Political Campaign Communication Principles and Practices Seventh Edition Judith S. Trent, Robert V. Friedenberg, and Robert E. Denton, Jr. + New York Teronto = Plymth, UK,“a contents ‘Cornmunictive Mass Channels of Political Campaigning any Stdies Contemporary Studies Coneluions ‘Communicative Types and Function of Televised Political ‘acs Histol Development ‘Types and Functions of Politeal Ads ‘Televised Attack Advertising When the Candidate's ‘2 Woman ‘A Final Question: Do Televised Attack Ads Work? Conelusions| Past I: Practices of Political Campaign Communication Publi Speaking in Political Campaigns “The Deceon 0 Speak ‘The Speech Pola Speechverting Surrogate Speakers Condlsions| Recusrng Forms of Polit Campaign Communication ‘Asoounceent Speeches ‘Acceptance Addresses News Conferences Apogee ‘Cincisions Debates in Pbtical Campaigns Interpersonal Commuricon Pata Campeiges [Mefeenal Commariaton feweenCaniate tracers! Comm stion between the Candidate and ‘pee Con IntspeonlConmarcaton betwen Voters Intrpesorl Communiaton Among eters Mass Tita an Voting Bohwor w mm 28 wi @ § RBRREY BRRRES RESRIS i contents Interpersonal Communiciion and Geting Outthe- ole Efforts Conclusions 10. Advertsing in Political Campaigns Developing a Master Pan for Poliial Advertsing Basie Considerations in the Selection of Polite, "Advertsing Media Advertsing Stategies Media and Other Types of Politics! Consultants Functions of Polial Consultan Conehisons 11 New Media and Potts! Campaigns Histol Overview of and ‘New Communication Technologies Internet ‘Communication Stategy Intemet Toole Conclusions Notes Selected Bibliography Index ‘About the Authors GG 9 S8Bk 8 Bees KE REPart I PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN COMMUNICATION1 ~ Communication and Political Campaigns: A Prologue ‘Democratic challenger running for Congres support increasing money for education and publc transportation, Once we feel enough questionsChapter have been answered, we must decide how actively to participate in the ‘campaign. Wil we by to ignore #2 Wl we work for the candidate oe polleal party we favor? Will we vote? Any dedsion contributes to our selidevelopment and expression. Not only do elections give opportunites fr quiet decision-making or pation In ‘who wil tie of events that once ocurred ae ho ieal series we afin and holdin ‘ut of what fs unade” of tory. Ii inthe Irgest sense, the collective ‘re conducted has changed enormously in fecent Years. AS mater of fact the poltcal campaign has undergone such a redial transformation that those plnipes and practices accepted by practioner and theorists ven fee years ago arin many respects largely televant today. THs, before we can describe and analyze any of the dimensions of cmpaign favor, suppor, and even protection, cote the votes, te pay, ths the eeton of all endidte, Leslee: DECLINE OF POLITICAL PARTIES Undoubtedly, the most siglfant change in presenti plis occured Ue ane en et tt mt oe Ere reser echapter Communication and etal Compt thera ang stout ty pn Seca eree ites ty anton canes Sader arena trata eae a re sana ce be Doce edad Bese Case et Si dh scien er ed in Sage oak a rd een Sevosogn rowel taster of meme ee (eper ere iieberep leper peg Spa ee ed Say ben ae art ae ae ee aren oe rl macho gate, ry wet he noe Sean cere i a elton aera toate SEslncaent S Eada eerste! Segre names hey pete JPemainan cy pesca ceca ae Soar ener Pay eee Rone Comte a ea a Sent eciee atone ‘Socmencc erogenous ret a ee alice canon oa mae Se cthes bye aber sees See Genelec pat ens we wp teh morig: acciet cooaaas case re ep pe openness Foie beet peste yooh nea ae ea all ra en eee ae ‘fact, in the thee elections that immediately followed passage of the act, pele ark ror Sigsrens mecscine cong apiiiean once ee See er ear ptnes pn Teno toe ket lad fr al ncane oases ert ‘ehh Cael ec Scope a ge Sie qules Mion eget mney cr rae ee eerie Shae at, nen 8 an