Advanced FOUNDATION ENGINEERING V.N.S. MURTHY =Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series V.N.S. MURTHY Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. Bangalore India CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS NEW DELHI * BANGALORE‘Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series ISBIV: 978-81-239-1506-7 (PB) 978-81-239-1807-4 (HC) © 2007, Author First Edition: 2007 Allrights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any Information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the author and the publisher. Published by : Satish Kumar Jain for CBS Publishers & Distributors, 4596/1-A, 11 Darya Ganj. New Deini- 110.002 (India) E-mail: cospubs@vsni.com Website : www.cbspd.com Production Director : Vinod K. Jain Branch Office Seema House, 2975, 17th Cross, KR. Road, Bonsankari 2nd Stage, Bangalore - 560070 Fax: 080-26771680 * E-mail: cbsong@vsni.net Printed at India Binding House, Noida, UP (Inala)the Cause of Pudents |Department of Civil Engineering Indian institute of Science Bangalore - 560 012, India Foreword fier his first book Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dr Murthy takes the readers deeper into the realms of foundation engineering in this second book ‘Advanced Foundation Engineering. As the author himself states, the objective is to provide to ‘the students, teachers and practising engineers a comprehensive review of all the relevant theories in the field of foundation engineering, The author has amply met this objective. ‘As Terzaghi pointed out more than 50 years ago, the state of maturity in foundation ‘engineering is the semi-empirical stage after the initial empirical and scientific stages. To appreciate the complexities and the need for semi-empiricism and to be a successful practitioner of the art of foundation engineering, one needs to have a thorough theoretical background. Dr Murthy’s book serves this purpose admirably. ‘The book has 18 chapters. The frst three chapters cover the basics of geotechnical properties and soil exploration. In the next four chapters, bearing capacity and settlement aspects of shallow foundations are dealt with. Different aspects of deep foundations — piles, piers, and ‘eaissons, are treated in Chapters 8 to 12. The elaborate treatment of deep foundations is perhaps the speciality of this book. Chapters 13 10 18 ate somewhat disconnected but still cover useful topics of foundations in expansive sols, cellular cofferdams, machine foundations, reinforced earth and ground anchors, soil improvement and braced cuts, Overall, Dr Murthy has succeeded in laying a good foundation for the challenging subject of foundation engineering. In each chapter, a lange number of example problems have been worked out to help students, grasp the concepts. A number of problems have also been set for solution by the students, ‘when completed will enable them to understand the subject. The famous Chinese philosopher Confucius (fifth century BC) has said: “I hear, forgot; I see, I remember, I do, | understand.” With pleasure, I recommend the book to all interested in geotechnical engineering, K.S. Subba Rao Emeritus ProfessorPreface ‘dvanced Foundation Engineering is the second book in the series of Geotechnical Engineering, The first book in the series is A Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering written to satisfy the requirements of undergraduate students studying geotechnical engineering as a subject. The present book goes deeper into the various aspects of Foundation Engincering, To make the book self-sufficient in all respects, certain portions of the first book have been repeated. ‘The objective of writing this book is to bring all the relevant advanced theories on foundation engineering in a book form at one place. Many books are available on foundation engineering in advanced countries but the author has not yet come across a book based purely on the subject matter. Most of the books available are written just to satisfy certain categories of students or professional’s needs. It must be understood well that foundations have to be designed to simulate field conditions. With all the efforts put in by numerous reputed research workers and designers in the field, the author has still to come across one single theory that satisfies the field conditions. If that is the case, what could be the solution? As things stand, the only way is to try @ few more theories appropriate to the field conditions. Iti, therefore, essential thatthe consultants must be conversant with the theories that are available in this field and students also must know the available approaches. It is the opinion of the author that the present book ‘meets most of the requirements. Research work is another field of importance. The author has presented in detail his work on laterally loaded pile foundations to solve many of the problems confronted in this field. The approach is direct and simple as compared to the complicated methods proposed by many leading and well-known advocates in this field. It isthe author’s ardent opinion that there is always a simple solution to a complicated problem. Finally, the author wishes to convey through this book that he would be extremely happy if this book serves the purpose for which itis intended. V.N.S. MurthyAcknowledgements H CELE sincerely thank Mr S.K, Jain, Managing Director, and Mr Y.N. Arjuna, Publishing Director, CBS Publishers & Distributors, for the splendid work they have done in publishing my ‘book. [also thank their supporting staff members. I thank Prof. K.S. Subba Rao for his excellent Foreword to this book. He isan internationally known geotechnical engineer and his opinion on this book has a lot of weight. The review of this book has been done by an upcoming well-known geotechnical engineer Prof. T.G. Seetharam who is the Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. His analysis of the subject matter is highly appreciated. | thank him very much. V.N.S. MurthyDepartment of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore - 560 012, India Review TT[izbook sone ofthe bet referee books fo the undergraduat tens, pong students and working professionals in the area of foundation engineering. It presents both theoretical and practical knowledge of foundation engineering. Each topic has been developed in logical progression, exhaustive and up-to-date and it will be very useful to students, teachers and practitioners, Prof. Murthy has brought out a comprehensive review of all the relevant theories required for the practice of foundation engineering in his book. The book has 18 chapters, in which the author has comprehensively covered the topics of study for undergrad- uate curriculum on “foundation engineering” and also to some extent to the postgraduate cur- riculum, Prof. Murthy has developed a practical and pragmatic approach to the foundation design and suggested construction features at some locations keeping in view the safety and economics of the proposed methodology. Geotechnical properties and soil exploration have been covered in Chapters 2 and 3 respec- tively. Four chapters are devoted to shallow foundations and five chapters to deep foundations, Prof. Murthy has brought out the principles of soil mechanics, field and laboratory testing to highlight the importance of these topics ii foundation engineering design. Prof. Murthy’s own research work on vertical and batter piles has been brought out eloquently for advanced read- ing in Chapter 9. The other chapters presented are machine foundations, drilled pier founda- tions, caisson foundations, cofferdams, foundations on expansive and collapsible soils, braced cuts and drainage including soil improvement. He has covered extensively drilled pier founda- tions, caisson foundations and cellular cofferdams and this book is unique in this respect. A umber of chosen problems have been solved to illustrate the concepts in most of the chapters. ‘Also, relevant questions and problems are given at the end of some of the chapters for the benefit of students. Though the book is not designed for any one particular level of students, it is very useful for all levels of students duc to its clarity of presentation and list of problems solved. I strongly recommend this excellent book Advanced Foundation Engineering to the students, teachers, and practitioners. I feel this book will also serve as @ valuable reference for students who take competitive examinations like Graduate Aptitude Test for Engineers (GATE), UPSC examinations, and other national selection entrance tests/examinations. Prof. T.G. Sitharam pxn (canada), FIGS, FIE Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012 email: sitharam@eivilise.emtinPublisher's Note ‘The publishers thankful to ProfG Sitharam who has reviewed this book very objectively and given his comments on the coverage and presentation of the text. A brie biosketch of Prof Sitharam i given here Prof T.G. SITHARAM mo. rics re is eurentiy Profesor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore He obtained his BE (Civil Engg) from Mysore Univesity in 1984, Masters from Se, Bangalore, ‘in 1986, and PhD from University of Waterloo, Canada, in 1991. He was a postdoctoral researcher at University of Texas at Austin, USA, until 19, Prof Sitharam is an emerging national and international leader inthe ares of soil dynamics and earthquake geotechnical engineering, His esearch work on evaluation of dynamic properties of soils, liquefaction behaviour Of Indian soils, regional seismicity, site response and seismic microzonation of Bangalore city, are significant ‘contributions tothe county. He was responsible for the indigenous development of the state-of-the-art cyclic triaxial testing, piezo vibro cone system with «large calibration chamber, shake table fcilty and development of laminar box. He has successfully completed several sponsored research projec. He has published mote than 70 papers in international/national journals and presented 140 papers at internationalnational conferences, He has delivered letures invited / keynote lectures and also chaired cochaied tecnial sessions in several international’ national conferences, He is an active member of the task committee on “microzenation of Bangalore city” st up by Seismology Division of Department of Science and Technology (DST). Recognizing his contribution to this area, he has been inducted as Member, Programme Advisory and Monitoring Committee (PAMC), forthe nationally coordinated programme on Seismicity by DST, Government of India. Prof Sitaram is Associate Fito, ASCE Journal of Meterials in Chul Engineering, USA, and also Membes, Commitee on Sols and Rock Instrumentation (AFS 20), Transporation Rescarch Board of the National Academics, Division of National Research Council (NRC), USA, for the period 2007-08, He is also a member of TC 29 