Elementary Functions 110 fon wi degree m and denomirfa- i -) js a rational function with numeralor Ce} n0} * So all sufficiently large, there are positive consiants cy ard ca ee a x that eylgl"™™ «< [Ru.a(2)| < cate)". te a 17. Show par if p@) = aa(e— ANE ~ By ey then the pi : expansiOg of the Jogarithmie derivative p /pis given by p'@) _ ay P&Z 18. i d positive and each z;, lies in the upper half-plane imz> 0, te a eae e the ave Imz < 0. (HINT: Write R(z) = “4% vectors (¢ — zy) for Im z, > 0 and "0. Argue from the skeich this apf linear combination of these vectors with real, positive coefficients (dj,/1z — zx/* must have a negative (and hence nonzero) imaginary part. Alternatively, show/directly that Im R(z) > 0 for lm z < 0.) 19, Show that if all the zeros of a polynomial pz) lie in the upper half-plane, then the same is true for the zeros of p/(z). {HINT: See Rrobs. 17 and 18.) 20. Generalize the geometric show that if all the zeros of a Polynomial p(z) lie on/oue side of any line, then the same is true for the zeros of v'@ 21. When a set of points lies entirely on one side of a straigh\Jine, let us say that the line “shelters” she point set, If z; z2..... 2, is any finite set'ef points in the plane, w how exceptions to the statement “the degree of the product of two pol ynomials gA{uals the sum of the degrees of each factor” are finessed by the choicé(—co) as {he degree of the identically zero polynomial, 3.2 The Exponential, Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic Functions The complex exponential function e Plays a promi i i i - OF¥, not only because ofits ov impen 'YS @ prominent role in analytic function the 'tanl properties but because it is used to define the ee Francois Edouard Anatole Lucas (1842-1 891) invented the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.3.2 The Exponential, Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic Functions i complex trigonometric and hyperbolic function: is. Recall iti L:ie=x+iy, all the definition from Chapter e* (cos y + y). (b As a consequence of Example 2 in Sec. 2.4, we know that ¢# is an entire function and that d sagt dz The polar components of e* are readily derived from (I): lel =e, (2) age’ =y+2%kr (k=0,41,42,...), 3) It follows that e* is never zero. However, e* does assume every other complex value (see Prob, 4). Recall that a function f is one-to-one ona set S if the equation f(z) = f(z), where z; and zz are in S. implies that c; = zz. As is shown in calculus, the exponential function is one-to-one on the real axis. However it is nor one-to-one on the complex plane. In fact, we have the following. Theorem 3. (i) The equation e* = 1 holds if, and only if, 2 = 2km/, where k is an integer. Gi) The equation e! = e*? holds if, and only if, z, = zo + 2kzi. where k is an integer. Proof of (i). First suppose that e* = 1, with z = x + iy. Then we must have les fet? | =e =1, and so x = 0. This implies that é e Y= cosy +isiny or, equivalently, cosy =1, siny =0. These two simultaneous equations are clearly satisfied only when y = 2kz for some integer k; i.e. ¢ = 2kzi. | Conversely, if z = 27, where & is an integer, then & = el — 6 (cos2km +i sin2kz) = 1. Proof of (ii). It follows from the division rule that if, andonly if, ¢!-% = 1. glaEEE Elementary Functions 112 i 2) — 72 = 2kai, where k is an py part (i), the last equation holds precisely when Z1 — 22 But, by p' » | . 0 3.4s the fact that e* is periodic. In general, nie i ce of Theorem 3 is the e One impo to be periodic ina doinain D if there exists “ nonzero constant a 2 function esuation f@td) = f@ holds for every z in D. Any con: i such that U this property is called a periad of f. Since, for all z, gittai =, that e* is periodic with complex period 277i. Consequently, if we divide up the we see “i e z-plane into the infinite horizontal strips Syislatbpl-0 <* < 00, Qn— lm 0} and find the image of this strip. [HINT: See Prob, 16] (b) For w = sin 2, whatis the image of the smaller semi-infinite strip Re tetiyp-apr SY) y> 0}?3.2 The Exponential, Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic Functions 22, 25. Pn emer 7 Zeplane y -l+ni Lani w-plane (a) Figure 3.2 Mapping of a rectangle under w = e?. Prove that for any am distinct complex numbers 41.42... 