Whites, EE 320

Lecture 23

Page 1 of 17

Lecture 23: Common Emitter Amplifier

Frequency Response. Millers Theorem.
Well use the high frequency model for the BJT we developed in
the previous lecture and compute the frequency response of a
common emitter amplifier, as shown below in Fig. 5.71a.

(Fig. 5.71)
As we discussed in the previous lecture, there are three distinct
region of frequency operation for this and most transistor
amplifier circuits. Well examine the operation of this CE

2009 Keith W. Whites

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Lecture 23

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amplifier more closely when operated in three frequency

regimes.

Mid-band Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

At the mid-band frequencies, the DC blocking capacitors are
assumed to have very small impedances so they can be replaced
by short circuits, while the impedances of C and C are very
large so they can be replaced by open circuits. The equivalent
small-signal model for the mid-band frequency response is then

Well define
RL = ro || RC || RL

(1)

Vo = g m RLV

(2)

so that at the output

Using Thvenins theorem followed by voltage division at the

input we find

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V =

Lecture 23

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r
r
RB
VTH =
Vsig

r + rx + RTH
r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig

(3)

Substituting (3) into (2) we find the mid-band voltage gain Am to

be
V
g m r
RB

( ro || RC || RL ) (4)
Am o =
Vsig r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig

High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

For the high frequency response of the CE amplifier of Fig.
5.71a, the impedance of the blocking capacitors is still
negligibly small, but now the internal capacitances of the BJT
are no longer effectively open circuits.
Using the high frequency small-signal model of the BJT
discussed in the previous lecture, the equivalent small-signal
circuit of the CE amplifier now becomes:

(Fig. 5.72a)

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Lecture 23

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Well simplify this circuit a little by calculating a Thvenin

equivalent circuit at the input and using the definition for RL in
(1):

(Fig. 5.72b)
where it can be easily shown that Vsig is V given in (3)
r
RB
Vsig =
Vsig (5.167),(5)

r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig
while

Rsig = r || rx + ( RB || Rsig )

(5.168),(6)

Millers Theorem
We can analyze the circuit in Fig. 5.72b through traditional
methods, but if we apply Millers theorem we can greatly
simplify the effort. Plus, it will be easier to apply an
approximation that will arise if we use Millers theorem.
You may have seen Millers theorem previously in circuit
analysis. It is another equivalent circuit theorem for linear

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Lecture 23

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circuits akin to Thvenins and Nortons theorems. Millers

theorem applies to this circuit topology:

(Fig. 1)
The equivalent Millers theorem circuit is

(Fig. 2)
where
ZA =

Zx
v
1 B
vA

and Z B =

Zx
v
1 A
vB

(7),(8)

The equivalence of these two circuits can be easily verified. For

example, using KVL in Fig. 1
v A = i A Z x + vB
v v
(9)
iA = A B
or
Zx
while using KVL in the left-hand figure of Fig. 2 gives

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Lecture 23

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vA
ZA

(10)

iA =

Now, for the left-hand figure to be equivalent to the circuit in

Fig. 1, then iA in (9) and iA in (10) must be equal. Therefore,
v A vB v A
=
Zx
ZA
The equivalent impedance ZA can be obtained from this equation
as
Zv
Zx
ZA = x A =
v A vB 1 vB
vA
which is the same as (7). A similar result verifies (8).
So, for a resistive element Rx, Millers theorem states that
Rx
Rx
and RB =
(12),(13)
RA =
vB
vA
1
1
vA
vB
while for a capacitive element Cx, Millers theorem states that
v
v
C A = C x 1 B and CB = Cx 1 A (14),(15)
vA
vB

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Lecture 23

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High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier (cont.)