ie Cony see soe SSS ast tee core means ert inp open as ee? nes Sake ee cee ee ee en ae at Breede cg weitere Maen See eltaes toe Soa ae Tappan eae ffeil xn ro Reb ee acne) ater rae ecm Sore Tat ge Mewes Ory ag Ty oe oe wiser etaaieaiecerania ScieedaySecmaric, | aren Saccamets wien ee Rug Pn ee re ee tn et cetera feet pena pean eerie eerie nme Samer Te premotor f eer et eearecsee tad gersunany poe Hethersett cn ce Howe, Tac rooasen che wor inkl teativa a reece, fe Seeehacemupreetintezuaerhen Atenas Sts Foon oes ral Sucepeeg as Mccann fra td ot te Ono cin cls Behe peeceacatectan beceaen ivsee | f ncgmenetChany dows mahing acto Ce en ee ee rt tara ince ears rein Suara | aaa ‘aad aa ee SEESLGET aL placate teccteat Seneca [| fayalu el pelea hpi cet ener ong Section namamadscvacneevncmicin | Suehtalans emt urtenas SE Siar es eee eee innit ob nie epee ee Se munbl of ee who ell ‘pacpendtes vag a ore 198i and 199s bacme more and or expensive For Sanne the Pelee a lee mt nage Be cao err ng go Sie ae ao Sauce 0 5 cen DES eas ee Ne Socio oe ecm ein pr - Pret Sp: San go 2 ‘The dcine in pty identiaton ad inten is ot te only element incene over tha pent for he al campaign in 1980 Dug that as atered te nature ote cacton campaign Closely aed sre ‘ots continue thet upward climb, so atl 1996 the fol spending on !. oaptert a poi campigs exceaded 22 bllon in aon nthe it years ‘ofthe new alleen cose continued sgrocket For example byte Het hd cuter hn yee ‘New Yor Cy, Michael Bloomberg had spent over $7 miler ot ‘wn money on is canpalgn. Monts before Election Day, Jane 208, the umount of money else tnd spent once gan exceed al Communicative Functions of Political Campaigns Ofte tera amine politcal amp eo ae te Uremic tnctone ats ove what tons Fo vious fom or acts of campaign communication provide Fy sean othe connotes Many ofthe eon west Ey mpl ox pgm is tt ty make pic gi ios FE; Otters are corsummatory or symbolic In ature; they ffl iui 4 oie ar eee E Wwoutd be cul nt a xc tte ln fe ge bese2 chapter? it ean vay from candidat to candidate and cletion to cectin.Pollcal ‘hopefuls must asees thee Vislity and credibility 25 well as determine thelr franca backing and organizational Predictable ctor ‘al activities (he verbal and nonverbal communication acs) during the ‘surfacing tage include building apolitical organization in each dt, dee trict, sate, of region (depending onthe geographic scope encompassed by the ofce being sought), speaking to many different kinds of public ‘gtherings in an atempl 1 capture attention (media attention for state {ind national campaign), conducting public opinion polls to assess vis- Thy or to determine potential saves for which tances wil aber have tobe devised, puting ogeter an organizational structure and campalgn ‘blueprint, and raising money. These activities take time whether an ‘individual is running for mayor ot for president. As one woman who ras elected tow seat on her city counel told us," dda’ jst tart cam ‘aigning I started planning in January forthe November election. And {his involved an organized plan—contzacing for billboards, purchasing ‘materia for sige, mapping ot financing and Gnding volunteers for sign letering and door-to-door canvasring. A gubernatorial contender, who snnouneed his thiteen monte before a Democratic primary ‘Ohio justified is eal start by saying that bis campaign could not be tied to traditional timetables because he ha to let people know Who he ‘was and what his ideas were so that voters would know that alternatives ‘need tothe “same old names” = . Weurfcing takes months fr cy councl and guberatorial candidates to ake even longer for pesidentlcoctenders. For example, Vie ‘Present George H. W. Bush war an early pertpant inte fst sage of {he 1983 presidental campaign. Thy months before the New Hampshice primary, Bush announced the formation af a 476member national steering omits composed of Republicans fom al