2m (At # Ay fori # J)s the functions ¢*!* Haz are linearly independent on C. In other words. show that if cye*!® + ope? +--+ + Gue*® = 0 for all z, then cy = c= +++ = Cm = 0. [HINT: Proceed by induction on m, In the inductive step, divide by one o: the exponéntials and then take the derivative.] . Below is an outline of an alternative proof that sin? z + cos? z = 1 for alll z. Justify each step in the proof. (a) The function f(z) = sin? z + cos? z is entire. (b) f’(z) =0 forall z. (c) f(z) is a constant function. (d@) £0) =1. (©) f(z) =1 forall z. |. Using only real arithmetic operations, write a computer program that, when given as input the real and imaginary parts (x. y) of ¢ =. + iy, produces as output the real and imaginary parts of (a) ¢*, (b) sin z, and (c) coshz. The behavior of the function e'/* around z = 0 is extremely erratic; in Sec. 5.6 this point is classified as an “esse: singularity.” Find values of g, all located in the tiny disk [z| < 0,001, where e!/* takes the value (a) i, (b) -1, (c) 6.02 x 1078 (Avogadro's number), (d) 1.6 x 107'9 (the electronic charge it Coulombs).118 3.3 The Logarithmic Function | Elementary Functlong = we have used the word “function” to mean a discussing ‘ CT iM Sd Omissbie yalue of z, Sometimes this fact is ae pel by sayin “f is a single-valued function.” Of course there are equations ‘het do not define single-valued functions; for example, w = argz and w = l/2, Indeed, for each nonzero z there are an infinite number of distinct values of argz and two distinct values of z/, In general, if for some values of z there corresponds = f(z) is liple-valued one value of w = f(z). then we say that w fF is a mu fanwon. We commonly obtain multiple-valued functions by taking the inverses of single-valued functions that are not one-to-one. This is, in fact, how we obtain the complex Jogarithmic function log z- / —_ So we want to define log z as the inverse of the exponential function; i.e., w=logz if z=e”. qa) Since e” js never zero, we presume that z % 0. To find logz explicitly, let us write gin polar form as z = re” and write w in standard form as w = u + iv. Then the equation z = e” becomes reo = ettiv — gugiv, @ ‘Taking magnitudes of both sides of (2) we deduce that r = e”, or that w is the ordinary (real) logarithm of r: wu =Logr. (We capitalize Log here to distinguish the natural logarithmic function of real vari- ables.) The equality of the remaining factors in Eq. (2), namely, e” = e!”, identifies v as the (multiple-valued) polar angle @ = arg z: v=agz= 8. ‘Thus w = log z is also.a multiple-valued function, The explicit definition is as follows. | Definition 3. Ifz # 0, then we define log z to be the set of infinitely many values logz : = Log |z{ +iarge | SLogl|+iAre+ike (k= 0,41, 42,...), ® ee All logarithms in this text are take! fotaGons tn end Ln are not sed fn the ee Pee a the togarithm could be extended , are hereafter abbreviated I Log. The in this book, Leonhard Buter (1707_ ‘0g or Log. ‘omnegative and comptes nu (707 1783) conceived the idea that3.3 The Logarithmic Function 19 ‘The snultiple-valuedness of log z si i P 8 z simply reflects the fact that thé imagin: art of the logarithm is the polar angle 0; the real part is single-valued, As examples, consider log 3 = Log3 + i arg3 = (1.908...) + i2kz, log(—1) = Log | + i arg(—1) = 102k + Iz. log(1 +) = Log|1 + é| +i arg(] +i) al i(% = 5 Log? +i (E +27), where k = 0, +1, 42,.... The familiar properties of the real logarithmic function extend to the complex case, but the precise statements of these extensions are complicated by the fact that log z is multiple-valued. For example, if z 0, then we have - z=, but