Chapter 4 The political dimension of globalization Political globalization fest the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the glabe. These prooesees raise an Important set of politial esses pertalning to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing impact of itergovernmental organizations and the future prospects fr regional an global governance, and ‘avironmental policies acting ou plane. Obvious these themes respond tothe evoltion of plitial arangements beyond! the framework of the nation-state, thus breaking new eonceptal snd institutional ground. Afterall, forthe la ew centres, humans Ihe onganized their political differences along territorial lines that generated a sense of belonging’ toa partialar nation-state, ‘This artificial division of planetary socal space into domestic’ and “Toxelgn spheres corresponds to people's collective identities based ‘on the exeition of eommon as’ and an unfamiliar ‘thems. Ths the ‘moder nation-state system has tested on psychological foundations sand cultural assumptions tht convey n sense of existential security and historical continity, while a the same time demanding fot ts ‘tizens that they pa theit national leyalties tothe wlkimate test. "Nurtured by demonixnyimages ofthe Other, poples bliin the superiority oftheir own nation has supplied the mental energy ‘esquire fr large-seale warfire—fust asthe enormous productive eapacitis of the moder state have provided the materi means rnecessury to ight the total wars of the lat centary Contemporary manifestations of globalization have led tothe partial permention of these old territorial borders, In the process Also softening hard conceptual Boundaries and cultal lines of ‘demarcation. Emphasizing these tendencies commentators belonging to the camp of hypenglohalzers! have suggested that the period since the Iate 1960s has been marked bya radial ‘deterstorialzation’ of polities, rule, and goverance. Considering such pronouncements premature at best and erroneous at Wort, ‘globalization sceptics have not only affirmed the continued rulevance ofthe nation-state asthe polite] eontainer of modem ‘social life Dut have also polnted tothe emengence of regional blocs turevidence for new forme ofterstorialization. Some ofthese frites have gone so far as to sogest that globalization is actully sccentaating people's sense of nationality. As each group of global studies scholars presents diferent assesements of the fate ofthe ‘moder nation-state, they also quarel over the relative importance of politieal and economic factors. Out ofthese disagreements thore have emerged three fandamental questions that probe the extent of political slobalization. First is it really true that the power of the Astion-etate has heen curtailed by massive flows of eapital, people, and technology across tervitorial boundaries? Second, te the primary causes ofthese flows to be found in polities in fconomics? Third, are we witnessing the emergence of now _lobal governance structures? Before we respond to these ‘qwestons in more detail, let us brielly consider the main features ff the modeen nation-state system. The modern nation-state system ‘The origins of the modern nation-statoeystem can be traced buck to 17th-century political developments in Europe. In 1638, the Peace of Westphalia conclsded a serie of religious wars smiong the main European powers following the Protestant Reformation. Based on the newly formulated principles of amupronedensovereignty and territoriality, the ensuing model of slf- contained, impersonal states challenged the medieval mosaic of ‘all polities in which politieal power tended to be local and personal in focus but sil subordinated to a larger imperial ‘nthority. While the emergence of the Westphalian model did ‘ot eclipse the transnationst charactor of vast imperial domains ‘overnight, it nonetheless gradually strengthened a new ‘conception of intertiona Inw based on the principle that ll States had an equal right to selfdeterminstion. Whether ruled by abrolstist kings in France and Prussia or ina more democrat fashion by the constitutional monarchs and republican leaders of England and the Netherlands, these ‘ified territorial areas constituted the foundation for ‘modernity’s secular and national systom of political power. ‘According to political scientist David Held, the Westphalian ‘model contained the following essential points: 4, The world consist f and is dvied int, sovereign territorial states which recognize no superior authori. “The praceseroflaw-niakiag, the settlement of diptes, nd law ‘enforcement re langolyin the hands ofndividal states ‘2, International law is onente to the esaishmest of minimal rules of o-esistene: the cretion of enduring relationships isan aim, bat onl #o the exten that it allows state objctves tobe met. 4. Rexpomsiiliy for row-borler wrong actsisa“private mater concerning only those alee 1% Allstates ore regarded ax equal before the lw but legal rales do not take account of asymmetries af power {6 itfrenoss among states ar often seta by force; the principle of effective power bolas sway. Virtually no legal feters exist t0 uth the resort fore: international legal standard afford ony ‘minimal protection “The collective priority ofl states shouldbe to minimize the