Af tates. Strat, in 1983, thee years before the 1972 campaign, Senator Bil Bradley began taking ‘ub epeaking lore and building a atonal fund-asing bce two sure Fler of “prestintl fever” In 190, two years and eight mothe before {he 192 presidential election, Georga senator San Nunn was cetainly at Jess thinking about a run fr the White House He reigned from a golf dub that did not allow women as members or even as guests and fold fends thathe would announce his decision about runing bro weeks after {he 1950 congrenionaleacton? Moet intersting in 190, however, Was, the fac that to years before the 1992 general lecton, some of the mest, Lely Democratic presidental contenders called press conferences, ot © ‘anounce that they would be candidates for president but fo explain that they would not be entering the race. Tt was no} that Demons such as House majority leader Richard Ce- phardt, Senate majority leader George Mitchell or Senators Albert Gore, Communit uncon of Pied Camping a Jk. and Jha ay) Rocker V had no deseo eta the Whit Hose. [eas jst at they blived the incumbent president could not Be de fee In January 19, thiteen ment before the fowa uci and he New Hampstice primary, George HW. Bush, as commande in chit, and therefore one ofthe heroes of Dest So he Pesan Cal War that had been played out on American elevison had one of the highest approval ratings eve Fecorded fora siting president A Wekington Fost ‘ABC News pl found tha 50 percent of imerans surveyed approved fis handling ofthe wa, and USA Toby survey lndcted at per {anlof tepid approved of he be wa doings present Ts, those who might have run surfaced early but became frightened by te popula ofthe incumbent and decline. Th preparation forthe 1996 presidental campaign, at lat six Repub- ican hopefla ware showing ep at all manna of pbc evens in New Hampshire shorty after President Clinton was innugiated i January 1953 By May 1953, CSpan ha already resumed ts empalgnprogasn eal tothe White Hse" By June 198, a elavelysbecre Republican overor Carroll Campbell Je of South Cran, wha side had bear Blnning « 1996 presidental bid by rang money and making pe to fever and New Rompe annocfend rhe had changed sn Considering the two-year campaign that wold have faced im, he id “uncial cenidaration ad Helped fin dace to bandon ie quel ‘Andon ine 25,1994, secording leaders in the lows Repebican Party, ‘srw pl of potetl Repulan contenders won by Senator Robe, Date was the “unffilKcoff forte 1955 preidentalcampaign "= “The presidental campaign of 2000 began in May 1987 ttpone month before any esucur oF primary vols would be counted. And atone time or another, as many as thintyinaivdals (representing the Repub lear Democrat form, and Green Pars let tbe inown tat fy ‘wera east considering run forthe presidency. Although half of hse potent candidates never ell materialised, teen of tem di for at [eat some prod of ne during the sufi tage ‘Oneof the mos unusual ssp of teat Sage in campaign 2000 was the appearance of several "lmour o “cei” contenders. Por ‘camp, Hollywood sctor Warren Beaty announced in August 199) {ater al ofthe potential Democratic contendere except Vie President {Sor and foes New Jersey soar Bil Bndley had roped ou that lhe might consider runing for president and at he wes offended by the eet money had aon American police By the end of August, Beaty had a presidental website and i wa umored that he had ben in conversation with profesional organizes and a media manager in September 199, billanaie Donald Trump polly acknowledged tat Iwas considering running forthe nomination ofthe Reform Paty in: a 2 nds atest Sitar seers se homed areca cme igtigecuiaets adaware = Pariene ener eres enema sBioae oe eop Gaee eeaS 2a ene Sate meaner arated rahrr canter eget Exocrine ee teerieanes tees treetn any eS we ace ecememerieneeetater ie SoReierc meget msicenaen se Enon seme anwar Eos mee aera ger eeveemactis