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Module 1: Introduction

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Module Topics
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

1: Introduction
2: Schools and Socialisation
3: Education and Social Mobility
4: Education and Occupation
5: Peer Group
6 : Home
7 : Academic Underachievers
8 : Teaching Profession

LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you complete this chapter module you should be able to:
Define sociology and sociology of education
Elaborate on the importance of schooling
Compare the differences between the functionalist perspectives, the conflict
perspective and the interactionist perspective on schooling
Explain how school is a system
Elaborate on school as a bureaucracy
Elaborate on the culture of a school

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Preamble
What is social and society?
What is sociology of
education?
What is schooling?
Functionalist perspective on
the role of the school
The conflict perspective on
the role of the school

The interactionist perspective on

schooling
The school as a system
School as a bureaucracy
School culture

Key Terms
Summary
Reference

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Module 1: Introduction

PREAMBLE
This chapter introduces you to some of the important concepts in this concept which
you should be familiar with. Among the important concept discussed are social.
Society, sociology and sociology of education. Also discussed are various
characteristics of the school from a sociological perspective such as the school as a
social system, the school as a bureaucracy and the role of the school as viewed from
the functionalist, conflict and interactionist perspective.

WHAT IS SOCIAL AND SOCIETY?

SOCIAL refers to a characteristics of

humans living together and the interaction of
humans with one another. This interaction of
humans includes both voluntary and involuntary
interaction. Human beings are necessarily by
definition social beings who cannot survive and
meet their needs other than through cooperation and
association, and through society. What is a society?

Human beings naturally lack all the physical features and

strengths that most of the other animals possess. We do not have natural
furs to protect us from the cold, or huge jaws to tear apart our food, man
cannot even walk bare footed in all climatic conditions, he cannot
naturally stay alive in adverse weather conditions. This has made humans
biologically capitalistic, meaning, they must invest their time and efforts
in tools and techniques to increase productivity and most importantly
survive.
A fish can be caught using hand but we consider it ineffective, we
can plant our food without tools but not effectively. Humans need to
invest their time on the creation of tools (capital) hoping for a much
better productivity in future. Looking at it in a different perspective, he
has to depend (and of course contribute), on whatever or whomsoever, to
get all the basic necessities for his well being, he has to depend on others
to overcome his weakness.
To put it simply, humans are designed to depend. This also
creates a very strong need to co-exist, to a much higher level than other
species. He is physically the weakest animal (the way nature has created
him) on the planet yet he has made himself the most powerful by forming
a SOCIETY!

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Module 1: Introduction

SOCIETY is a group of humans that is that is delineated by the bounds of

cultural identity (characteristics that are unique such as members of a particular
profession; i.e. teachers), social solidarity (something that binds people together) and
functional interdependence (depend on each other to achieve something such as
students putting up a school play). Society allows its members to achieve individual
needs or wishes that they could not fulfill separately by themselves. A society may be
of a particular ethnic group, such as the Ibans; a nation state such as Malaysia; a
broader cultural group such as Asian society. The word society may also refer to an
organised voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, political,
patriotic or other purposes.

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION?

Before we can understand the meaning of sociology of education, we need to

understand the meaning of education.
EDUCATION has different meanings to people in different context.
School children in general it may mean acquiring of knowledge whereas to
those who are not academically inclined may perceive it as dreary and
torment;
University students may find it as an important aspect of their student life that
will decide their future; qualifications to a stable job.
To parents it may mean their children will have a secure future and achieve
what they were unable to have.
For schools administrators and teachers it means a job, an opportunity for
career development.
Thus, education touches the lives of a majority of the members within a
particular society and it sets in various roles and subgroups in the society.
SOCIOLOGY is a branch of the social science that studies systematically the
contexts in which members of the society live and how these contexts leave an impact
on their lives. Sociologists look where people live, their age, education, jobs, income,
gender, ethnic group and how these factors influence their behaviour, attitudes,
perceptions and so forth. For example:

How do parents influence their children in terms of their aspirations and

what the children should attain in life.
Does being a male or a female differ in our perception of life, our way of
communicating with others, and our ideas of who we are and what we
need to attain in life?

In other words, people do what they do because of internal as well as external

influences. Our experiences in education and interacting with others have shaped our
thinking and belief of life. In addition, it explores what happens outside the school

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Module 1: Introduction

such as the relationship between school, parents, and community, commercial

interests, and the increasing complex technological society.
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION combines sociology and education. Sociology of
education is a young field that seeks to understand how education affects social life
and social change. It examines students, teachers, administrators, parents and
members of the society within the contexts of home, school and community. In this
course or subject, you will come to understand how society influences your ideas and
opinions about life and you will see that the way you perceive the world is the result
of your experience with human beings around you.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is your definition of education?

b) What does a sociologist do?
c) Explain what do you understand by sociology of
education

WHAT IS SCHOOLING?

