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Engineering Ethics: What Are The Moral Problems Which Confront Us?
Engineering Ethics: What Are The Moral Problems Which Confront Us?
Engineering Ethics
ME 101 Fall 2008
{Modified 10/23/06}
Technology - Defines what we can do.
Ethics - Defines what we ought to do.
Politics - Defines what we will do.
What is Morality?
"Engineering ethics is (1) the study of the moral issues and decisions confronting
individuals and organizations involved in engineering and (2) the study of related
questions about moral conduct, character, ideals, and relationships of people and
organizations involved in technological development." M&S, p.4
"To say that an act is right is not to express a mere feeling or bias, but instead to
assert that the best moral reasons support doing it." M&S p. 32
What are the Moral Problems which Confront Us?
"... ethical problems arise most often when there are differences of judgment or
expectations as to what constitutes the true state of affairs or a proper course of
action." M&S, p.7
"... when we speak of moral problems we have in mind situations where what
ought to be done is not so straightforward and obvious."
"First, it may be unclear ... which, if any, moral considerations or principles apply
to their situation."
"Second, the difficulty might be that two different moral principles, both of which
apply to one's situation, come into conflict or that one principle seems to point
simultaneously in two different directions." M&S p.25
What is a Moral Theory?
"...there ought either to be some one fundamental principle or law, at the root of
all morality, or if there be several, there should be a determinate order of precedence
among them; and the ... rule for deciding between the various principles when they
conflict, ought to be self-evident." Mi p.274
What are the Sanctions of Morality?
Feelings of Guilt - conscience
Public Exposure - humiliation
Public (Legal) Punishment
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can be counted on to do the right thing
conscientious
diligent in meeting obligations
trustworthy
considerate of others
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"Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the
reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by
unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. ... pleasure, and freedom from pain,
are the only things desirable as ends; and that all desirable things ... are desirable
either for the pleasure inherent in themselves, or as means to the promotion of
pleasure and the prevention of pain." Mi p.278
"The standard of right conduct is maximization of goodness." M&S p.35
"Act-Utilitarianism says we should focus on individual actions, rather than
general rules. An act is right if it is likely to produce the most good for the most
people involved in the particular situation." M&S p.35
"Rule-Utilitarianism regards moral rules as primary we ought always to on
those rules that if generally followed would produce the most good for the most
people." Rule utilitarianism is designed to close the loopholes which are part of act
utilitarianism by discounting the pleasure of an individual when compare to a group.
"Mill believed that happiness is the only intrinsic good .. all other good things are
instrumental goods in that they provide means for happiness." M&S p.35
"One kind of pleasure is preferable to another if the majority of people who have
experienced both kinds favor it." M&S p.35
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Participation in Professional Societies
Conflict of Interest - Occurs whenever an engineer is in a position to make a decision
that can result in his/her personal gain.
Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest
Contingency Payments
Competition with Former Employers
Related Private Consultation After Public Employment
Fair Trade Practices
Intellectual Property Rights
Criticism of Competitors Competence
Inflated Claims in Advertising
Shared Credit
Maintaining Professional Standards
Letters of Recommendation
Signing off on Drawings
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Failure and success are mutually exclusive. If something doesnt fail it survives. The
probability of a system surviving, up to time t, is called the Reliability of the system and
is denoted by the symbol R(t).
The probability of failure and the reliability are related by the equation:
PF(t) + R(t) = 1
So, the reliability of a system that must not fail more than 1 in a 100 times up to time t is:
R(t) = 1 0.01 = 0.99
This inter-relationship is summarized in the following table:
Occurrence
Probability of Failure
Reliability
1 in 10
1 in 100
1 in 1000
1 in 10,000
1 in 100,000
1 in 1,000,000
1 in 10,000,000
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
0.9
0.99
0.999
0.9999
0.99999
0.999999
0.9999999
Another measure of Reliability that is often used is the Mean Time Between Failures
(MTBF). The MTBF is defined as the time it takes for the reliability to fall to 0.632 (1/e.)
The reliability can then be expressed by the relationship:
R(t) = e
t
MTBF
which is useful in computations. Many consumer products, light bulbs for example,
actually show the MTBF on their packaging as a marketing ploy.
Rsys(t) =
R (t) = R R
i
i =1
... RN
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Note that the over-all reliability of a series system is lower than the lowest reliability of
any of the components it is made up of!
Parallel Systems: A mechanical system is organized in reliability parallel if all the
elements in the system must fail before the system itself fails. In this kind of system there
are other paths that will support the systems operations should one fail. For example,
all commercial jet aircraft are designed with multiple engines. In general, a jet can
continue to fly and land as long as any one engine is working.
For a parallel system the probability of failure for the overall system is the product of the
probabilities of failure of all of the individual elements:
N
i=1
or,
Theoretically, the reliability of a parallel system is always greater than the reliability of
the best element in the system. Parallel elements are also called Redundant elements.
EXAMPLE:
An Automobile Ignition Distributor:
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R = 0.9995
R = 0.99
R = 0.99
} R = 0.999, combined
R = 0.9999
The working parts of an automobile ignition systems distributor cap are shown above.
This system has many ways of failing. The connection to the coil can loosen or corrode,
the breaker points can be fouled by electrical arcing, and can be shorted by humidity if
the distributor cap cracks. The adjusting screw can loosen up and foul up the ignition
timing. The cam and cam follower are continuously subject to wear. Not shown in this
figure is a spring that keeps the face of the follower in contact with the cam. Finally the
capacitor is subject to electrical and environmental damage.
Approximate reliabilities for 5000 hours of operation are shown in the table. Since the
ignition system will fail if any of these elements fail the system is in series. The
reliability of the entire distributor can be estimated as:
Rsys = (0.9995)(0.99)(0.99)(0.999)(0.9999) = 0.978
or, 22 units per thousand will fail before 5000 hours of operation. If we wanted to
improve the design we can see that the weak links are the breaker points and adjustment
screw.
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There are, of course, more complicated ways of arranging mechanical elements. One
other that is mentioned here for the sake of completeness is the k of m system. This
type of system will continue to operate as long as k of the original m parallel elements
continue to operate. The equation for calculating the reliability of a system like this is:
m
m!
j
R j (1 R j )(m j )
j= k (m j)!( j)!
Rsys =
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EXAMPLE: The space shuttle is protected by 30,000 thermal ablation tiles. 2000 of these
tiles protect vital areas. If the loss of any one of these tiles could jeopardize the shuttles
safety what must the individual reliability of these critical tiles be if the over-all
probability of failure the shuttle is to remain below 1 in a 100 missions?
0.99 = R2000
R = 0.999995
Or only five tiles in a million could be permitted to fail during testing!