1 | 9.10 CALCULATION OF LOAD TRANSFER discussion of load ansfer by aggregate interlock and fibres, sce Sections 8.8.2 and 8.8.3. 10.1 Load transfer by dowels ‘This Section provides a simplified wreatment of work on math cimaticel analysis of dowel design, including dowel group action, by Yoder and Witezak who summarised the work of Friberg " and Bradbury *. The following is a simplified treatment of this work applicable to square and round dowels. Figure 9.10 shows a joint opening of x, dowel diameter d, (or ware of sie d) and bearing, length b all dimensions in mm. Effective dowel numbers: Yoder and Witezak © suggested that dowels within a distance of 1. [cither side of the eentre- line of the applied lose! would contribute to transferring the load, where / is the radius of relative stiffness, see Section 9.4.6. The amount of load carried by each dowel was assumed ‘o reduce with distance from the centre-line, Far the purposes ‘of this document, it is recommenced that the load transfer should be determined from the capacity of the dowels within a distance of 0.9 / either side of the centre-tine, with all the dlowels operating a1 their full capacity, as given in Table @.4, (This is equivalent Yoder and Witezak’s recommendations.) The total Toad transfer will be an absolute eapacity in kN, rather than a percentage. Clearly, it should not be taken as boing greater than half the applied load. As an example, if Ue applied load is 120 kN and the dowel capacity within a stance of 0.9 either side of the centre-line is 20 KN, the slah should be checked! for its eapacity t0 carry 100 kN. ‘The shear capacity per dowel, P,, is given by: By = O64, lM Eqn 9.23 J, ~ characteristic srength of the steel ee tin (2) Gens anangerant gue 9.10: Behevou ol dovesA, = shear area, taken as 0.9 area of the section (nd 4 for round dowels and i? for square bat % = partial safety factor for steel (taken as 1.15, see Section 9.6.2). ‘The Dearing eapacity per dowel, Py, is ven by Rear = 95, dy /7e a where 6, = efleatve Bearing length taken as not greater than 8 d= diameter of citelar dowel or width of non-cireutar sections Joy ~ churactritc compressive cube strength of the concrete (N/mm?) 1. pantal safely factor for comerete (taken as 1.5, see Section 946.2) ‘The bending capacity per dowel, Pass is & fimetion of the Joint opening, x, and is given by: b4Z,)exy, yn 9.25 whene 2, plastic section modulus of the dowel, dowels, and d.¥6 for round dowels 14 for square When dowels are subjected 1 combined shear and ending, the load-transfer capacity per dowel, Py is con- trolled by the following interaetion formula Fone Ps Fan 926 The capaci ingle dowels of the types shown in Table 94 have been evaluated using Equations 9.23 10 9.25. The following design data have been assumed: Characteristic tensile strength, stcel dowels. , 250 Nimmt Characteristic compressive strength, conerete, f, 40 Nin’ 200 kNinn O4.E, Nim? 5, Wand 15 min Modulus of elasticity ol steel dowel, £, Shear modulus of steel dowel, G Joint opening, x safety factor for stecl, x, has Partial safety factor for concrete, Ls Total dowel | tenth mn) Me mnensomd | 400 als + 50 i Strength ed servicsbaliey oy sadn Example of combine ending and shear Akad wantis 230 BY pr vc regia a ce maton Joint peng oF 15 nm ‘Ty 20 mm round doweh (6036.9) + 20403) -0813 F074 ©1557 14° Hence 20 mm round dowel is not adequate, Try 20 mm square dowel (3047.0) + 0158.0) 638 + 0S17= 1.155 < 1.4 _ Hence 20:mm square dowel is adequate for the required load f transfer Bursting forces: The possibilty of dowels bursting (punehs ing) out ofthe concrete has gencrally been ignored. However to achieve the maximum loadtransfr capacity of domeh bending, shear and bearing itis necessary to check ther bursting doesnot govern as ould be the caxe in thinner slabs, ‘A simple approach is to use « modification of the procedure for punching shear given in the draft Eurocode 2, ax detailed E in Seetion 9.11. Assuming that the dowel is atthe mid-depth, of the slab, the critical perimeter for punching should be (aken at 2 % 1/2h = f fiom the dowel (where A isthe overall thickness of the slab) and the loaded length shauld be taken as 8 = the dowel diameter as before. Ifthe dowel