Joge® =z + 2kxi (k= 0,41, 42.. Furthermore, using the representation (3) and the equations argziz2 = arg: + argz2. (4) zt arg (2) = args: ~ area, (5) one can readily verify tbat log z1z2 = log zi + logz2, (6) and that z log (2) = log zi — log <2. to) 22 As with Eqs. (5), we must interpret Eqs. (6) and (7) to mean that if particular values are assigned to any two of their terms, then one can find a value of the third term so that the equation is satisfied. For example, if z; = z2 = —1 and we select zi to be the value of log z and log 22, then Eq. (6) will be satisfied if we use the particular value 2zi for log(z1z2) = log |. Recall that in Sec. 1.3 we used the notion of a branch cut to resolve the ambiguity in the designation of the polar angle @ = arg 2. We took Argz to be the principal value of arg z, the value in the interval (—7, 7}, which jumps by 27 as z crosses the branch ciit along the negative real axis. Other branches arg, z resulted from restricting the values of argz to (t,t + 277] and shifting the 27r-discontinuities to the ray @ = T. Clearly the saine artifice will gencrate single-valued branches of log z. The prin- cipal value of the logarithm Logz is the value inherited ftom the principal value of the argument, Logz := Log|z| +i Argz. (8)Elementary Functions Figure 3.3. Analyticity domain for Log <- [Notice that we can use the same convention (Log with a capital L) for the principal value as for the usual (real) value, since Arg z = 0 if z is positive real.] Log z also inherits, from Argz, the discontinuities along the branch cut; it jumps by 27/ as z crosses the negative real axis, However, at all points off the nonpositive real axis, Log z is continuous, and this fact enables us to prove the next theorem, Theorem 4. The function Log z is analytic in the domain D* consisting of all points of the complex plane except those lying on the nonpositive real axis (see Fig. 3.3). Furthermore, for zin D*. (9) d a 8? = roof. Let us set w = Logz. Our goal is to prove that, for zp in D* and Log othe limit of the difference quotient Ww lim vo 290 22 qd) itis convenient h ‘0 use form (10) instead of the usual form him, [Les (0 + Az) — Log] /Az.3.3 ‘The Logarithmic Function use the limit on the right exists and equals 1/z. But (11) will follow from (2) (b) For z # zo, w will not taj meaningful]. Condition (a) follows from the coneinvi is even more immediate, if w coip z=e™. Thus w = Logz is diffetemiable at ev there. ty. in D*, of w = Logz. Condition () hNwo, ~ would have to equal zo, since Ypoint in D* and hence is analytic [ Corollary 1. Cano Arg is harmonic in the domain B* of Theorem 4. ary 2, The real function Log |z| is harmonic in the entire plane with the exception of the origin. (See Prob. 8) Example 1 Determine the domain of analyticity for the function f(z) := Log(3z — i). Compute f'@). Solution. Since f is the composition of Log with the function g(z) = 3z —f, the chain rule asserts that f will be differentiable at each point z for which 32 — i lies in the domain D* of Theorem 4. Thus points where 3z — é is negative or zero are disallowed; a little thought shows that these points lie on the horizontal ray x < 0, ,= 4 (see Fig. 3.4). In this slit plane, then, from Eq. (9): 1 d ae da ye PG) = F LosBe—D = yee Other branches of log z can be employed if the location of the discontinuities on the negative axis is inconvenient. Clearly the specification Ly (2) = Log|z| +i arg, z (13) Advanced readers will observe that the same proof. ‘could be upplicd to any’ function FQ that is analytic and one-to-one around zg and for which f"(zo) # 0, 10 conclude that the inverse function is analytic and has derivative 1/f’(zo).re Elementary Functions Figure 3.4 ‘Analyticity domain for Log(3z ~ i). Figure 3.5 Domain of C_x;s(z). results in a single-valued function whose imaginary part lies in the interval (t, t +2z}. Moreover, the same reasoning used in the proof of Theorem 4 shows that this function is analytic