02 03 os Normalised head placement, © Fig. 17, Normalised toad test data for Leighton Buzzard sand: (a) ‘base resistance; () shaft fition for each stratum after spin-up has been derived ftom the compression of each stratum calculated fiom the difference in adjacent LVDT readings, and so the value FaleMJated for each layer is independent of the others. There is rematkable consis- tency, and only in a few tests eg. CDBSI!) do sudden jumps in the value of specific volume from one stratum 10 the next indicate any significant inaccuracy. Otherwise there is generally a smooth decrease of specifi Volume with increased depth and stress level “The overconsoldated sample of Leighton Buzzard sand ng 2M: resulted in a reduction of the specific volume to about 1-92. From Fig. 18) it can be soen that at this volume and stress level the sol would have reached a state only just to the right of the cxitcal state line, so that it would not have reached its ‘Ko normal compression line, This is why the change in volume uring pre-compression was limited, and there would not have ‘been much particle breakage. The overconsolidated samples of ‘Dog's Bay sand, CDBS13 and CDBSI4, were also initially set —O ciss12 Am cin9.6 Eb assis be 018546 me cus i cies a —S cies | . oe case | —G— axns.ativeonal) i eo amc ze F20cF he coas.2 | —O~ conse —O— cons i HH cones —@— conse FH cons i —<+ conse i ¥ cess —S— coas.10 A co8s.11 | —p coeet2 | BD co8s-13(oerert) | a ER cves-t4overconsa) 88 Sr rrr rr rrr 10 +0 0 o o ww pine ® ig. 18, in sew states forthe centrifuge models: (a) Leighton Buzzard sand; (b) Dog's Bay and 2-68 respectively. However, in contrast to the Leighton samples, which is particularly noticeable for the Dog’) Bay Buzzard sand, compression to "a vertical sttess of 3MPa sand. For most of the samples the soil is undergoing first | ‘up in fairly loose states, with inital specific volumes of 273 smaller variation of specific volume with depth than the other | FP was SUMTER rRAE WEBI Othe -K Toading”during-spirup, so the specie” volume reduces Sigal gnificant reduction of the-specific-volume to values of 239° that resembles oedometer Test data Tor frst Touding, with the~ and 234 respectively, which would have been accompanied by specific volume reducing at the higher stesses towards the base some particle breakage. of the sample as the soil state approaches the Ko normal ‘After spin-up the overconsolidsted samples show a much compression lin, For the overconsolidated samples during spin- AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL STATE ON THE CAPACITY OF DRIVEN PILES IN SANDS 747 up the soil is being reloaded along swelling lines, which for sands are much fatter than fist loading lines, and’ so there is ‘uch less reduction of specific volume with depth ‘A number of diferent methods can be found in the literature to quantify the state of sands. As illustrated in Fig. 19 the approach that will be adopted here is to take a ratio of stresses, R. (= p/p), which is similar to the approach adopted by Coop & Lee'(1993) and Jovicie & Coop (1997) in examining the fundamental behaviour of sands at large and small stains, ‘The resulting normalisations of the penetration data for the two sands are given in Figs 20 end 21, For the Leighton Buzzard sand, because of some remaining uncertainty about the location of the critical state ine, two noemalisations have been wsed, ‘One tas been made with respect to the best estimate of a curved line, while the other is with respect to a stright eritical state Tine (Fig. 1), which can be thought of as a. limiting extreme of where the critical state line must lie. For the Doz's Bay sand it makes no difference where the citical state line is assumed to lie at low stress levels a8 the values of pia always Tie om the straight part of the line. For all g levels and initial densities the relationship between the logarithm of or N, and the logarithm of R, can be represented as a unique straight lin for each soil. The values of B and Ny reduce as the penetration increases and the state moves tovards and beyond the eritical state line (Ry = 1-0), The only data to deviate ftom the trends are those for the over- consolidated samples and a few tests on the very dense samples of the Leighton Buzzard sand. The latter are believed to have been influenced by boundary effects, as discussed earlier, which for the base resistance appear to be of magnitude consistent ‘with the data of Gui et al (1998) for cone penetrometes, but seem t0 be less severe forthe shaft fiction, ‘The trend lines that are shown on Figs 20 and 21 have been chosen to be straight, a6 the scatter of the data did not allow the shape to be more accurately defined. In choosing the line, the data for the overeonsolidated samples have been ignored, a8 have those for the denser tests on the Leighton Buzzard sand, ‘where a boundary effect was suspected. Greater weight has also been given to the data at p/p, values higher than about 0-02 for the Dog's Bay sand or 0-003 for the Leighton Buzzard sand, as the majority of the test data lie above these values; the data at smaller p/p, values represent only the first few centimetres of penetration, ‘There are interesting parallels between the influence of state on pile resistance and the effect of state on the stiffness of sands seen by Jovicic & Coop. First there is a unique trend of increasing normalised capacity (or stiffness) as the state moves “A Ree further to the dry side of critical (low R.). The overconsolidated samples generally give higher capacities, particularly for the ‘Dog's Bay saud. This is likely, in part, © be the result of the higher horizontal stresses, but it was also a feature of the research on stifness that oveteonsolidated samples were stifer at any given state. As penetration increases and the overcansoi- dation reduces, so the data for the overcoasolidated samples rece back towards the general trend, Most authors (eg. Konrad, 1998) have used a state para refer, W, in terms of volume to define state, This is’ also defined in Fig. 19, and represents a difference in volumes between the current state and the critical stato line, rather than 1 ratio of stresses. Fig. 22 shows an example of an attempt to use this approach for the base resistance inthe Leighton Buzzard sand, and it is clear that & unique relationship is not produced, as might perhaps have been expected from the ertical state data in Fig. 1. This was also the ease for Ny forthe Dog's Bay sand and for both soils. A state parameter defined in terms of volume could give a good fit only if the critical state line were assumed to be straight, but this has generally nt been the assumption used by other authors Figure 23 shows summaries of the trends interpreted for the ‘wo sands. It is clear that different sands have different reltion- ships: Again this is similar to the observations made for stillness, where, as in Fig. 23, the Dog's Bay sand was found to have a greater change with state (le. higher gradient) than a (quartz sand. At higher values of R, the data for the two sands converge, Also evident in Fig. 23 is the relatively. small difference that assumptions about the precise location of the critical state ine at low stresses for the Leighton Buzzard sand have on the normalisation ‘Also shown in Fig. 23(b) are data that have been collected from field pile tests by Coop & McAuley (1993). Very few data are available, as good-quality field test data generally are not backed up by sufficient laboratory tests to be able to establish the critical sate line for the sand. Data are shown for maay’ sol types and pile sizes, and also both for driven and grouted ples Many of the data plot at higher p/p’, values than for the centrifuge tests, as many of the field data are for deep pile tests in carbonate sands. Although different trends woulde expected for different pile types and soils there afe insuffisent data to Alistnguish these. Apart from some very low capacities for load tests on conductors in the carbonate sands at the Rankin off shore site, which are believed to be influenced by their flex- ‘bility, there seems to be a general tend. This trend again confirms the influence of state on