Society expects a lot from schools. The moment children enter school, parents
and the community expects the school to nurture the cognitive, psychomotor,
emotional and social aspects of children so as to prepare them to succeed in
education, earn a living, and start a family. Schools are expected to contribute to the
development of human capital. Schools impart knowledge through its educational
system with a formal curriculum that covers a range of subjects such as history,
language, mathematics and so forth.
Schooling refers to the more organised aspects of formal education that takes
place in schools and how the educational process influences individuals and societies.
It is part of education that is most highly valued. On the average students, teachers
and administrators spend about six hours a day and five days a week in school.
Children enter primary or elementary education at age six or seven (varying across
countries). In secondary school, the students spend between four to five years
schooling. A portion of these students to proceed to tertiary education spending
between 3 to 5 years at colleges and universities. Throughout the schooling years
children are involved in various types of school activities which takes up a large
amount of their waking hours. Schools have become an important part of childrens
life and an important social context.
Besides the hours and days children spent in school, large amounts of money
are spent by parents, business and the government on schooling. Parents allocate a
substantial part of their income to ensure their children experience a good school life
in the form of materials, transport, food, uniform and so forth. The government
allocates large sums of money on education building schools, paying teachers salary
and so forth. In most developed countries such as United States, Canada, Japan,
Denmark and other, expenditure on schooling is relatively high. Expenditure on

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Module 1: Introduction

schooling is seen as an investment to ensure economic and social progress and hence
place high priority on educating their children from kindergarten to college and
university. Similarly, developing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
the Philippines are setting aside a large portion of their budget for educating too are
emphasizing this aspect and today we see government in countries are allocating a
huge amount of their budget into educating their young ones. As more people have
access to education, it is hoped that the public may change their attitudes and
behaviours towards social problems such as drug use, alcoholism, and poverty.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Why do you believe schooling is important?

b) Relate some of your experiences while you were in
school.

THEORIES ON THE ROLE OF SCHOOLING

Sociologists differ in their perspectives on the role of schooling in
contemporary society. These perspectives are stated in three theories on education:
functional, conflict and interaction. Each of these perspectives will provide valuable
insights into the role of school or education.
FUNCTIONALISM

CONFLICT

INTERACTIONIST

Figure 1.1 Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of Schooling

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Module 1: Introduction

1) FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
Functionalism emphasises the school as the medium
for transmitting education to the members of society.
Education is seen as one of the most important components of
society. Emile Durkheim, a famous French sociologist, made
many contribution to the sociology of education (see picture).
According to him, education and in particular a school is a
social institution that interacts with other institutions in
society. Education and society reflect each other. For example,
economic disparities that exist in society are also reflected in
education and schools. Functionalists first see the role
education plays in conveying basic knowledge and skills to the
next generation.
In an article written in 1911, entitled Education, its
Nature and Role published in Education et sociologie,
Durkheim asserted that every society has a certain ideal as to
what a person should be intellectually, physically and morally.
This ideal is the crux of education. The function of education
and schooling is to perpetuate these ideals of society.

Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917)

.education is the action exercised by the adult generations over

those that are not yet ready for social life. Its purpose is to arouse
and develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual
and moral state, which are demanded of him both by the political
society as a whole and by the specific environment for which he is
particularly destined. It emerges from the foregoing definition that
education consists of a methodical socialisation of the young
generation (Education et sociologie, 1911).
According to Durkheims functionalist theory, education is the means for
promoting social solidarity and stability in society and this is to be implemented
through the teaching and learning process in schools.

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Module 1: Introduction

CASE STUDY: Transmission of Core Values in American Education

The most important value permeating the American classroom is
individualismthe ideology that advocates the liberty rights, or independent
action, of the individual. American students learn early, unlike their Japanese or
Chinese counterparts, that society seeks out and reveres the best individual,
whether that person achieves the best score on a test or the most points on the
basketball court. Even collaborative activities focus on the leader, and team sports
single out the one most valuable player of the year. The carefully constructed
curriculum helps students develop their identities and self-esteem. Conversely,
Japanese students, in a culture that values community in place of individuality,
learn to be ashamed if someone singles them out, and learn social esteemhow to
bring honour to the group, rather than to themselves.
Going to school in a capitalist nation, American students also quickly learn
the importance of competition, through both competitive learning games in the
classroom, and through activities and athletics outside the classroom. Some kind of
prize or reward usually motivates them to play, so students learn early to associate
winning with possessing. Likewise, schools overtly teach patriotism, a preserver of
political structure. Students must learn the Pledge of Allegiance and the stories of
the nation's heroes and exploits. The need to instil patriotic values is so great that
mythology often takes over, and teachers repeat stories of George Washington's
honesty or Abraham Lincoln's virtue even though the stories themselves (such as
Washington confessing to chopping down the cherry tree) may be untrue.
Source: CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 12 May 2009.

More recently, eminent sociologist Amitai Etzioni who wrote 24 books and
hundreds of article, believed that shared value is one of the values that needs to be
taught in school, from kindergarten to university level. So how do schools disseminate
these shared values?