in the complex plane excluding the ray @ = + and the origin, and in this domain, a ' —L(2)=-. te 2 (2) Z Figure 3.5 depicts the domain of analyticity for £_z/4(z). Of course, no branch of Jog z is analytic at the origin, which is called a branch point for log z. Thus far we have used the phrase “branch of Jogz” in a somewhat informal manner to denote. specific values for this multiple-valued function. To make matters more Precise, we give the following definition: Definition 4. F(z) is said to be a branch of a multiple-valued function f(z) in adomain D if F(z) is'single-valued and continuous in-D and has the property that, for each z in. D, the yalue F(z) is one of the values of f(z). . Forexample, Argz is a branch of argz and Log is a branch of logz in the plane slit along the negative real axis. In this same domain, the function defined by e(!/2) Le8¢ gives a branch of z!/? whose values all lie in the right half-plane.3.3 The Logarithmic Functton 123 Example 2 Determine a branch of f(z) = log(z3 — 2) that is analytic at z = 0, and find f£@ and £0). , Solution. . ‘The multiple-valued function f(z) is the composition of the logarithm with the analytic function g(z) = z3 - 2. ‘Thus, by the chain rule, it suffices to choose any branch of the logarithm that is analytic at g(0) = —2. In particular, F(z) = L—2/4(g(z)) solves the problem. For this choice, F(0) = L_xj4(0? — 2) = Log2 + iz, FO) = Log palg())g"(0) = 2 _ (0) a /s8(0))g'(0) #0) 0. m We conclude this section with a word of waming. When complex arithmetic is incorporated into computer packages, all functions must of necessity be programmed as single-valued. The complex logarithm, for instance, is usually programmed as our “principal value,” Log z. This invalidates somne identitites, such as Eq. (6), since it is not true in general that Log z1z2 = Log zi + Logz. (See Prob. 3.) EXERCISES 3.3 1. Evaluate each of the following. (a) logi (b) log! — i) {c) Log(—i) (4) Log(/3 + i) 2. Verity formulas (6) and (7). 3. Show that ifzi =i and z =i —1,theny Logzizz # Logzi + Logz2. 4, Prove that Log ¢* = z if and only if—m < Imz sz. 5. Solve the following equations. (a) = 25 (b) Log? - 1) = F @e*+e+1=0 6. Find the error in the following “proof” that —z: Since 2 = (—z)*, it follows that 2Logz = 2 Log(—z), and hence Logz = Log(—z), which implies that z = ghOBE = plow(-o) = —z, 7, Use the polar form of the Cauchy-Riemann equations (Prob. 6 in Exercises 2.4) to give another proof of Theorem 4. 8. Without directly verifying Laplace's equation, explain why the function Log |z| is harmonic in every domain that does not contain the origin.Elementary Functiong 124 9, Determine the domain of analyticity for f(z) = Log(4 +i — 2). Compute f/(z), s Log(—2z) + iz is. branch of logz analytic in the domain Dy 10. Show that the function the plane except those on the nonnegative real axis, consisting of all points in . JA. Determine a branch of log(z? + 22 + 3) that is analytic at z = —I, and find its derivative there. 12. Find a branch of log(z? + 1) that is analytic at z = 0 and takes the value 277 there, 43. Find a branch of log(2z — 1) that is analytic at all points in the plane except those on the following rays. (a) (t+iylas}, y= 0) ) jx tiylx2 4, y=) (© ketiylx=z 720 14. Prove that there exists no function F(z) analytic in the annulus D : | < |z| <2 such that F/(z) = 1/z for all z in D. (HINT: Assume that F exists and show that for ain D, z not a negative real number, F(z) = Log z +c, where c is a constant,] 15, Find a one-to-one analytic mapping of the upper half-plane Im z > 0 onto the inf- nite horizontal strip H=(utivo]|-~co LY = fx}? 20, Using only réal arithmetic operations, write @computer program whose input (x, y) is the real and imaginary parts of z = * + iy and whose output is the real and imaginary parts of @) Logz (b)Ln/4(2) (© Lo(zy (4) Lar (z) 21. Find a counterexample to the rule log (z)z2) = Jo system your computer uses, 821 + log za for the software