spacing is such that the critical perimeters around the individual dowels would overlap, the shear capacity of the slab along a Derinteter encompassing all of the dowels should be checked! For heavy loading, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement ‘may be required on each side of the joint moore ‘Table 9.5 gives the maximum load per dowel to uvoid bursting (punching) for a range of slab thicknesses. and dowel sizes, The loads are based on a plain conerete with f, 0 N/mm?. Recent work has shown that steel fibres can assist in controlling bursting (see also Section 1.4). However, 't appears that this is a function of fibte type and careful interpretation of this research is required, Table 9.8. Maximum load per dowel (AN) 1 avoid bursting (euvching) of sluts Dowel size | a depth _] Vamm round | 28.4 369 466 | 16mm round 32 403 | soa [iemmiase [ur | ep £ E £ E E E 7& E g E & & &Cancevte instal ronan floors The deflection of the dowel, 8, can be expressed as: bye allo 241) (re r2c0)] Ba 927 4 ~ cross-sectional area of dowel modulus of elasticity of steel id 109 FF = shear shape factor (6/5 for square dowels for round dowels) G = shear modulus of dowel 1 = moment of inertia of dowel = d'/12 for square dowels, and 22/J64 for round dowels P = applied load per dowel js or deflection calculations, P represents the service lead, nt opening, For guidance on limiting deflections at joint, see Sections 43nd 4.4 Using Equation 9.27 to estimate the dowel deflection will ‘every sinall values, Table 9.6 shows deflections at ‘arious joint openings for a 20 mi round dowel for whieh the minimum ultimate Joad capacity in shear is P,, = 36.9 KN. ‘Assuming a partial safety factor of 1.2 for loading, then the service loud is 36.9/1.2 = 30.7 KN. Table 9.6: Typival deflections for 20 mm round dowel Sam) Lst» 10? 3.00» 10" oxo | The overall deflection of, the joint will be the sum of the dowel deflection and that of the concrete, The total deflection will generally still be very small tan assessinent of the total deflection is required, Walker tnd Holland © have developed # means of estimating the lotlection of the conerete assuming the dowel 10 be a beam ‘nan elastic foundation. Ozbeki et af.\"have shown that the Variables that have a significant effect on joint performance fare the dowel-eonereie interaction and the modulus of suibprade reaction, Friberg has adapted work presented by Timoshenko and Lesscls * giving the deflection of a dowel related to the modulus of dowel support and the relative iffness of a bar embedded in concrete at the joint face and the maximum ending mement. The Friberg analysis can be extended to caleulate dawel group capacity™ 9.10.2 Load transfer by fabric The lealtiansfer capacity of frie for exmmmonly axed wen in Table 97 fer by proprietary systems Fabric sizes is 9.10.3 Toad tra For proprietary systems, guidance on the lnad-transfer capa iy should he obtained from the supplier Table ¥.7- Vales of loadtransfer capacity. Pye bused ot Equations 9.23 10 926, al using f, ~ 460 Mim’, f= 1.08, and x 12.00. BS fabric | Bar diameter | Bar area | Bar centres | Pap.n reference | (mm) | (ram) | amnm) | (kN) Ala 6 283 200 Ba | AIS i 385 200 183 mn | 8 soa 200 | 238 | A393 10 78S 200 | 372 9.11 PUNCHING SHEAR 9.11.1 Introduction Punching shear capacity is determined in accordance with the draft Eurocode 2 by checking the shear at the face of the contact area and atthe critical perimeter distance 2.0d (where dis the effective depth) from the face of the contact area, see Figure 9.11. Generally, the later will eontrl load capacity. Design codes, such as the draft Eurveode 2, are written on the basis of conventional bar (or fabric) reinforcement and thence do not define an effective depth for fibre-reinforced concrete slabs. However, the effective depth is the distanee from the compression face to the ggntroid of the rein- forcement in tension. Following tis approach, the effective depth for a fibre-reinforced slab should be taken as (0.75 where his the overall depth. “The following might be considered a conservative approsel as it assumes that the slab carries all the punching load. In most cases, a proportion of the Toad will be transferred dircetly 