impediments ta state freedom. “The centuries following the Peace of Westphalia saw the farther centralization of plitical power, the expansion of state ‘dminisration, the development of profesional diplomacy, and the sioesafil monopolization of the means of cooreiom in the Inands ofthe state. Moreover, states also provided the military ‘ans requlred forthe expansion of commerce, whieh, in tur Contringted to the spread ofthis European form of political rule round the globe, ‘The modern nation-state system found its matare expression «athe end of World War in US President Woodrow Wiss famous ‘Fourteen Points based on th prineiple of national ‘selfdetermination. Buthls assumption that all forms of national ‘entity should be given their tertoril expression ina sovereign ‘nation-state proved to be extremely ficult to enforee in practice. Moreover, by enshrining the nation-state as the ethical and legal pinnacle of his proposed interstate system, Wilson ‘aittngly lent some legitimacy to those radical cthnonationalist forces that pushed the worlds main poweys into another war of panies F sccm onto ‘et, President Wilsons commitment tothe nation-state coexisted ‘vith his internationalst dream of establishing a global system of| callotive security under the auspices of new international ‘ongpniration, the League of Nations. Hic idea of giving ‘nernational e9operation an institutional expression was ‘rentualy realized with the founding ofthe United Nations in 1945, While deeply rooted ina political order based on the modem nation-state sytem, the UN and other fledgling intergovernmental organizations also served as catalysts for the ‘sradual extension of poltiea activities across national boundaries, thus undermining the principle of national sovereignty Asslobaliration tendencies grew stronger during the 19705 it ‘became clear that the international society of separate states was ‘spidly turing into a global web of poitial interdependencies baathat challenged conventional forms of national sovereignty: 11990, a the outset of the Gulf War, US President George H.W. Bush effectively pronounced dead the Westphalian medel by announcing the birth af anew world order whose leaders ro longer respected the ies that exss-border wrongful acts were ‘matter concerning only those status affected. Did this mean {hat the modern nation-state eystom was no longer viable? The demise of the nation-state? Hyperglobalizers respond tothe above question affirmatively: At the same time, mos of them consider politcal globalization a mere secondary phenomenon deiven by more fundamental economic and technofogteal frees. They angue that polities has been ‘endered almost powerless by an unstoppable techno-economic Snggernat that will rush all governmental attempts to reintrodvioe restrictive policies and regulations. Endowing. ‘eonomics with an inner loge apart from. and superior to polities, these commentators lok forward to a new phase in world history inhich the main role of government wil Beto serve as 8 “superconductor for global expitalisn nein sion. The Coun is comprised of sae, soup ome, Pronouncing the se ofa ‘borderless wood, hyperglobalizers sek ‘to convince the public tht globalization ineitablyinvaves the Geeline of bounded teritory asa meaningful concept for ‘understanding politcal and socal change. Consequents this _roup of commentators suggests that political power is located in ‘slob socal formations an expressed through global networks rather than through eritrillyhased states uct they argue ‘that nation-states have already lost their dominant roe in the slobal ecomomy, As teritorildlvisons are becoming increasingly Jrmeleyant, states are even les eapable of determining the ‘irectlon of social life within ther borders. For example, since the ‘workings of genuinely global eapital markets dwarf thei ability to ‘omtrol exehnnge rates or protect thelr currency, nation-states have become wslnerable tothe discipline imposod by economic ‘ ThesSenity Couns fe Uae N Aveo which-the USA the Ae Astle at ofthe UN Chart‘holces made elsewhere, over which states have no practi ‘control, Hyperglotnlizers insist thatthe minimalist political onder ofthe future will be determined by regional economies linked together in an almost seamless global web of production and exchange, “The group of globalization scopes disagrees, highlighting instead the central role of politics in unleashing the forees of globalization, expecially through the succesful mobilization of politica power: I their view the rapid expansion of global economic activity ean be reduced nether to a nntira In of the market nor tothe development of computer technology: Rather, it originated with political decisions to it international estrictions on capita made ‘by neoliberal governments inthe 1980s and 1990s. Once those decisions were implemented, lobal markets and new technologies ‘came into thei own, The clear implication of this perspective le that tervtory still matters. Hence, globilicaton sceptics insist on the continued relovance of conventional political nits, operating cither in the form of modern nation-states or global cites, “The arguments of both hyperglabalizers and sceptics remain ‘entangled in a particularly vexing version of the chicken-ande the-egg