capacity, but i significantly higher than the centrifuge data, Indeed, there is litle evidence for the diameter effect in the MTD method (Jardine & Chow, 1996), which would imply that small model piles should ov estimate capacity, ‘The differences between the centrifuge and field data can largely be accounted for by the low values of 3 on the model pile, and by the fact tha the centrifuge data are penetration data and not load tests after installation. The centrifuge tests gave an Jmmediate 12% increase in shaft capacity For Idad tests, but it is likely that creep would also increase the capacity of the Feld tests. It must also be remembered thatthe values of f for the centrifuge data in Fig. 23 represent average values over the embedded length. Because of the /R effect on the shaft fiction and radial stress (Fig, 14), different pile diameters ‘would give different mean values of 8. Wall fiction in the strongbox is not likely to be 2 significant contibuter to the ———iserepaney between-the-cenefage-and-field-data-as-#t-woukt — Fig. 19, Definition of the normalising parameter ‘CONCLUSIONS The series of ceneifuge model tests described in this paper have firmly established the importance of in situ tate, defined as the current combination of density and stress level, on the capacity of piles in sands. It has been shown that, because it does not account for the stress level, relative density is not @ cormect measurement of state. Pechaps surprisingly, it was also — 200g 08e = 100g ieese 0g oose “B= 1009 medum ‘og dense 100g donee 509 dense Cverconsol, 009 madi Increas Sonetaton Trend saat rT T T 1 wt se ao 1 0 R= @) wo . 1 soo ose === soglese 2009 medium S= 1009 meseen =O 2009 dose @~ 1009 dense Sageceree 0 (© Ovreanst 1009 dense © Oveconsot. 2009 dense 02 R= Bll Trend 101 1 ” © Fig, 20, Normalised base resistance during pile penetration: (2) Leighton Buzzard sand normalised with respect (othe proposed non-linear csi found that a state parameter defined in terms of a volume difference did not work, and that state needed to be quantified in terms of a ratio of stresses, In order to produce a design method, the next stage is to verify the approach in more detail with field test data. However, there is a dearth of data available for shaft friction and almost none for end bearing of driven piles in sand, largely because ‘good-quality field trials are generally not accompanied by Sufficient basic soils data to establish the critical state line reste Tor this analyse TPs eommendee that Fara Help io) Leighton Burzard sand normalised with respect to a posible Hinear CSL; () Dog's Bay sand ‘The work has shown that different sands will require different design lines, even after normalisation for state, However, Coo & Cuccovillo (1998) demonstrated that for many quartz sands the critcal-state lines were in similar locations, so it might be expected that the effect of state on capacity’ might also be Simla The ng of and vas defaed hy thet two sands of very different’ mineralogies is. also. re Mavow Naty ral san a enapealyerconl date and the centifuge tests have shown thet this will need to be simp requirement to use this approach is accurate measurements of the initial in sine density, and thought may need to be given to hhow this should best be achieved in sands, 7a may often be the ease for quart SandS,~ Because of the infhence of state on pile capacity demon strated by this work, it is important that field ple tess ae conducted at similar states to prototype piles, and therefore that | AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL STATE ON THE CAPACITY OF DRIVEN PILES IN SANDS 749 |e Bite oe 10: — Povg vose 1009 eeso {00g e088 ; s0ploose === sopbose ~~ 1009 medi “9 100g mesum ° O- 2009 dere0 . 9 2003 cen86 10: \ 9 1009 dens6 1 \ © 1009 conse Sag corso (© Overcansol 1009 medum 0g dons (© recon 009 medn 1 Trend 4 10 wo sew 1 0 Ree ® 0. — 200g ose = 1004 se 509 ose ~S> 2009 mesum 9 1009 medium © 2009 er20 4009 dense ‘09 donse (© Overonsa. 