arvenermecn ace meio romeere ates Ep nraccemeentieare Eettmeneuenatna en Tagcoerarets mama gene Scucageeseonmeiereeenee aie oeen meenateen water natant Higetoset onset ecs ieee onsen sane Sano eieeecumeee Seteecommacmrsmaiesorctie Seachem eae fgestaies coon ered fete eee onsen amare Sgaruzesscire, ceniabientany Siargeerataieeteomnceaeae em oe doaectats aes incenacant Srotervaruoeemmeoeoe Sennen oment aentncnra eta ernest terme fiegrtmnan cover senaatae Bobrepnie araten aca Sa She cea oe So geese Scooter Sg rs = Commune Pacino Pcl Campegns Paw ove mci represetative noted, “Aer he had given the keynote he was the party's ot ticket. Pundits even predicted he would fe the iat blac president" These are just fe ofthe many examples of aly surfacing that occured forthe 2008 presenta cection, Fs important to understand that one ofthe reason for extensive E luiacing for 2008 was because there wae no incumbent, thus leaving the eld open for many. More examples include the 2006 Presidents Day end, which became what one reporter called “would-be Presidents Dy." Senators John McCain and Evan Bayh traveled to South Roda, vaca with many Hispanic voters and ‘financial supporters stor Hillary Rodham Clinton alo spent tne in Florida that weekend, Florida Democratic fundraising eventin Tampa,” whl Kanes or Sam Brownback raised money, atendd fundraisers ie Houston vat policy evens in Atlanta, and delivered the keynote address at a “right to le” dinner Tennessee senator and Senate fp ‘Sialy, th 2012 cycle began yes pit tothe ft curses ane grinaces. The projections forthe 2012 Replica nomination seemed Fj Brevlve by 2010 primary around former asachusets governor Mit Torney, former Alaska govemer ad formes vce presides andiate Tain, former Athareas governor Mie Hocabee, omer Mis {Ssippl governor Hayley Bebo, Minnestagoremer Tin Foley, Tham governor Mich Daily and Indlana congressman Mie Pence, ‘Although itis inpossbleo place define tine structure on he ist F gape wehaveloted some of the important eer activites he erod fdanands Thus sulci begins with canine inal efforts create ‘mnerest and image of thence st cannes and exon Bough + ‘ey of publ rhetorical wasuons porte fs pinary deco. "Notonly do we know whats type demanded of he fing the iat sing, bt we also have sere eof the character ne An servedby te communieaon act of hesrfacng period Althocgh ‘ie can vary wit the level fof sought Gust Se tne pred dow) we ave obuecved seven funetons at ppen to be importa lpia campaigns Demonstrating Fitness for Office The first function sto provide an indiation of candidate's ines or of- ‘ice—the “calber” ofthe individual. During te campaign epedally ne» npie2 sat ports win pb nag of potas bg Sing ore dete ines ca campign tls ‘Sikiowaprtn’ comer wou tre wimg oboe See inet ne tilt wed how =, aaj, rae cap alco on Sto arth in ower hts De arma oy snd [ik Soars iri ts In eer wore, US ete hve Sone [pesmerpine tit peop eran pti Caner ‘xen wae posse r retry peso ret (ough wd compet at pe sod tensa ‘te Netrh fey be hare dgoenel vote bere: or camel ‘ten ped theca wo nfo ore oa che sare cea ibe" pons tel quis nt sagt ‘anata epee al pope Andie here nracne he atop bate he ocala ans we hen otc igen present Wes at wat psn wot Paso felt don down sp spencer wort or nace by ‘aed as “dumey,” “dumb” ora "Toser,” as Gerald Ford and Jey Carer ‘were labeled during the surfacing period of the 176 and 1980 eampalgrs ‘As mater of fact perhape condoned by the negative of Fendt anes on vty seman of yo i 08 2 1996, and 200 presidental hopeful were sometinas hash For example, ie mr coe wh C58 Nos wr De abe en ce presidant George H.W. Bush Was pereived (i pits of his valor in ‘World Wari) asbang a “wimp, a nnyvoleed preppy” who de® pos. sess the toughss tobe president In 199, Senator Toon Hain cae to be viewed (a spite of his championing of ie poor, ec, and bores) en faatershoad ocete pote giTae {he prelam wih th geal