Socialisation:
From
kindergarten
to
university, schools need to teach students their
role and specific academic subjects. At the
kindergarten stage, teachers should teach
children the appropriate attitudes and
behaviour that is acceptable by the society. At
the primary and secondary level, children are
taught specific subject matter, skill and
previous educational experience suitable to
Amitai Etzioni
(1929 )

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Module 1: Introduction

their age group. At the university level, they are then exposed to new areas of
study and experience.
Transmission of culture: It is the responsibility of the school to transmit
cultural norms and values of the society to the next generation. In doing so,
they disseminate the cultural values, attitudes and behaviour accepted by the
society so that the children will become productive members of their
community.
Social Placement: Schools are responsible to trained future work force. They
are to identify the most qualified person to fill the positions in society.
Students are taught specific subjects in schools and later enrolled into
programs at the college and university. Individuals that have the qualification
and requirements are then channelled into the job market.
Change and Innovation: Schools have the responsibility to meet the changes
and challenges in society. With new technology and new areas of study being
discovered, schools need to create new subjects and universities need to create
new programs to meet the societal needs. For example, introducing sex
education in school may help to solve part of the social problems created by
early pregnancy among teenagers in school. Medical faculty update their
equipments and technology to meet the discovery of new illnesses and drugs.

2) CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theorists believe that schools create class, racial, and gender
inequalities among its students. According to them, these inequalities arise due to
certain groups within society that seek to maintain their privileged position at the
expense of others (Ballantine, 2001). They argue that access to quality education is
related to ones social status. Pierre Bourdieu, the French sociologist explained this
point by stating that children bring to school their own cultural capital; i.e. their
values, beliefs, attitudes, and language competencies. Cultural capital also comprises
their accepted attitudes towards education, dress code and manners, knowledge about
specific subjects (music, arts, books) and their own age group culture.
Cultural capital vary according to the socioeconomic status of families.
Generally, middle and upper class parents emphasise more cultural capital
compared to working class or low income parents. For example, standardised tests
may disadvantage working class or low income students. A question may ask:
Which one of these instruments usually belong in an orchestra?
A. banjo
B. sitar
C. violin
D. harmonica
This question assumes considerable cultural knowledge, including what an
orchestra is, how it differs from a band, and what instruments comprise an orchestra.
The question itself assumes exposure to a particular kind of music favoured by middle
and upper class students. Testing experts claim that they have been careful in making
sure culturally biased questioning does not arise. Many of these tests contain a
knowledge base that is culturally sensitive.
Some schools practice streaming or tracking in which students in primary
and secondary schools are grouped according to their academic performance. Why is

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Module 1: Introduction

it necessary to differentiate students according to their academic ability? Schools feel

that it is easier to teach students with similar abilities than mixed abilities. As such
students are streamed according to high, average, and low academic ability.
Studies on the effects of streaming or tracking showed that it has an effect on
students academic achievement and career choices. Oakes (1985) study found that
students grouped together as low achievers had lower educational expectations and
career aspirations. Miller (1995) found that streaming or tracking had put poor and
minority students through a dilute programme thus making them unable to compete
with high academic ability students. Instead of helping students to improve their
school performance, the practice of streaming or tracking is likely to make students
drop out of school or placed in situations that do not help them to proceed to college
or university.
In short, conflict theorists see education not as a social benefit or opportunity,
but as a powerful means of maintaining power structures and creating a docile work
force for capitalism.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONFLICT THEORY AND

FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Conflict theory see the purpose of education as maintaining social
inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society.
Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education as
functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to
an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system
as perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being
obedient workers.
Both functionalists and conflict theorists agree that the educational
system practices sorting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting.
Functionalists claim that schools sort based upon merit; conflict theorists
argue that schools sort along distinct class and ethnic lines. According to
conflict theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their
position as a lower-class member of society. Conflict theorists call this role
of education the hidden curriculum.
Source: CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 12 May 2009.

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Module 1: Introduction

LEARNING ACTIVITY

CASE STUDY: Socioeconomic Class and Schools in the United States

Conflict theorists argue that middle and upper class communities defend their
position by ensuring that low income communities do not enter their schools. For
example, in the United States the community pays taxes to fund their schools.
Therefore, schools in affluent districts have more money. Such areas are
predominantly white. They can afford to pay higher salaries, attract better teachers,
and purchase newer texts and more technology. Students who attend these schools
gain substantial advantages in getting into the best colleges and being tracked into
higher-paying professions. Students in less affluent neighbourhoods that do not
enjoy these advantages are less likely to go to college and are more likely to be
tracked into vocational or technical training. They also represent far higher
numbers of minority students.
1) Comment on the above case study.
2) How prevalent is this situation in your country?
3) What do you think are the consequences of such a situation in schools?

3) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

Earlier we discussed that those who subscribe to functionalism focus on the
functions of education whereas those who subscribe to conflict theorists stressed on
the relationship between education and inequality. The third theory on schooling is
the symbolic interactionist perspective which emphasises on classroom
communication patterns and educational practices and how it affects students selfconcept and aspirations. Interactionists limit their analysis of education to what that
can be observed directly on what is happening in the classroom. Focus is on how
teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes.
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted the landmark study which
was published with the title 'Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and
pupils' intellectual development', in 1968 (see Figure 1.2). Rosenthal was a Harvard
University professor while Leonore Jacobson was a principal of an elementary school
in San Francisco. The book is a classic in the sociology of education. Put simply, the
main argument of the book is that the expectations that teachers have about their
students' behaviour can unwittingly influence student behaviour. This influence, or
self-fulfilling prophecy, could have a positive or negative impact. In other words,
when teachers expect students to do well, they tend to do well; when teachers expect
students to fail, they tend to fail. This phenomenon termed as the self-fulfilling
prophecy, where a false assumption actually occurs because someone predicted it.

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Module 1: Introduction

Robert Rosenthal
(1933 )
Figure 1.2 Rosenthal & Jacobsens book Pygmalion in the Classroom

The self-fulfilling prophecy concept was introduced by Robert Merton in a

seminal essay published in the Antioch Review in 1948. In that article, Merton
described a self-fulfilling prophecy as a three-stage process:

Stage 1 is when a person's belief (false at the time it is held) that a certain
event will happen in the future.
Stage 2 is when this expectation, or prophecy, leads to a new behaviour that
the person would have not undertaken in the absence of such expectation.
Stage 3 is when the expected events actually take place, and the prophecy is
fulfilled.

One of Merton's examples was the collapse of a solid and solvent financial
institution, the Last National Bank, in the early 1930s. The process began with the
belief, false at that time, that the institution was at the verge of bankruptcy. That led to
a massive withdrawal of savings by panicked depositors, which in turn led to the
actual collapse of the bank.
Rosenthal and Jacobson borrowed the term 'Pygmalion effect' from a play by
George Bernard Shaw ('Pygmalion') in which a professor's high expectations radically
transformed the educational performance of a lower-class girl. 'Pygmalion in the
Classroom' describes an experiment carried out in an elementary school (which the
authors call Oak School) to test the hypothesis that in any given classroom there is a
correlation between teachers' expectations and students' achievement (see Figure 1.3).
In the experiment, Rosenthal and Jacobson gave an intelligence test to all of
the students at an elementary school at the beginning of the school year. Then, they
randomly selected 20 percent of the students without any relation to their test
results and reported to the teachers that these 20% of students were showing
"unusual potential for intellectual growth" and could be expected to "bloom" in their
academic performance by the end of the year. Eight months later, at the end of the
academic year, they came back and re-tested all the students.
Those labelled as "intelligent" children showed significantly greater increase
in the new tests than the other children who were not singled out for the teachers'
attention. This means that "the change in the teachers' expectations regarding the

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Module 1: Introduction

intellectual performance of these allegedly 'special' children had led to an actual

change in the intellectual performance of these randomly selected children" (1968. p.
viii).

Figure 1.3 The Pygmalion Effect

The teachers were also asked to rate students on variables related to

intellectual curiosity, personal and social adjustment, and need for social approval. In
what can be interpreted as a 'benign cycle,' those average children who were expected
to bloom intellectually were rated by teachers as more intellectually curious, happier,
and in less need for social approval.
For ethical reasons, the Oak School experiment only focused on favourable or
positive expectations and their impact on intellectual competence, but it is reasonable
to infer that unfavourable expectations could also lead to a corresponding decrease in
performance. Often, these negative expectations are based on appearances and other
factors that have little to do with actual intellectual ability:
There are many determinants of a teacher's expectation of her
pupils' intellectual ability. Even before a teacher has seen a
pupil deal with academic tasks she is likely to have some
expectation for his behaviour. If she is to teach a 'slow group,'
or children of darker skin colour, or children whose mothers
are 'on welfare,' she will have different expectations for her
pupils' performance than if she is to teach a 'fast group,' or
children of an upper-middle-class community. Before she has
seen a child perform, she may have seen his score on an
achievement or ability test or his last years' grades, or she may
have access to the less formal information that constitutes the
child's reputation. (1968, p. viii).
Rosenthal and Jacobson's study and subsequent research confirmed that
teachers' expectations matter, that student labelling is often done on arbitrary and
biased grounds, and suggested that through the hidden curriculum teachers can,
consciously or unconsciously, reinforce existing class, ethnic and gender inequalities.
This is done by creating a classroom atmosphere in which some students are
systematically encouraged to succeed whereas others are systematically discouraged,