problem. Afterall, economic forms of interdependence fare set into motion by politial decisions, but these decisions fare nonetheless made in particular economie contexts. As we hhave noted in previous chapters, the economie and polities aspects of globalization are profoundly interconnected, There is ho question that recent cconomie developments sich as trade liberalization and deregulation have significantly constrained: ‘the set of politcal options open to states, particularly in the slobal South, For example, it has become much easier for capital to excape taxation and other national policy restsictions. ‘Thus, global markets frequently undermine the espacity of governments to set independent national poliey objectives and Impose their own domestic standards. Honee, ve ought to scknovledge the decline of the nation-state as a sovereign entity and the ensuing devolution of state power to regional and local governments as well as ta various supranational Insticutions. ‘On the other hand, euch a conecsston does not necessarily mean ‘hat nation-states have become impotent bystanders to the ‘workings of global foress. Governments can stil take measures to hake their evonomies more or less terete to global investors Inaddition, nation-states have retained control ver education, infrastructure, and, most importantly, population movements Indeed, immigration contso, together with popslation rwgistrstion and monitoring, has often been cited ax the most notable exeeption to the yenera rend toward global integration. Although only 2 per cat of the worlds population live outside Se eet restrict population flows, particularly those originating in the poor countries of the global South. Even in the United States, annual squalled the levels recorded daring the Bex two decades of the 20th century: nally, the series of drastic national security measures that were “implemented wordvvde nea reponse to the terrorist attacks of 43/11 reflect political dynamics that run counter tothe hyperalobalizers predictions ofa borderless world. Some civil ‘eh advocates sil fear thatthe enormions expansion of national ‘ecnity measutes around the world might ennhle states to reimpose restrictions on the freedom of movement snd assembly (ithe ene me, however, the activi af lob tentriat ‘setworks have revealed the inadequacy of conventional national security structures based on the modern nation-state aster, this ‘cing national governments to engage in new forms of ‘nternntional cooperation.(Overall, them, we ought to reject premature pronouncements of ee aera its increasing diMleutis in performing some ofits traditional functions. Contemporary globalization has weakened some ‘ofthe conventional boundaries Between domestic and foreign policies while fostering the geowth of supratervitoril socis] spaces and institutions that, in men, unsettle traditional politcal arrangements. Inthe second decade of the 21st century, ‘the world finds itself a transitional phase between the ‘modern nation-state system and postmodern forms of global governance Political globalization and global governance Political globalization is most visible in the rise of supraterritorial Institutions and associations held together by common norms ‘and interests In this early phase of global governance, these structures resemble an eclectic network of interrelated power centres such as municipel and provincial authorities, regional blocs international organizations, and national and {international private-sector associations ‘On the municipal end provinclt level, there has been a ‘emacksble growth in the numberof policy initiatives and ‘ransborder links benwoen various suh-state sethorties. For ‘example, Chinese provinces and US federal states have established, ‘permanent missions and points of contact, come of which operate relatively antonamousiy with litle ovetsight fom their respective national governments. Various provinces and federal statesin Canacl, India, and Braril are developing their own trade spends and Gnancial strategies to obtain loans. An example of international cooperation on the municipal levels the ise of powerfil city ntworks like the World Aseociation of Major Metropolis that develop cooperative ventures to deal with ‘common Ioed imues aeros national borders. lobal Citie? Merchandise wade eee Migration Nationalism a setae Sate ona SuTvllrce by global ‘governance agencies 1 The nation state na globalising worl samp like Tokyo, London, New York, and Singapore tend to be ore ‘losely connected to each other than they are to many cites in their home countries. On the regional level, there has been an extraordinary proliferation of multilateral organizations and agreements FRogioual clubs and agencies have sprang up across the world, Teading some observers to speculate that they will eventually replace nation-states 4s the basi unit of governance. Starting out ts attempts to integrate regional economies, these regional bloes yhave in some cases already evolved into Toese political {federations with common institutions of governance. For ‘ample, the European Community began in 1950 with French Foreign Minister Robert Schummans modest plan to create a supranational institution charged with regulating French andGerman coal and ste! production. Half a century later, 1S member states have formed a close community with political institutions that create common publie policies and design binding security arrangements. Following the disolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, many ofthe formerly communist countries in Easter Europe have submitted thei formal accession applications to the EU. (On global level, governments have formed a number of {ntermational organization, including the UN, NATO, WTO, and ‘OECD. Fall lezal membership ofthese organizations ix open to states only, and the decision-making authorlty Hes with ‘representatives ftom national governments. The proliferation of ‘these transnational bodies has show that nation-states find it ‘nereesingy difficult to manage sprawling networks of social interdependence. 