percpin of Ban Quayle ring hs ae relent cmpalgescl ads iy presenta Ropf te 2003 Conic acto Pil Caps a lection There have brn eter rate pial gues who have arte ba of so many “dun” tarts at ee guy {ots one nade daring spec ot Untied Neg Colege ed one made rng spec go alee Rd ‘enhesal,Whatayate ssl nindor theres ied Srey lathe ment os fcome t-te ‘ing 0 waste” Wave ten pment cay ene Keeton of he pre pranay ps to roi an cones ace dates finaa for office. Ta lung ptt re te in en ected mare tat dang Ue 2 pret capa Thee er fog fa fetus Srta J McCall as ina igh show ht yan sedi tenes {clon the levis show Seay Nt erate is "vest thecortener cing temo ive even with wo ese td spk hor peel and vin pret ada nd Fe era Wawel gg ore 304 pea hse rege) en A Grr seca “ie lek bor na steer Beane rbing ee ‘pe ssl ty cr he ane eon ie Tuner earings Candied Te mest lat itor wa ded elon la gorener an bps ‘es predentin exit Sah Pa Noy Paine ge ‘Re oft cntc on bs le Stay Na {St ember a ed wer Ti Fy tnd ni be peo. I edton thsi, Pas and Hilary Con de spences on Sea wih hoses Ad ot wes Repebic pciol ‘ar Seon can vena he. Inlting Political Rituals ‘A scone communication fncion ofthe surfacing sages that ities the rita actives important our poll fate in his book Te Sol Use of Plc, socal scenst Muray Bean discuss he ies of US. pelticl campaign os wodiona, ue governed rns and then desabes rita as « nd of motor avy dat involves {idpants symbolically in a common enterpree™ We each tage of te ‘ampaign demands certain ans none © more Gent defo tan Activites surrounding te pre primary announcement gece, (ling the announcement perch fol is dscised in copter 7 ase we car sider talc opecs) ‘When candidates dee tener the pola arena formally, they sat prior cea protocol because they ae expected. For apa= chapter 1 poss conference scaled, the candidate i surounded by family and fds while nnouncing the dain onan for fice, and then th cane Alidate embarks immediatly on acampalgn swing through te dit, Sisto nation. The eandidate may only be announcing «campaign for the mayors ofce but ther are expectations conceming how is done However, ocapare the fal favor ofthe announcement rita we need {o-eamin tat te presidential eve. ‘The 1996 tal began on February 24, 1995, when Senator Pil Grama ‘became the at offeally announced candidat for the Republican pres ental nomination, Sutounded by cadets and fag, Gramm made Ns rnouncerent at Teas Ads, where year earlier he had been proe sor of economics Former secretary of education Lamar Alexander returned o his home- town of Maryvil, Teese o delve bis souncement speach on February 2,195, Weaing hs signature statement red plaid shirt and ‘rounded by townspeople, Alcander presented hinaelf asa Washing ton ouuider. Fs announcement concaded with his rage band ply ings chor of "Rocky Top." “Senator Robert Dole went home t Rasa Kansas, and delivered his announcement address on Api 10, 195, Amida shower of alloos, he Pestioned Rirsel ap seasoned and experienced yet someone wo Was ‘bie to change and keep up withthe tines. In campaign 2000, the cond dats were not arays rule by the traitonal ymbolie-procse= Forex Simple, Republican contender Elzabeth Doe nver even mace an ofl ‘pect announcing her intention to run forthe COP presidental nomina- fon, tough ona she did give a formal spetch withdrawing her candidacy. Texas govemar Gcorge W. Bush gave a apench on June 12 1989, in Cedar Spring, Towa, in which he side would later announce that he would bea andidete forthe Republican presidental rmination. Barack Obama returned tthe Spring Minow sate howe ad in the shadow of Abraham Lincoln, formally announced his bid for the Demo: ‘at presidental nomination. However none of the previous candidates ‘matched the deted pagennizy of Marion G (Pa) Roberto’ formal "Reg met runt announcement inthe 863 campaign ‘During the sarmer of 56, Roberton et the media know that people were aking hi to