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Module 1: Introduction

reproducing in the classroom the social cycle of advantages and disadvantages. It also
implies, conversely (and this has important policy implications), that a change in
teachers expectations can lead to an improvement in intellectual performance from
those who are usually expected to achieve the least (Schugurensky, 2002).
Although many people had suspected for years that teachers' expectations
have an impact on students' performance, 'Pygmalion in the classroom' was one the
first studies providing clear evidence to document this hypothesis. If we agree, based
on this evidence, that a relation between teachers' expectation and the performance of
certain students, then a subsequent question arises: How, specifically, do teachers
influence a higher achievement of those average students arbitrarily labelled as
'intellectually superior'? In other words, what are the specific classroom mechanisms
by which a teacher's expectations actually translates into a gain in performance?
Because the Oak School experiment did not attempt to examine this issue, it did not
provide conclusive evidence on this, but suggested that a combination of subtle
changes in teaching strategies and communication patterns (e.g. teachers paying more
attention and giving more encouragement and positive reinforcement to the children
from whom more gains were expected) took place during the academic year and
played an important role in effecting student performance (Schugurensky, 2002).
'Pygmalion in the classroom' was followed by many other school-based
studies that examined these mechanisms in detail from different perspectives.
Prominent among the works on this subject conducted by U.S. scholars are "Student
social class and teacher expectations: the self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education"
by Ray Rist (1970); "Social class and the hidden curriculum of work" by Jean Anyon
(1980); "Keeping track: How schools structure inequality" by Jeannie Oakes (1984),
and "Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls" by Myra Sadker and
David Sadker (1995).
Although Rosenthal and Jacobson's work has received several methodological
and theoretical criticisms, their pioneering and imaginative research on the Oak
School certainly opened a 'black box' in the empirical study of equality of educational
opportunity, and provided a lasting contribution to the field.
Ray Rist conducted research similar to the Rosenthal-Jacobson study in 1970.
In a kindergarten classroom where both students and teacher were African American,
the teacher assigned students to tables based on ability; the better students sat at a
table closer to her, the average students sat at the next table, and the weakest
students sat at the farthest table. Rist discovered that the teacher assigned the students
to a table based on the teacher's perception of the students' skill levels on the eighth
day of class, without any form of testing to verify the placement. Rist also found that
the students the teacher perceived as better learners came from higher social
classes, while the weak students were from lower social classes.
Monitoring the students through the year, Rist found that the students closer to
the teacher received the most attention and performed better. The farther from the
teacher a student sat, the weaker that student performed. Rist continued the study
through the next several years and found that the labels assigned to the students on the
eighth day of kindergarten followed them throughout their schooling. While
interactionist theorists are able to document this process, they have yet to define the
exact process of how teachers form their expectations or how students may
communicate subtle messages to teachers about intelligence, skill, and so forth.

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Module 1: Introduction

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Do agree that the Pygmalion Effect occurs in schools?

b) List some of the negative consequences of the selffulfilling prophecy.
c) How would you go about reducing the Pygmalion
Effect in primary and secondary schools?

LEARNING ACTIVITY
For each of the following statements, identify the sociological perspective by
writing F for functionalism, C for conflict, and I for interactionism in the blanks
provided.
1. The educational system is designed to ensure that students are prepared to
fulfill their roles in society. [
]
2. In order to understand what is happening in the classroom, we need to
focus on the social interaction between the teacher and the students. [
]
3. Inequalities exist in the educational system to assist certain groups in the
society to maintain their privileged position. [ ]
4. When a teacher labels students according to their academic performance
she is actually helping those who are above-average to perform better. [ ]
5. The main function of schooling is to instill values and behaviors that are
accepted by the society. [
]
Answers: 1- F ; 2-I ; 3-C ; 4-I & 5-F

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Module 1: Introduction
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

It is 8.00 oclock on Monday morning. You are entering the compound

of a school. You see children in uniform rushing to get into the school
building. As you enter the school building you could hear children
voices, tapping of feet, and you see children rushing into their
respective classes. In the midst of all this, the bell rings and in a few
minutes silence prevails along the corridor. You know teachers will
enters these classes and soon lessons will begin and lasts until noon.
This scenario will be repeated on each school day. Every student
knows this school system and will avoid coming to school late, be
properly dressed, ensure that the school bag is filled with whatever is
needed during the lessons for the day, and be ready to learn the subjects
taught on that day. These are basically what is expected from a student
and if he is not prepared to fulfill these expectations then the teacher
will attempt to instil in this student with the expected behaviour of all
school children.

A system can be broadly defined as an integrated set of elements that

accomplish a defined objective. For example, a computer system includes multiple
servers, terminals, printers, network links, software, users, and support systems,
including maintenance and repair, training, and spare parts. All these elements are
essential for the computer network system to function. In biology, a system is a group
of organs that work together to perform a certain task such as the digestive system, the
respiratory system and so forth.
In short, a system is any collection of interrelated parts that together
constitute a larger whole. These component parts, or elements of the system are
intimately linked with one another, either directly or indirectly, and any change in one
or more elements may affect the overall performance of the system, either beneficially
or adversely. A simple system is illustrated in Figure 1.4 (Ellington, 1996).
The system consists of four distinct elements, A, B, C & D, which are related
to or dependent upon each other as indicated. Note that some interrelationships may
be two-way, while others may be one-way only. These elements may themselves be
capable of further breakdown into other smaller components, and thus be regarded as
subsystems of the overall system.