08 can Peete, Os Eso, Finger a ia, i, Pal Slo, Sve) 2007 ana. oman 1957 (ain Farce Gerary es, BD ey eerentema) 185 ai Fl Se) BBE 20 nace reins me J, 610m) Vt gpan reas Oo 8 Finally, the emerging structure of global governance shaped by ‘global civil society a realm populated by thousands of voluntary, non-governmental associations of worldwide reac International NGOs like Doctors Without Borders oF Greenpeace reprasent millions of ordinaty citizens who are prepared to challenge politcal ané economic decisions made by. pation-states and intergovernmental organizations. We will ‘examine the justice-glabalist’ activities af some ofthese ‘organizations in Chapter 7 ‘Some globalization revearchers believe that politial globalization ‘might fucltate the emergence of democratic wansnational socal oreos anchored inthis thriving sphere of global civil socio. Prodicting that democratic rights will ultimately become detached ‘rom their narrow relationship to disereteteritorial nits, these ‘optimistic voices anticipate the eration of a democratic global ‘vermance structure based on Westesn cosmopolitan ideals, International legal arrangements, and « web of expanding linkagesbetween variows governmental and non-governmental organizations. Ifsuch a promising scenario indeed will eometo pass, then the fnal outcome of politial globalization might we be the emergence of cosmopolitan democracy that would ‘constitute the basis fora plurality of identities ourishing within a structure of mutual toleration and accountability Agcording %0| avid Held, ono of the chief proponents of this view, the ‘cosmopolitan democracy of the future would contain the following politialfeasures: A global porliament connected to regions, tates, and localities 2. Anew charter of ights and duties locked into diferent domains “The formal separation of polities and economic interests; 4. An inteconnectod global legal eystem with mechanloms of tsfercement from the lea tothe global A numberof less optimistic commentators have challenged the ‘dea that politieal globalization is moving in the direction of Region’ Associations Carerament| INGOs} [THs] Incipient global governance ‘Sax tans Teron eH ao en, 0 ‘cosmopolitan democracy. Most criticisms boll down tothe change that such a vision indulge im an abstract idealism that fails to engage current politcal developments on the level of public poe. Scoptis have also expressed the suspicion that the proponents of cosmopolitanism do not consider in suficent ‘etal the cultural feasibility of global democracy In other Sree, es wari dese eaten elit), pica abd ‘economic interaction makes the possibility of resistance and, ‘opposition just as zeal asthe benign vision of mutual accommodation and tolerance of differences. To follow up this cultural dimension of globalization, let us turn tothe neat chaptee vemmuprontonChapter 5 The cultural dimension of global As our opening discussion of the 2010 Football World Cup has shown, even a very short introduction to globalization would be ‘yooflly inadequate without an examination ofits cultural dimension, Cultaral globalization refers tothe intensification and expansion of ealtural flows across the globe. Obviously, ‘ulture! is very eoad comeept ts fequenlly used ta deseris the whole of human experience, In onder to avoid the ensuing problem of ‘overgeneralization itis important to make analytical distinetions Deseen aspects of social life. For example, we associate the adjective ‘economic’ with the production, exchange, and ‘coneumption of commodities f we are discussing the political, ‘woman practices related to the goneration and distribution of power in societies. If we ae talking bon the eataral, we are concerned with the symbolic construction, artielation, and dissemination of meaning. Given that language, musi, and mages constitute the major forms of symbolic expression, they sssume special significance in the sphere of cults ‘The exploding network of ealtural interconnections and Interdependencis in the lst decades has led some commentators ‘to suggest that cultural practices ie atthe very heart of ‘contemporary globalization. Yet, enltsral globalization did not start ith the worldwide disernination of rock’ rll, Coct-Cl, oF football As noted in Chapter 2, expansive civilizational ‘exchanges are much older thas: modetnity. till, the wolume and ‘extent of cultural insmissions in the contemporary period have far exceeded those of earlier eras. Facilitated by the Internet and ovr proliferating