109 dense ww ig. 21. Normalised shaft friction during ple penetration: CSL; (b) Leighton Buzzard sand normalised with respect (a) Leighton Buzzard sand normalised with respect to the proposed non-inear ' possible linear CSL; (e) Dogs Bay sand oth_the_density_and_stess_level_are_similar.In_this respect, Professor M.D. Bolton of Cambridge University for his advice __ ‘movil pile tes in the fcld-at sclalively shallow depths. which on the interaction between the interface shearing angle on the [uve-beenextensively-used-in-fevent-years,-are-therefore-of pile shaft and the-end. bearing. resistance. 1 limited use. | NOTATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 'D. particle size ‘The authors would like to thank Professor R. N; Taylor of Dy mean parle size City University for his advice on the centrifuge testing and By telative density / Professor G. T. Houlsby of Oxford University for the loan of Ng. end bearing capacity factor = gs/0% the Dog's Bay sand. The authors would also like to thank pile radius —— 2g loose 40! i i : : 2 sand using state parameter Ay erage outs ‘get peat toh ohne "Re normalised roughness HI Hager sue pene & Goer offic ‘L. SSpicenet dng ood et seclanton oo pmny 4 ea doe of waste om pile tip pnts eat pres tect ~ 0/02 ooo, e & ‘mean norm effective sess insite p iy equivalet pressure taken on CSL at curent 9 eviatre Sees ‘unit base resistance tein unit base resistance during installation fc) mit base resistance at curent depth prior to haling peactaton it sat ition ‘a(2) tit shaft tion a current depth prior to aking penevaton| specie vlune yg, maximum specie volume 7B unit shat tion normalised by in stu vertical effective stress = 44/04 2 interface fesion angle ‘of, ail effective suess ‘OL vizontl effective suess yada woul sess ‘Of rail effective sess (0) adil stress on RST No. i ‘8}, vertical effective suest BT base force tenedvoer tion of base resistance data for Leighton Buzzard f+ 203/3 or (oh +200/3 — Leison Buzzard sand, nonsnar CSL AO Lotion Buzzars and near SL ‘og's Bay sand we o 102 ig. 23, Comparison of trend @ Lon Buzard ean, somtinsar CSL Loighon Buzzard sad, pear CSL Dog's Bay sand “rnd of fle data 14 PUP ® cs for the centrifuge ters the to sands and feld data (See Table 3 Tor legend for eld dat}: (2) base te nce (D) shaft fretion DBS Dog’ Bay sin (Gy, mai sues on RST No.1 LBS. Leighon Buzzard sand RST radial sess sransducer SRT shaft resistance mnadveer “Table Fed pile test data used in Fig. 23 ‘Symbol Reference Tosatoniype Sail © | Reatiy ool (98H) = | Reatey ota. (1988) 6 | Xora ef of (1988) ‘Rankin driven seston Rankin routed sections Renkin sel model pile (SFT) ‘uncen/weak calsaraie ‘mem! weak ealsarenite ‘ucen/weak exearenite [Runey-ar-ar=(1988y ‘Rank eudctor fad est x eae soe Plows grored-scton-—- —Funcemweay-cemen-caboaat=—$$——— vy | Cotecchia eral (1998) | Naples, grouted pile Voleanic sand | shane era (1993) bene, jacked scat pile | silica sind # ‘asufan ef al (1997) Japan, gated pile ‘Shira vokanic sand [AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL STATE ON THE CAPACITY OF DRIVEN PILES IN SANDS REFERENCES, [APL RP2A (1991). Recommended practic for planing, designing and ‘cowsructing fad ofthore platforms, 190 eda. Washington: Arer- ican Petru Insitute Been, K. & Jeffries, M. G. (1985). A state parameter for sands. (Geovchnigue 38, No. 2, 99-112. 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An “investigation ofthe behiviour of bored ples ih pytoclasic sands Proceedings ofthe international sympavixm om problematic sls, ‘Yanagisas, Japan, pp. 715-719. Roteram: Balke casei, T, & Coop, M. R. (1997). The measurement of local arial ‘trains in Wanal tess using LVDTS. Géotechnique 47, No. 1, 161-172, CCuccovillo, T. & Coop, M. R. (1995). An automated triaxial apparatus for elevated presses. In Nar-desoucive and automated testing of {ol and rock properties, ASTM STP 1380, pp. 231-245, Pilael- pia: American Society for Testing and Materials De Nicola, A. & Randolph, M, F. (1999). Centrifuge modelling of pipe piles in sand under axial loads, Géotechnique 49, No. 3, 298-318 Dolwin, 1, Khorshid, M.S. van Goudosve, P1988), Evaluation of

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