Returning now to the CE amplifier equivalent small-signal
circuit of Fig. 5.72b, well apply Millers theorem of Figs. 1 and
2 to this circuit and the capacitor C to give

(Fig. 3)
where, using (14) and (15),
V
V
C A = C 1 o and CB = C 1
V
Vo

(16),(17)

Actually, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 is no simpler to

analyze than the one in Fig. 5.72b because of the dependence of
CA and CB on the voltages Vo and V.
However, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 will prove valuable for
the following approximation. Note from Fig. 5.72b that
I L + I = g mV I L = g mV I
(18)
Up to frequencies near fH and better, the current I in the small
capacitor C will be much smaller than g mV . Consequently,
from (18)

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and

Lecture 23

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I L g mV
Vo I L RL = g m RLV

(19)
(5.169),(20)

Using this last result in (16) and (17) we find that

g R V
C A C 1 + m L = C 1 + g m RL

V
1
C B C 1 +
and
= C 1 +

g R V
g R
m L
m L

(21)
(22)

Most often for this type of amplifier, g m RL  1 so that in (22)

CB C . But as we initially assumed, the current through C is
much smaller than that through the dependent current source
g mV , which ultimately led to equation (19).
Consequently, we can ignore CB in parallel with g mV and the
final high frequency small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE
amplifier in Fig. 5.71a is

(Fig. 5.72c)

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where

Lecture 23

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Cin C + C A = C + C 1 + g m RL

(5.173),(22)

Based on this small-signal equivalent circuit, well derive the

high-frequency response of this CE amplifier. At the input
Z Cin
(23)
V =
Vsig

Z Cin + Rsig
while at the output
Vo = g m RLV

(24)

Substituting (23) into (24) gives

Vo = g m RL

Z Cin
Z Cin

+ Rsig

Vsig

Since Z Cin = ( jCin ) then (25) becomes

1
g m RL
jCin

Vo = g m RL
Vsig =
Vsig
1
1 + jCin Rsig
+ Rsig
jCin
If we define
1
H =
Cin Rsig
1

then substitute this into (26) gives

Vo
g m RL g m RL
=
=

f
Vsig 1 + j
1+ j
H
fH

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

Whites, EE 320

where

Lecture 23

fH =

H
1
=
2 2 Cin Rsig

Page 10 of 17

(5.176),(29)

You should recognize this transfer function (28) as that for a low
pass circuit with a cut-off frequency (or 3-dB frequency) of H.
This is the response of a single time constant circuit, which is
what we have in the circuit of Fig. 5.72c.
What were ultimately interested in is the overall transfer
function Vo Vsig from input to output. This can be easily derived
from the work weve already done here. Since
Vo
Vo Vsig
=
(30)
Vsig Vsig Vsig
We can use (28) for the first term in the RHS of (30), and use (5)
for the second giving
Vo
r
g m RL
RB
=

(31)
Vsig 1 + j f r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig
fH
We can recognize Am from (4) in this expression giving
Vo
Am
=
(5.175),(32)
Vsig 1 + j f
fH
Once again, this is the frequency response of a low pass circuit,
as shown below:

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Lecture 23

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(Fig. 5.72d)

Comments and the Miller Effect

Equation (32) gives the mid-band and high frequency
response of the CE amplifier circuit. It is not valid for the low
frequency response near fL and lower frequencies, as shown in
Fig. 5.71b.
It turns out that Cin in (22) is usually dominated by
C A = C 1 + g m RL . Even though C is usually much smaller
than C its effects at the input are accentuated by the factor
1 + g m RL .

The reason that CA undergoes this multiplication is because it

is connected between two nodes (B and C in Fig. 5.72a) that
experience a large voltage gain. This effect is called the

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Lecture 23

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Miller effect and the multiplying factor 1 + g m RL in (22) is

called the Miller multiplier.

Because of this Miller effect and the Miller multiplier, the

input capacitance Cin of the CE amplifier is usually quite
large. Consequently, from (20) the fH of this amplifier is
reduced. In other words, this Miller effect limits the high
frequency applications of the CE amplifier because the
bandwidth and gain will be limited.

Low Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

On the other end of the spectrum, the low frequency response of
the CE amplifier and all other capacitively coupled amplifiers
is limited by the DC blocking and bypass capacitors.
This type of low frequency response analysis is rather
complicated because there is more than a single time constant
response involved. In the circuit of Fig. 5.71a there are three
capacitors involved, CC1, CC2, and CE. All three of these greatly
affect the low frequency response of the amplifier and cant be
ignored.