mobile digital devices, the dominant “ombolic ystems of meaning of our age—such as individualism, ‘consumerism, and varions religious discourses—cireulate more {heely and widely than ever before. As images and ideas can be mote easly and rapidly transmitted from one place to another, they profoundly impact Ue way people experience thelr everyday lives. Toda cultural practices have escaped fed localities such as own and nation, eventually acquiring new meanings in {interaction with dominant global themes. The thematic landscape traversed by scholars of cultural lobalizaton is vast and the questions they raise are too numerous falbe fleshed ot in this short introduction. Rather than offering 8 Tong Iaundey ist of relevant topes, tha cha por wil cus on these ‘important themes: the tension between sameness and difarence Jn the emerging global culture; the erucial roj of transnational ‘media corporations in disseminating popular eulture; and the lobaization of laniranges. Global culture: sameness or difference? Does globalization make people around the werd more alike oF ‘more different? This s the question most frequently raised in Aseussions on th subject of cultural globalization. A group of commentators vo might eall‘peesimistc hyperglobalizers anu sn four ofthe former. They sugxest that we are not moving towards a cultural rainbow tha reflects the diversity ofthe worlds csting cultures. Rather, we are witnossing the ise of an ‘ncreasingly homogenized popular culture uncervitten by a ‘Western ‘eulture industry’ based in New York, Hollywood, Landon, and Milan, As evidence for ther interpretation, these commentators point to Amazonian Indians wearing Nike trining ‘hoo; denizens ofthe Southern Sahara purchasing Yankees‘baseball caps and Palestinian youths prowely displaying thie Chicago Bulls sweatshirts in downtown Rasmallah. Referring to ‘the diffasion of Anglo-American valucs and consumer goods as the ‘Ammericaniation of the word, the proponents ofthis cultural ‘homogenization thesis argue that Western norms and Ifestles are overwhelming more vulaifable cultures, although there have ‘been serious attempts by some countries to resist these forces of ‘cultural imperalim—for example a ban on satelite dishes in tran, and the French imposition of tariffs and quotas on imported ‘im and television the spread of American popular culture scems tobe unstoppable Bot these manifértations of sameness are alae evident inside the dominant countries ofthe global North. American sociologist, George Ritzer coined the term MeDonaldization'to describe the ‘wide-ranging sociocultural processes by whieh the principles of the fst food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well us the rest of the world. On ‘the surface, these principles appear tobe ational in their attempts to offer efficient and predictable ways of serving people’ needs. However, looking behind the fagade af repetitive TV ‘commercials that claim to love to see you smile, we can identify a ‘number of serious problems, For one, the generally low nutritional value of fast-food meals-and particularly their high {at content—has been implicated inthe ese of serious heath problems such as heat disease, diabetes, cancer, and juvenile obccity. Moreover, the impersonal. routine operations of rational” {fast-service establishments actually undermine expressions of forms of entra diversity. Inthe long rin, the MeDonaldization| ‘of the world amounts to the imposition of uniform standards ‘that eclipse human creativity and debumanize social relations| (oe Figure G) ‘One particular thoughtful analyst in thie group of pessimistic hyperglobalizers is American politcal theorist Benjamin Barber In his popular book Conwmed (2007), he warns his readers against an ‘ethos of infantiliztion' that sustains global capitalism, turning adults into children through dusubed down advertsig and consumer goods while also targeting children as consumers. ‘This ethos is premised on the eeognition that there is not an endless market for consumerist goods aa was once thought. Global Inequality contributes to atifing the growth of markets and of| capitaliam. tn order to expand markets and make profi, global capitalcts are developing homogenous global poccts targeting the young and wealthy throughout the world, a= well ax turning {ebildren into consumers. Thus, global consurmerisin becomes Increasingly soulless and unethical nits purmt of profit, (Optimistic hyperglobalzers agree with their pessimistic colleagues that eultual globalization generates more sameness, but they ‘cousider this outcome io bea good thing. For example, Ameriean social thoorst Francis Fukuyama explicit weleomes the global spread of Anglo-American values and lifestyles, equating the Amerianization of the worl with the expansion of democracy land free markets (ee Ilustration 9). But optimistic -hyperslobalizees do not just come in the form of American hauviniste who apply te old thene of manifest destiny to the lbal arena. Some representatives ofthis camp consider themselves staunch eosmopolitans wio celebrate the Internet as the harbinger ofa homogenized techno culture: Others are free-market enthusiasts who embrace the values of global consumer capitalism. ossoupammst Itis one thing to acknowledge the