run for president. By October 198, he “allowed 38 bow he was conadering um forte presidency and wae praying sboot A sesking God's counaeh Apparent is prayers were anevred afew ‘Weck ltr when he formed an exploratary commie and founded & think tan called the Naonal Perspectives Inatitate On September 17, 1986, Rabson went to Contitution Hall in Washington and on dosed Gireut television, in a Wreehour production of trumpet fanfare and patotic sng, announced tat if tee milion reseed voters signed Communicate Fencion Pin Campaigns » petitions “telling me that they wil pray-—that they wil wotk—that hey will give toward my election, then {wil ru" He sta deadline of one year fora show of suppor that would include the signatces of thee Aili voles on petitions and raise $3 millon by mid-987. Clea, one ‘communicative function ofthe surfacing stage eat i ilats the ial + vital © US. polities ‘Thus far in decussing the pre-primary period, we have been ths writen, “campaigning crates second-level or metapolial images, pesonae, myth, assocaons and loa eatin wich IEay even be detached or tee distin fo pata ands So and offices "Ts communication during the Sst age plays two symbol but n- tant ol lt provides an neaton os candies er for of, Ea nates the tl we have come expen pola eps However thee are fivesaditonal consults proved by nce sleaon ce and symbol ding the sacig period Te fanctons Sera othe popmtic topes ofthe campaign and have tus Ben itbled armen” ‘Leaming about Candidate ‘The first ofthese instrumental function is thatthe electorate begins 10 hve some knowledge about a candite's goals, potential programs, ‘oF ina stands on isues. During the surfacing prio, in an attempt 10 ‘determine whether and with whom ther campaign has any appeal cn didates must speak at countess ‘cafes, potluck dinner, and service club meetings. During thse appearances, they often have © answer questions about why they are runing for office na well 9 tte {eie postions on specie issues importa to thove attending the gather- Ing, Answers aya fit be sketchy, bua he frequency of te speaking, ‘oceasions andthe perceived receptivity of the audiences increase 50 does the candidate's confidence. Statements about plical goals ond aspira- ‘ons 28 wel as postions on issues become refined. What was in Ue be- ‘inning somewhat tentative now becomes more defrite a the candidate [proceeds lo formulae statements of plilosophy apparenily accepable © ‘mest potential constitue's. For example, when Congresswoman Elsa beth Holtzman decided to enter the 1980 New York senators race she began scheduling a numberof appearance throughout the ate mente before the primary. Countless eons were made not only to expand het~ caper sity from one dist othe whole state but alo to let the electorate know what her postions were on feeues wider than those {acing her curent consttuens. Daring he gh Yours in wich Hotzman ha ben a mamber ofthe House of Representatives, she had demonstrated an ably to work for the fainlynartow concerns of her Kings County constituent But with he decision to move from the House othe Senate, the congresswoman had to esiablish her understanding of and commitment to problems and ie sues facing leger and more diverse audience. Te surfacing period pro- vided Holtzman the opportunity not only to determine wat the iaues ‘were but to formulate positions that could be and were sed during the ‘stcond, or primary, stage of her campaign for the United Sates Senate. ‘In recent presidental cycles, the major party contenders (McCain, ‘Obama, and Hilary Clinton in 7008 and Sara Pain in 2010) not only attended rales and “lown hal” meetings to introduce ther condidacies but alo published bestselling memois. For example, Senator Barack ‘Obama vote to ‘memoirs, Dreams from My Fther and The “Audacity of Hope Both books helped to educate millions of readers about the senator and created media busz and public support