ENVIRONMENT

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Module 1: Introduction

FEEDBACK

ORGANSATION
A

INPUT

OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1.4 A Typical System
Similarly, the school can be considered to be a very complex system. The
input into a school consists of people, resources and information, and the output
consists of people whose performance or ideas have (it is hoped) improved in some
desired way (see Figure 1.5). All schools have a vision, mission and goals which are
formalised so that the school community may work towards achieving them. How are
these goals set? By whom? Goals that are formal serve several purposes. Once the
goals are formalised it may serve as guidelines for teachers and school administrators
to carry out their activities. This also implies that the goals have been consensually
accepted and that they should have high priority in the school system.
According to Ballantine, (2001), the school has been established to develop
in each student the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits and powers whereby he will
find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward ever nobler
ends (p. 136). Each school will then decide the type of programmes to reflect the
desired goals. These programmes will focus on the curriculum content, teaching style,
and school structure to meet the stated goals.
In other words, the school system attempts to mould the input in such as way
as to enable the optimal assimilation of the knowledge and skills to take place during
the learning process, and hence maximise the quality of the output (Ellington, 1996).

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Module 1: Introduction

It is a system comprising various subsystems or parts and each has a purpose to

perform in order to fulfill the mission or vision of the school. Thus, it is vital that
these parts interact and assist each other in their daily routine to ensure smooth school
operations. Based on this understanding, the school is seen as responsible to shape the
behaviour and values of students through its formal and informal curriculum. This
curriculum is then transmitted to the students through socialization among members
of the school.
Socialising in school involves instilling values and standards of behaviour. In
other words, socialising involves efforts made by teachers to shape childrens
behaviour, inculcate moral values, and cultural styles. Teachers will describe a student
as well behaved if she conforms to the standards of conduct, good if she conducts
herself well morally, and well adjusted if she conforms to the school culture.

ENVIRONMENT
FEEDBACK

INPUT
Students,
human
resources,
financial
resources,
information

ORGANISATION
Teachers
Students
Management
Curriculum
others

FEEDBACK

ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1.5 The School as a System

OUTPUT
Improved student
achievement,
Change in student
attitudes,
Enhanced skills of
students, Improved
socioemotional
intelligence

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Module 1: Introduction

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Why is the school considered a social system?

b) Describe your school, college, university or educational
institution as a social system.
c) Why are educational institution described as open social
systems?

SCHOOL AS A BUREAUCRACY

You have been teaching for a number of years in a school. You

are considered by your superior as a diligent and caring teacher.
You have the ability to handle your class well and know how to
organise your teaching materials to make your lessons
interesting. All these are performed within the classroom and
goals set by the school. You decide how to present your lessons
to students. This whole process that you have done throughout
the year in school is known as bureaucracy.

In traditional society, authority was held together by a king, chief or priest

whom the people obeyed because they represented ancestral, religious and customary
wisdom. Obedience is unquestioning, passed on from
generation to generation by succession to offices of
power vested with authority. As societies developed
complex organisations, the state, religious institutions,
cities, they needed organisers and managers. Almost all
activities, in fact, need some rules and administration. No
games could be played, no arts performed, no knowledge
transmitted, no products made if there were not rules and
umpires, referees and teachers to administer them.
Schools, hospitals, courts of law, libraries, universities,
industrial firms, parliament, all need rules and all need
bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is one of the great tools of
civilisation. Societies would collapse into disorder
without bureaucracy.
Max Weber, a German political scientist and
Max Weber
sociologist in his book Economy and Society was the
[1864 1920]
earliest to recognise that to administer, maintain
authority, and enforce rules, modern institutions have to
introduce a bureaucratic system. In a bureaucracy there is a:
a well-defined division of duties and tasks to be performed by individuals in
accordance to the procedures and rules set by the organisation

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Module 1: Introduction

a consistent and clear system of recruitment and a career path for individuals,
and loyalty to the organisation is reflected in the performance of individuals,
a hierarchy which differentiates status, authority and power among individuals
system of information flow upwards and downwards in the hierarchy and
patterns of cooperation among individuals.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, business corporations,

armed forces, non-governmental organisations, hospitals, schools and so forth.
According to Weber, as an organisation develops there is a need to
standardised procedures of conducting the daily functions of the organisation so that
official tasks can be conducted on a continuous basis rather than on the whims of the
administrators. Under bureaucracy system there is equal opportunity of appointment
to positions in the organisation, enforce laws and rules, and for officials to exercise
authority under the law. The bureaucracy disapproves of all rule breaking, which it
tends to label corruption. However, in an effort to reduce personal discretion in
decision making by those in power, there is a tendency to introduce many rules and
regulations to make provision for every kind of situation that may arise. Hence the
term over bureaucratic. Another tendency is towards centralisation of power. In
order to reduce too much delegation of authority or power leading to a lack of
uniformity, decision making is moved upwards in the system. Hence the term over
centralisation in the bureaucracy.