existence of power homogenizing tendencies inthe word, but it ix quite another to ssert thatthe cultural diversity existing on our plant is destined to vanish In fet, several inflvential commentators offer contrary assessment that links globalization to new forms of cultural expression. Sociologist Holand Robertson, fr example, ‘conten that global cultural flows often reinvigorate local ultra riches. Hence, rather than being totally obliterated by the Western consumerist forces of sameness, local difference andavon ssa ons oe pend wa Tee NE YTPET A Yay Do ago erp ONL dn apna eq oye aes mp sua eeu am jossmed ny, Supa SALOME REET Le ee Fao ap ney ae]ppsticuarity stil play an important role in ereating unique cultural constellations. Arguing that cultural globalization always takes place in local eontexts, Roberton rejects the cultural homogenization thesis and speaks instead of glocalzation—a complex interaction of the global and local charaeterized by ‘cultural borrowing, The resulliag expressions of cultural “ybriity” cannot he reduced to clear-cut manifestations of “samenese’or ‘diffrence: As we noted in our discussion of Shakira and Wake Waka in Chapter 1, such processes of hybridization hase become mast visible in fashion, muse, dance, fim, food, cede ‘But the respective arguments ofhyperglobalizers and scoptes aro not necessarily incompatible. The contemporary experience of Tiving and acting across cultural borders means both the loss of traditional meanings and the eration of new symbolic ‘expressions, Reconstructed feelings of belonging coesst in uneasy tension with a sense of placelesanes, Indeed, some commentators have negued that modernity is slowly giving way to a new ‘postmodern framework charaeverized by aless stable sense of entity and knowledge Given the compleity of global cultural flows, one would actually expect to se unewen and contradictory effets, In certain contests, thece flows might change traditional manifestations of national identity in the deection of s popular eulture characterized by sameness in others they might oster new expressions of cultural particlarism in still others they might encourage forms of tultoral ‘hybridity, Those commentators who summarily Senounce the homogenizing effects of Americanization must not forget that harly any society in the world today possessos an ‘autheuti,eelf-contained culture Those who despair atthe {logrishing of entural hybridity ought wo listen to exciting Bollywood pop songs, admire the fotriexcy of several variations of Hawaiian pidgin, or enjoy the evlinary delights of Cuban-Chines= ceisine. Finally; those who applaud the spread of consumerist had vs MeWerl: sling a fon Indonesiancapitan need to pay etention to its negative consequences, fic as the dramasie deine of traditional communal vestments as well as the commodification of society and nature. The role of the media _ “To. large extent the global eultural ows of ou time are generated and directed by global media empires that rely on powerful communication technologies to spread thei message Saturating global ealtural reality with Formulaie TV shows nd mindless advertisements, these corporations inevasingly ‘Shape people identities andthe structive of desires around the ‘orld The is ofthe global imaginary is inextricably connected ‘othe rise ofthe global medin. Dring the lst two decades, a small group of very large TNCs have come to dominate the global ‘market for entertainment, news, television, and film. In 2006, ‘nly eight media conglomerstes Yahoo, Google, AOL;/‘Time ‘Warner, Microsoft, Viacom, General Hlectrie, Disney, and News CCorporationaccounted for more than two-thirds of the ‘U$8240~275 billion in annual worldwide revenes generated by ‘the communications industry. In the frst half ofthat year, the ‘volume of merger deals in global media, Internet, and ‘clecommunications totalled USS300 billion thee times the figure forthe frst six months of1999. As oently as fifteen years ago, not one ofthe giant corporations ‘hat dominate what Benjamin Barber hes appropriately called the “Infotainment teleseetr existed in its present form as a media ‘company. In 2001, nearly al ofthese corporations ranked among, ‘he largest 200 non-financial frm in he world. Today, most, rmodis analsts concede tha the emergence ofa plobal ‘commercil-media market amounts tothe eeation of a global ‘oligopoly similar to that ofthe oil and automotive industries the ‘arly part ofthe 20th century: Te eracial cultural innawators of ‘arlice deeades—small, independent record labels, radio stations, ‘movie theatre, newspapers and book pablishers-have become ‘virtually extinet as they found themselves incapable of competing, ‘with the media giants “The commercial values disseminated by transnational medin enterprises secuse not only the undisputed cultural hegemony of ‘popular culture, but also ead tothe depoliticization of social reality and the weakening of eile bonds. One of the most glaring developments ofthe lat to decades has been the transformation fof news broadensts and eduestional programmes into shallow entertainment shows—many of ther ironieally touted as ells" Shows, Given that news is less than half profitable as folertanment, meta fim ae increasingly tempted to parse igher profits by ignoring