about his pres- ‘denial bid. Developing Voter Expectations ofa Candidate's Style ‘Chsely related i the second instrumental function: Voter expectation regarding 3 candidate's admsistrative and personal syle begins to be ‘Ghiblched, For example candidates who have and dsc pllned staf provide some knowledge about the kindof administration {ey might have if they are elected. Even in campaign fora seat onthe Jozal school board, those candidates who right rom the beginning appest to be operating fom a prece plan or blseprint with regard to where and when they wil canvass the dst, or dstrbut erature, or peak ‘ihren tle provide vt wih oman egg organization and efficiency i night be reasonable to expect ‘whan they are ted tothe choo board ‘The personal syle of candidat i also revealed during the early daye fs campaign. Pehaps one of the most interesting examples ocurred ‘daring the prepimary period of the 1980 presidental campaign: Before “Edwatd Keane began his pursuit ofthe presidency, he, Ike is brothers ‘before, had Been perceived as an excelent speaker a master ofthe at of and cimpsign thetorc. Thus, the expectations the pob- ieee hao gh tat ly tay ce could ave lived upto the dmeeions ofthe Kennedy mystique. But in he Bet fer ‘ventures way from Washington and Boston, the senator el far shor. He Commie Fein f Pita Campaigns a ‘ead his speeches (he always had, but no on ver seemed tohave noticed ‘before, mispronounced words, seldom looked up from manvscrpts © ‘stabs eye contact with his audence stumbled frequenlly using vocal uses or qualifiers suchas “uh” of “ah,” appeared confused in answers to questions on material andisues he should have Known, ambled and ‘appeared unable to speak without corsant relance on manuscript ae specially prepared charts, Deficiencies were exaggerated because of igh ‘expectations, but the point is thatthe surfacing periods important fo ts revelations of a candidate's personal and admunistratve style. Determining Main Campaign leues The third instrumental function of surfacing that ads in determining what the dominant theme or issues of the campaign wil be. The erly ‘candidates set the rhetorical agenda forthe eampaign. As they erserost the country, state, district, or even the Gt, they begin to ‘came to grips withthe issues on people's minds, begin to addres theme selves to those issues, and as we noted ear, begin to formate “sli tons” to problems that seem tobe compatible with popular perception. In ‘national o statewide elections, the media repeat a candidat’ statements and thus ald in tarlating the problems and postions into national of state iaeues In local eampalgns, candidates often determine te problems 'A fiend of ours who ran fora seat ona ty coun had fil direct method of determining the ituer on voters minds. Instead of polling, ‘which he could not afford, or public appearances before various groups ‘which he wished to avoid until the announcement of his candidacy, he simply began attending weekly meetings ofthe city council nine months before the election. ln this way, he had some guidance In slecting tues for his campaign because he was able to lear ona festhand bass wich ‘ssues were important or controversial enough tobe discussed in councl ‘Thus, the surfacing stage is important because the rhetorical agenda begins to be established. If these early concems are widespresd enough, they can become the dominant issues in sages ofthe cam: paign And thoce candidates who surtace early help determine what wll Dethe agenda. "The surfacing stage in 2008 was tke most others. During thei cam pigniog in New Hampshire and othe early prienary /eaurs sates car Alidates became aware of issues on voter nds and began to formate ‘agendas to match popular concer. And "while there were a number ‘of important issues on votes’ minds including ducing dependence on foreign ol creating job, providing quality and affordable health care for