10 the sub-base bat this should note relied upon. {o) tral 1b Edge (0) Come Figure 9.11: ical penmeters for punching sea for intemal edge ane comer oad 0.11.2 Shear at the face of the loaded area In accordance with the draft E amount of any seinforeement in the slab. the fave of the contact area should not exceed a value given by Vina = 5 ha fea rocode 2, respective of Ut hye where Joo ~ design concrete compressive strength (cylinder! hthAy = 0.6. fy / 250) (note that different symbol is used in the drafl Euroeode) fa = characteristic conere ‘cylinder, compressive strength Hence, maximum load eapacity in punching, Pru is given by. Prawes = Yams Mod yn 9.29 where 1 length of the perimeter atthe face of the loaded area, 9.11.3 Shear on the eritical perimeter 1 a distany hear stress is checked on the critical shear perimeter at 2d from the Face of the contact area, Fabric or bar reinforcement The average shear stress that can be cartied by the conerete ‘on the shear perimeter, vy. is given by: ous Ye A,(t0o pf)!" = 008542? yn 930 where Pm MPP ote io Py = peroentegs of reinforcement by area inthe x- and yedirctions respectively f= 1+ Q001dy" 52 Thus the slab load eapacity, Py i i P= vpaemd where 1, = length of the perimeter at a distance 2d fiom the loaded area Steel fibre reinforcement Based on RILEM guidance, the presence of steel fibres Will increase the design shear capacity over that of the pl ‘conetete by an amount ¥; given by’ % O12 Res fawn Fan 9.32 where R= equivalent flexural strength ratio fou = characteristic flexural strength of plain conerete (refer to Table 9.1 and Equation 9.1.) The dati Eurocode 2 gives @ minimum shear expacity of O95 4° e°. Thus for steele Slab load capacity, Fis given hy 012K, P= (an3sa yy ‘An example ofthe estimation of punching shear eapacity fr 4 ground-supporied slab with steel fibre reinforcement is fiven in Appendis B Sram J serriccabait of say Synthetic fibre reinforcement i Currently no gu Fibres. on the ‘concrete. In the absence of information from the supp should be assumed that the shear capacity is that of pl lance is available similar to that for steel hear capacity of structural synthetic fibre concrete. Hence, for synthetic fibre conercte the slab load city is given by: i fy = (003582747) ma Fyn 9.84 9.12 CHECKS FOR SERVICEABILITY 9.12.1 Overview = 1 is normal practice « determine the slab depth using timate load procedures for bending and punching shear as described previously (see Sections 9,8 to 9.11) Is then nx essary 10 check the performance of the slab at the serviceability limit state. The primary considerations are deflection, crack control and joint opening. For the service ability limit state the partial safety factors for materials and ations are taken as unity, Under certain conditions, itmay be 1 ‘eessary (0 inerease the slab depth determined from ultimate load procedures in order to satisfy serviceability requirements. 9.12.2 Deflection contrat Figure 9.12 shows a typival load-defleetion relationship tor 8 ground-supported slab with adequate reinforcement 10 censure that sufficient ductility is achieved, The service load P.s = Piuolfah, should be within the © potion OA othe lea-etection relationship, hat s below the lner init Py. Fue thedeton, dsbouldbestch that the operation of materials handling equipment is not impeded. (As an illustration, a slab of depth 150mm, sub- Jected 10 an internal load, deflects abou 1.5 mm at linear limit of 180 kN.) Tt has been shown from tests, and fiom experience, that the values of yq and y, used in design are such that slabs designed for the ultimate limit state generally perform adequately under service conditions, Q t tus t AL i ms ; 8 | E t pErLEcriON Figure 8.12: Typical load-delletion rlatinehyp for ste ibe rernced round-supponted deb.4 Cane vere dustrial gronand hoor If required, Westergaard’s equations may be used to obi fin approximate quantification of slab deflections under a Concentrated oad P. The deflection S may be expressed as (8) where ‘k= modulus of subgrade reaction Ban 9.35 = radius of relative stiffness ‘c= deflection coefficient, depending on the position of the load, For intemal and edge loading, the values of ¢ are 0.125 and (0.442 