jomalism's much vmanted separation of newsroom practices and business decisions. Partnerships and alliances hetween news and entertainment companies are fst becoming the norm, making it more common for publishing executives to press juimalist to cooperate with their nessspapers) ‘usinoss operstions. A sustained attack onthe professional ‘sstonomy of journalism is, therefore, also part of cultaral lobalization f ‘The globalization of languages ‘One direct method of measuring and evaluating cultural changes ‘brought about by globalization isto study the shifting global pattems of language nee. The globalization of languages can be viewed se « proces by which some languages are increasingly ‘nse in nterational communication while others lose their ‘prominence and even disappear fr lack of speakers. Researchers {tthe Globalization Research Center atthe University of Hawal' have identified five key variables that influence the globalization flanges: 1 umber oflanguagerThe declining number oflanguages in ‘iferent parts ofthe world points othe strengthening of homogenizing cultural forecs.2. Movement of people: Poople carry thet languages with them ‘when they migrate and travel. Migration pattems alec the ee 2. Forsign language learning and tourism: Foreigs langues learning and tourism feta the spread oflanguages beyond national or cuftral boundarts 4. Internat languages The Interne bas become a global medi or fnmtant communietion and gui access to infurmation, ‘Language use on the Internet ic «key factor the analysis ofthe dominance and variety of anguages in intemasional 15. International scent publications: International sient publiations contain the languages of global intelectual discourse, ‘Sus eritiealyempocting intellects! communities ivolvedin the production, epradution, and eivalation of knowledge around the worl. ‘Given these highly complex interactions, research inthis area ‘requently yields contradictory conclusions, The igure above represents only one possible coneeptalization of the meaning and fleets of language globalization. Unable to reach a general fagreeient, experts inthe feld have developed several diferent hypotheses. One model posts clear correlation between the rosving global significance ofa few languages particularly English, Chinese, and Spanish—and the declining number of other languages around the worl. Another model suggests that the globalization of language docs not nocessarily mean that our descendants aro destined to utilize only a few tongues. Still ‘mother thesis emphasizes the power of the Angle-Amesean ‘culture inst’ to make English—or what some commentators ‘all Globishthe global lingua franca of the 21st century: “To be suse the rising significance ofthe English language has 2 long histor; reaching back tothe birth of British colonialism in the late 16th century. At that time, only approximately seven oh 1 Te dealing ounber of anuages rod the wo, 500-2000 Slatin one ety‘million people wsed Finglish as their mother tongue. By the 19908, this number had swollen to over 450 million native speakers, with 400 million more using English as a second language. Today, Se ee ee English. Almost half of the world’ growing population of foreign students is enrolled at institatiths in Anglo-American countries ‘At the same time, however the number of spoken languages in the ‘world has dropped from about 1,500 in 1500 to less han 6,500 {in 2012 (see Figure H), Given she current rate of decline, some linguists predict that 50-90 percent of the currently existing languages wil have disappeared bythe end ofthe 2st century. Bat the world’ languages are not the only entities threatened with extinction. The spread of consumerist values and materialist lifestyles has endangered the ecological health of our planet aswel Chapter 6 The ecological dimension of globalization Although we have examined the eouomie, polities, and eultaral sspects of globiliation separately, itis important to emphasize ‘that each ofthese dimensions impacts on and has consequences for the other domains. Nowhere this ore clearly demonstrated ‘than in the ecological dimensions of globalization. Tn recent years, ‘global ensisonmental issues such as global climate change and ‘sansboundary pollution have received engrmous attention from ‘esearch institute, the media, politicians, and economists. Indeed, the ccologial efleets of globalization ae increasingly recognized asthe most significant and potantally life threatening {or the world as we have inherited it fom our ancestors. The ‘worldwide impact of natural andl man-made disasters such asthe horrifying nuclear plant accidents at Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986), and Fukushima, Japan (2011), eleatly shows thatthe formidable ‘cologicl problems of our tie ean only be tackled hy a global alliance of states and civil society actors In addition to economic and politial factors, cultural values sreatly nfluence how people view thelr natural environment, For example, cultures steeped in Taoist, Buddhist and varions animist religions tend to emphasize the interdependence of all Tiving beings a perspective that cals fora delicate balance Detsicen human Wants and ecological needs, Judeo-Christian ‘humanism, on the other hand, contains deeply dualistic values