Figure 1.1 Organisation chart of a hypothetical Ministry of Marine Resources

As mentioned earlier, a bureaucratic system needs to have an organisational

structure with well defined functions and rules, and clear descriptions of who should
carry out the assigned functions. See Figure 1.1 showing a hypothetical organisation
chart of a Ministry of Marine Resources. At the top of the pyramid is the Minister
and at the bottom are four departments. The pyramid hierarchical structure is most

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Module 1: Introduction
common in many organisation, though the concept of a flatter organisational
structure is gaining popularity especially in organisations demanding high creativity
such as information and communication technology companies. In the pyramid
structure, those on top of the pyramid have higher authority supervising those lower
down the pyramid with every worker accountable for the task they perform.
With bureaucracy, decisions are made at meetings conducted within the
organisation and rules and procedures set must be adhered accordingly. The
recruitment of new staff is based on educational qualifications and chosen on the basis
of their ability rather than on personal connections. This solves the problem of
cronyism and bias. Thus, bureaucracy acts like a giant machine with every officer
performing his duty based on the routine and impersonal ways set by the organisation.
This is vital if the organisation is to progress forward.

PRINCIPAL

ASSISTANT
PRINCIPAL

ASSISTANT
PRINCIPAL

Department
of Language

Department
of Social
Studies

Department
of Technical
&
Vocational
Studies

Department
of Science &
Mathematics

Administration

Support Services

Figure 1.2 Hypothetical example of the organisation chart of a secondary school

Schools are run on a bureaucratic structure. In Malaysia, at the top we have the
Ministry of Education supported by several Divisions to look into every aspect of the
educational system. All procedures concerning school curriculum and co-curriculum;
the number of teaching days, texts books, national examination procedures and dates
of examination, various clubs and sports that can be conducted in schools are decided
at the ministry level. Similarly, procedures on appointment of teachers, promotion,

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Module 1: Introduction

and salary scheme are set by the ministry. Below the Ministry and its several
Divisions are the State Education Departments that oversee the running of schools in
each state. Further down the hierarchy is the District Education Department that
monitors the operations of schools in each district. Finally, we have the schools, each
with its own bureaucratic structure to run the daily activities.
Figure 1.2 is a simplified organisation chart of a hypothetical secondary
school. At the top of the hierarchy is the Principal who is assisted by two or three
assistant principals. In the example above, one Assistant Principal oversees four
departments divided according to the subjects taught in school. In each of these
departments is a Head of Department and several subject matter experts, i.e. the
teachers. Each department will be responsible for determining teaching of their
respective subjects in the classroom. The other Assistant Principal oversees the
Administration of the school which will involve issues relating to finance, purchasing,
recording keeping, correspondence and so forth. Also, under the purview of the
Assistant Principal is the management of Support Services such as janitorial services,
landscaping services, building maintenance and so forth.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Why would you regard your educational institution as a

bureaucracy?
b) Draw an organisation chart of your education institution.
c) Is your educational institution over bureaucratic or
over centralised? Explain.

COMMENTRAY ON OVER BUREAUCRATISATION

A certain amount of bureaucracy, accountability and organization is vital for
the world we live in. But as rules multiply, it becomes so difficult to do anything that
one has to cheat or break the rules in order to survive. Indeed, since the rules often
conflict with each other and whatever one does breaks some rule so it is a question of
choosing between illegalities. The system becomes ever more complicated, with more
and more rules. Rather than leading to openness and transparency (which was the
original intention), this leads to a situation where only a highly trained specialist
(professional bureaucrat) knows how it works. There is as a result more space for
hidden corruption.
There is also a loss of personal incentives. Humans like freedom and
responsibility in their lives. They like to be given basic guidance and then encouraged
to get on with things; to be ingenious and creative in their solutions. As bureaucracy
increases, people are ever more rule-bound, forced to work by the book. This means
that jobs become dead; creative and ingenious solutions are often frowned upon.
Another harmful effect of over-active bureaucracies is that they divert talent.
In almost all organizations, the higher the pay and the higher the status, the less
practical work and the more administration. A head teacher who was perhaps an
excellent communicator does not teach any more. An excellent surgeon ends up doing
paperwork as head of a hospital. A brilliant academic is finally the administrative

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Module 1: Introduction

head of a University. None of them any longer do the thing they most enjoy or are
good at. They spend their time as fund raisers, personnel officers, chairs of
committees. It is a widespread tendency: if you can do anything really well, stop
doing it and become an administrator.
A further effect is waste of time and effort, much of it never accounted for
despite the fact that bureaucracy is supposed to be based on accountability. In case an
institution might need to justify an action, huge amounts of time are spent on
concocting audit trails, lengthy agendas, minutes, papers to cover every aspect of
everything. The time and energy in doing all this when set against the cost of any
likely harmful outcome is probably out of all proportion. Yet it is held to be
irresponsible not to do it.
[source: Alan McFarlane, How the world works? What is bureaucracy for? March.
2007]
LEARNING ACTIVITY

What are your thoughts about the commentary by

Alan McFarlane?