respectively. For comer loading, the values of ¢ are a function of ail, calculated as ¢ = [1-1 ~ 1.24 (ail)], and are given in Table 9.8, The influence of & on deflections of & typical shab («> Sévm, = 150 mm, Bug = 33 108 Nit?) tinder a paint toad of 60 kN is shown in Table 9.9. Table 98: Values of deflection eveffeient ¢ for corner loading: aa | e050 oars [ave [ 0125 | 1s [0275 | 02m usa | 0.86 t ce | uot | tor | 09s | 09s | 992 | He fHuence of ereep on defleetion under long-term loading, od by adjusting the value of f, see Section be ‘The ean be estimatet 9-46, The modulus of elasticity of the concrete influenced by ereep under sustained lead andl thus inthe Yong term the effective modulus of conerete can be expressed approximately by! Eon on / (148) ign 9.36 where > creep factor. The creep factor is dependent on a number of factors. In BS 110 the relationships between relative humidity, aye at Tooling, elTeetive thickness and 9 are expressed in graphical form. The draft Eurocede 2 "adapts a similar procedure and jncludes the grade of canerete and type oF cement (slow, hormad andl rapid hardening). value of = 2.0 is recom mended for use in the following seetions. Reference to the Westerguard deficetion equations indicates that deflection is inversely proportional to AU? The value of will reduce as the value of E.,, decreases, See Section 9.4.6. It should be noted from Table 9.9 that the frec-edge and tomer deflections are significantly greater tham the internal Clues, However, these deflections will be reduced where wad trans is provided, 9.12.3 Movements Inteoduction Three types of intrinsie (inherent) movement ean oeeur in ceonerete Slabs: svn of typical sla under Table 9.9: Influence of kom de ott ld of 60 BN, F 1 | ne Deneetions (mm) | sin) | am | mend Free | Free Internal | Ey edge oor | 34 | aan] nse | igo | 438 oor | mm | sos | asx | tat | 305 oo | 34 | aay f os | nso | 24 oo | soo | 21s | 027 | ays | 248 ao | 558 | 193 | 024 | ows | 188 LL. plastic shrinkage and settlement 2. thermal, due to both early contraction and seasonal diurnal temperatare changes 3, long-term drying shrinkage Chapters 10 and 11 provide further discussion of shrinkage and related materials properties. ‘movements take place ""*" are The periods in which th given in broad enms in Table 9.10. 9.10° Topical periads over which movements eur ta Plastic First few bours alter casting arly thermal ee One to two days afer casting “Anwvaliyally aough ae Sst annual | Sera ings | eyelet tobe the mes isl | ‘Seasonaligivenal Drying shrinkage Several months or yeurs after easting If these movements are restrained, siresses will be induced. ‘Cracks will occur when the tensile strain to which conerete je aibjected exceeds its tensile strain capacity. The tensile ‘rain capacity of conerete varies with age and with the Fal. bf application of strain, The design approach is imended 1 avoid the formation oF eracks on the top surface of the slab Plastic shrinkage Plastic shrinkage occurs in the first few hours alte placement af the concrete, 1 should be mininised by th Selection of appropriate materials and mix design and b minimising exposure of the young conerete to extrait Urying conditions. Plastic shrinkage is generally wot pet ceived to be problem for industrial floors because racks that form ane elosed by the finishing operation However snbsequent grinding or shot blasting of Rows demonstrated that cracks may still exis! below the surface Thermat effec The hydration of concrete results in the slab hares higher temperature than the ambient environment, This ltto an irreversible thermal contraction, which occurs from around [4 hours t one week after construction as the heat snerated is Tosi to the environment. Temperature drops of ‘common during this period, resulting in a contraction strain of around 100 * 10° Reversible movements are also caused by the influence of climatic changes on industrial floors, The daily temperature changes are small and have litle effect on industrial floors, as they are not exposed (o direct sunlight. However, seasonal temperature changes can cause significant movements. As ‘many industrial floors are in unheated buildings, the annual change can be greater than 