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Lecture 23

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The text presents an approximate solution in which the low

frequency response is modeled as the product of three high pass
single time constant circuits cascaded together so that

Vo
j
j
j
Am

(5.183),(33)

Vsig
j + p1 j + p 2 j + p 3

(Fig. 5.73e)
So there isnt a single fL as suggested by Fig. 5.71b but rather a
more complicated response at low frequencies as we see in Fig.
5.73e above. Computer simulation is perhaps the best predictor
for this complicated frequency response, but an approximate
formula for fL is given in the text as
1 1
1
1
+
+
f L f p1 + f p 2 + f p 3 =

2 CC1RC1 CE RE CC 2 RC 2
(5.184),(5.185),(34)
where RC1 , RE , and RC 2 are the resistances seen by CC1 , CE , and
CC 2 , respectively, with the signal source Vsig = 0 and the other
two capacitors replaced by short circuits.

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Lecture 23

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Example N23.1. Compute the mid-band small-signal voltage

gain and the upper 3-dB cutoff frequency of the small-signal
voltage gain for the CE amplifier shown in Fig. 5.71a. Use a
2N2222A transistor and the circuit element and DC source
values listed in Example 5.18 in the text. Use 10 F blocking
and bypass capacitors.

The circuit in Agilent Advanced Design System appears as:

V_DC
SRC2
Vdc=10.0 V

AC
AC
AC1
Start=100 Hz
Stop=1.0 MHz
Step=100 Hz

R
R2
R=8 kOhm
vo
C
C2
C=10 uF

vi
V_AC
R
SRC1
R3
Vac=polar(1,0) V R=5 kOhm
Freq=freq

C
C1
C=10 uF

R
R1
R=100 kOhm ap_npn_2N2222A_19930601
Q1
C
I_DC
C3
SRC4
Idc=1 mA C=10 uF

V_DC
SRC3
Vdc=-10.0 V

From the results of the ADS circuit simulation

R
R4
R=5 kOhm

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Lecture 23

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VCB = 2.03 V ( 400 mV ) = 2.43 V

VBE = 0.4 V ( 1.02 V ) = 0.62 V
From Fig. 9 in the Motorola 2N2222A datasheet (see the
previous set of lecture notes)
For VCB = 2.43 V Ccb = C 5.8 pF.
For VBE = 0.62 V Ceb = C 20 pF.

gm =

IC
1 mA
=
= 0.04 S
VT 25 mV

From (5.163),
fT

gm
0.04
=
= 246.8 MHz
2 ( C + C ) 2 ( 20 pF + 5.8 pF )

This value agrees fairly with the datasheet value of 300 MHz.

0 265 from the ADS parts list for this 2N2222A transistor.
Therefore,

r =

0
gm

265
= 6,625
0.04

From the 2N2222A datasheet, the nominal output resistance at

IC = 1 mA is ro 50 k.
What about rx? Its so small in value (~ 50 ) that well easily
be able to ignore it for the Am calculations compared to r (which
is 6,625 as we just calculated). From (4),

Whites, EE 320

Lecture 23

Am =

Page 16 of 17

g m r
RB

( ro || RC || RL )
 

r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig 
 

 

2,898.6 = RL
0.02327

0.9524

V
V
Am ) = 36.2 dB

Am = 64.24

Therefore,
or in decibels

Am = 20 log10 (

From ADS:
m3
freq= 400.0 Hz
dB(vo)=33.632
40

dB(vo)

35

m3

m1
m2
freq= 6.300kHz freq= 84.40kHz
dB(vo)=36.053 dB(vo)=33.046
m1
m2

30
25
20
15
10
1E2

1E3

1E4

1E5

1E6

freq, Hz

From this plot, ADS computes a mid-band gain of Am = 36.05

dB, which agrees closely with the predicted value above.
From (29),

fH

1
2 Cin Rsig

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where from (22)

Lecture 23

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Cin = C + C 1 + g m RL = 20 + 5.8 (1 + 0.04 2,898.6 ) pF

= 20 + 678.3 = 698.3 pF
while from (6)
Rsig = r || rx + ( RB || Rsig )
Because RB || Rsig = 100 k || 5 k = 4,761.9 is so much larger
than rx (on the order of 50 ), we can safely ignore rx. Then,
Rsig 6,625 || 4,762 = 2,771 .

Therefore,
f H 2 698.3 1012 2,771 = 82.25 kHz
This agrees very closely with the value of 84.40 kHz predicted
by the ADS simulation shown above.

Add a short discussion on the gain-bandwidth product Am f H .