SCHOOL CULTURE

Each school has its own climate which refers to the school environment or
atmosphere. This climate exists along its corridors, classrooms, among its students
and teachers. It is a feeling you get when you enter the school compound. The school
culture is part of the school climate. Culture refers to a groups shared beliefs,
customs, and behaviour. A schools culture includes the obvious elements of
schedules, curriculum, demographics, and policies, as well as the social interactions
that occur within those structures and give a school its look and feel as friendly,
elite, competitive, inclusive, and so on. School culture is variously defined by
its:
Rituals
Expectations
Relationships
Curricular focus
Extra-curricular activities
Decision-making processes
Graduation requirements
and any other aspect of the way things are done in a school.
A school has a personality of its very own. It has, some cherished
traditions, unwritten rules, unspoken expectations, a proud heritage or past, and a

23
Module 1: Introduction

sense of spirit. It may have a special song, symbolising what is important. It may have
special traditions and meanings that are uniquely its own. Each school has its own
culture; values, norms, attitudes, beliefs, customs and procedures which make up the
school system. School culture is important in instilling a feeling of loyalty among its
members. For example, in many American schools, setting up of the school cheering
squad is important. The school believes that the presence of a cheering squad during
any interschool matches will boost the morale of their school players. When a team
goes down to the field, the players are accompanied by the cheering squad. This will
create a feeling of togetherness and this is a culture unique to the school.
Other aspects of school culture include ceremonies that are unique in each
school. Similarly, students in the school may have their own culture which involves
their language, dress, music, and activities and this is passed on to the next generation
of new students entering the school. This culture may emerge from the immediate
community in which the school is located.
For example, if the surrounding community is an affluent society then we can
expect students in this school to have the language, behaviour and life style of the
affluent society. Teachers too have their own culture to represent the adult society.
There are teachers who tend to be less approachable and create a distance from
students. These styles and outlooks reflect what teachers believe about their role.

Positive School Culture

Theres no one perfect school culture, but the following are some features of a
positive school culture:
There needs to be a widely shared sense of purpose and values that is
consistent and shared across staff members. Without this, there is
fragmentation and often times, a conflict.
There are group norms of continuous learning and school improvement that
the group reinforces. The importance of staff learning and a focus on
continuous improvement in the school.
A sense of responsibility for a students learning and not to blame students
for not being successful. In a positive school culture, staff really feel a
sense of responsibility for the learning of all students.
There should be collaborative and collegial relationships between staff
members. People share ideas, problems and solutions, They work together
to build a better school.
There is a focus on professional development, and staff reflection, and
sharing of professional practice. These are places where people interact
around their craft; to improve their teaching collaboratively.
Source: Shaping School Culture. Excerpts from an interview with Dr. Kent
Peterson. Apple Learning Exchange, 2004.

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Module 1: Introduction

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Visit a school or college or university or any educational

institution you have never been to before and walk down the
corridors, classrooms, offices and other facilities. Ask
yourself these questions:
Do the messages reflect the core values and mission
of the institution?
Do you detect a distinct school culture?
Is there a positive feeling about the institution?

25
Module 1: Introduction
KEY WORDS:

Social
Society
Sociology
Sociology of education
Functionalist theory
Conflict theory
Interactionist theory

Pygmalion effect
Social system
Bureaucracy
Organisation chart
School culture
Role of schooling

SUMMARY:

Social refers to a characteristics of humans living together and the interaction

of humans with one another.

Society is a group of humans that is that is delineated by the bounds of cultural

identity.

Sociology of education is a young field that seeks to understand how

education affects social life and social change.

Sociologists differ in their perspectives on the role of schooling and this is

stated in the functionalists, conflict and interactionists perspectives.

Functionalism emphasises the school as the medium for transmitting education

to the members of society.

The interactionist perspective emphasises on classroom communication

patterns and educational practices and how it affects students self-concept and
aspirations.

Conflict theorists believe that schools create class, racial, and gender
inequalities among its students

Schools are seen as a social system, responsible to shape the behaviour and
values of children either through formal or informal curriculum.

Schools set goals and these goals are based on community expectations of
what is to be taught in schools.

Schools are basically bureaucratic in nature and help to formalised its daily
functions.

School culture refers to the schools shared beliefs, customs, and behaviour.

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Module 1: Introduction

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Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 136
CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 28 Apr 2009
Durkheim, E. (1961). Education and sociology. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
Ellington, H. (1996). The systems approach to curriculum development. Educational
Development Unit. The Robert Gordon University.
Jackson, P.W., Boostrom, R.E.,& Hansen, D.T. (1993). The moral life of schools. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merton, R.K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, pp. 193-210.
Miller, L. Scott. (1995). An American imperative: Accelerating Minority educational
advancement. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How high schools structure inequality. New Haven,
CT: Yale University.
Ray C. Rist, (1970). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling
prophecy in ghetto education, Harvard Educational Review, 40, 72-73.
Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher
expectation and pupils' intellectual development'. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
Saphier, J. & King, M. (1985) Good Seeds Grow in Strong Cultures. Educational
Leadership, March 1985 (Vol. 42, No. 6, p. 67-74)
Schugurensky, D. (2002). Selected Moments of the 20th Century. Department of Adult
Education, Community Development and Counselling Psychology, Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education, University of Toronto.