15°C, corresponding to an unre strained strain of around 150 > 10° Long-term drying shrinkage Long-term moisture loss from hardened conerete results in crying shrinkage. This process can last many years: it depends, ‘on the environment and the properties of the concrete. After being exposed to air for three months, the slab may have undergone only 30% of its long-term drying shrinkage. Restraint can lead to the development of eracks, For a well designed conerete, long-term shrinkage strains are in the range 400 t0 600 «10° mm, For a 6 m slab these are equivalent to an overall unrestrained shortening of 2.4 10 3.6 mm, but this \will be mitigated by restraint and creep: and itis estimated that the actual shortening will be approximately half these values. A key factor influencing the drying shrinkage of eonerete is the water content. The more water that is available co evaporate fiom the concrete, the greater the tendency to shrink on drying. Long-term drying shrinkage ean be min- imised by the selection of appropriate materials and mix Uesign, see Section 10.3.2, Shrinkage restraint stresses the slab is fully restrained, the shrinkage stress fa,yy ean be expressed as fay = Bombs 7 gn 937 where Fon fe = long-term shrinkage strain, secant inodulus of elasticity of the concrete As the shrinkage is time-dependent, it will be mitigated by ereep and so the value of £,,. given in Table 9.1, should be ‘modified in line with Equation 9,37, taking @ = 2, Thus Ey, is replaced by Boggy = Eg ‘The factored shrinkage stress given by’ fy = Brows Fyn 938 will give values that exceed the tensile capacity of plain concrete and thus it is necessary 10 provide some means of "exlueing shrinkawe restraint. This is commonly achieved by’ ans of a slip membrane separating the underside of the slab from the sub-base, Coviticients of fiction, fr different slip media have been vahnated by Timms" and vary from less than 1,0 f0 mone Strength anal serviewabaty uf slans than 2.5, The conventional approach to evaluining the shrinkage restraint force is 10 assume it reaches a maaimum value midway between free-movement joints. However, it ‘has been found that this tends (0 significantly over-estimate the stresses. Table 3.3 in BS 8110-2 * gives Kelues of restraint recorded in various structures. AMhough this is for early thermal movements, the approach should be equally valid for shrinkage. For “massive pout cast on to existing blinding’ this recommends a restraint factor between 0.1 and 0.2 (where full restraint is taken as 1.0). = For this report a restraint factor of 0.2 is recommended Hence the estimated stress induced in the slab by the restraint to shrinkage, fy is given by: ‘a 02 Fema Ea fy ta “0 Fan 9.39 ‘Taking 1, as 500 * 10° Sig 02 11% 10" % 500% 10° = 1.1 Nem? Curling Curling isthe result of differential shrinkage between the top and boitom of the slab. Moisture loss from a slab is primarily in one direction towards the surface, resulting in a moisture ‘gradient that eauses the slab to curl, It has not been eurrent UK practice to quantify curling-induced stresses. However, the bending stress, f.,. may be expressed as: t= ake where Fyn 9.40 Ey) = modulus of elasticity of conerete modified due to creep v= Poisson's ratio 02) 4¢ = differential strain between the top and bottom of the slab, typically taken as (1.5 - 2.0) » 10" per mm of slab thickness, The value of Ea, ~ 33 * 10* Nimm? is modified 10 Ey, by the factor [1/(1 + #)]. A creep factor § of 2.0 is assumed, tgiving Bagg = 11% 10° Nima Assume the lower value of Ai Ae= 1S 10° 175 Hence the estimated bending stress indueed by cucling, Son = (HO) (1.5 10 1751 —0.2) = 18 Nimm? Recommendations for dealing with restraint stresses Recent research ® has shown that shrinkiye-induced stresses should be considered in design, particularly when significnnt hogging moments occur due to imposed actions, such as un formly distributed leads (e.g. block sacking). see Section 9.9.5. However, the interaction between the shrinkage induced stresses and those due 10 loading is not well understood, The relative magnitude of the former will be in fluenced by environmental conditions and the time of loading E E E E mm. py mom om om om om. mom or omom L "om om