Laboratory Strest-Stain Strength Testing of Geomaterials, Inerational Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical [Enginecring (ISSMGE), for the year 2001-09, Prof Sitharam bas guided 8 PRD students, 3 MS (Engg) students and several ME project studems. Currently he has 7 doctoral students working under him Prof Sitharam has writen two textbooks: Applied Elasticity and Soil Mechanice and Foundation Engineering, and also guss-eited a volume on “Geotechnies and Earthquake Hazards" for Current Seience. He isan excelent Consultant and has carod out more than 50 project related to specialized geotechnical investigations (measurement ‘of dynamic properties and vibration isolation), slope stability in rooks and sil, underground spaces in rockssols tnd design of earth dams and tailing ponds for ash and vedmud including ground improvement,Contents Foreword by Prof K.S. Subba Rao vil Preface ix Review by Prof TG. Sitharam xi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Foundation engineering defined 1 4.2 The subject matter 1 4.3 Requirements for foundation design 2 1.4 The objective 2 Chapter 2 Geotechnical Properties of Soil 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 Soil weight 3 2.3 Index properties of soils 4 2.4 Sieve sizes 4 25 — Grain size distribution curves 5 2.6 Relative density and consistency 6 2.7 \dentification and classification of soil 8 28 — Hydraulic properties of soil 9 10 12 15 16 /olume relationship 2.9 Stress distribution in soils 2.40 Consolidation and settlement 2.11 Shear strength 2.42 Stress paths 2.13 Lateral pressures by theory of elasticity for surcharge loads oon the surface of backfill” 24. Chapter 3 oil Exploration 29 3.1. Introduction 29 3.2 Boring of holes 30 3.3 Sampling in soil 6 3.4 Rock core sampling 41xiv Advanced Foundation Engineering. —— 35 Standard penetration test 42 3.6 Corrections to observed SPT values in cohesioniess soils 6 3.7 SPT values related to relative density of cohesionless soils st 3.8 SPT values related to consistency of clay soil St 3.9 Static cone penetration test (CPT) 53 3.10 Pressuremeter 67 3.11 The flat dilatometer test 80 3.42 Field vane shear test (VST) 83 3.43 Field-plate load test (PLT) 83 3.14 Ground water conditions 83 3.18 Geophysical exploration 88 3.16 Planning of soil exploration 94 3.17 Execution of soil exploration programme % 3.48 Report 8 3.19 Problems 8 Chapter 4 Shallow Foundation 1: Depth of Foundation and Other Considerations 103 4.1 Shallow and deep foundations. 108 4.2 Requirements for a stable foundation 104 4.3 Foundation location and depth 106 4.4 Minimum depth for shallow foundation 106 4.8 Selection of type of foundation 409 Chapter 5 Shallow Foundation 2: Ultimate Bearing Capacity 1 5.1 Introduction 1 5.2 The ultimate bearing capacity of soil defined a1 53 Some of the terms defined 112 5.4 Types of failure in soil 113 55 An overview of bearing capacity theories 115 56 Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory 116 5.7 Skempton’s bearing capacity factor N_ 122 5.8 Effect of water table on bearing capacity 123 5.9 The general bearing capacity equation 192 5.10 Effect of soil compressibility on bearing capacity of soil 138 5.11. Bearing capacity of foundations subjected to eccentric loads 144 5.12 Ultimate bearing capacity of footings based on SPT values (N) 147 5.13 The CPT method of determining ultimate bearing capacity 147 5.14 Ultimate bearing capacity of footings resting on stratified deposits of soil 150 5.15A Meyerhot's method of computing ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on slopes 187 5.158 Bearing capacity of foundations on top of a slope 160—————- Contents xv 5.16 The pressuremeter method of determining ultimate bearing capacity . 163 5.17 Foundations on rock 172 5.18 Case history of failure of the transcona grain elevator 174 5.19 Problems 7 Chapter 6 Shallow Foundation 3: Pressure and Settlement 185 6. Introduction 185 62 Field plate load tests 186 + 63 _Effect of size of footings on settlement 198 6.4 Design charts from SPT values for footings on sand 194 65 Empirical equations based on SPT values for footings on cohesioniess soils 198 6.6 Safe bearing pressure from empirical equations based ‘on CPT values for footings on cohesioniess soil 199 6.7 Foundation settlement 200 6.8 Evaluation of modulus of elasticity 202 69 Methods of computing settlements 204 6.10 Elastic settlement beneaith the comer of a uniformly loaded flexible area based on the theory of elasticity 208 6.11 Janu, Bjertum and Kjaemsi’s method of determining elastic settlement under undrained conditions 206 6.12 Schmertmann’s method of calculating settlement in granular soils by using CPT values 207 6.13 Pressuremeter method of estimating settlement in cohesionless and cohesive soils 214 6.14 Estimation of consolidation settlement by using cedometer test data 219 6.15. Skempton-Bjerrum method of calcuiating consolidation settlement (1957) 220 6.16 Consolidation seitloment by Lambe’s stress path method 204 617 Problems 208 Chapter 7 Shallow Foundation 4: Combined Footings and Mat Foundation 233 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 Safe bearing pressures for mat foundations on sand and clay 234, 7.3 Eccentric loading 235 7.4 — The coefficient of subgrade reaction 236 7.5 — Proportioning of cantilever footing 238 7.6 Design of combined footings by rigid method (conventional method) 239, 7.7 Design of mat foundation by rigid method. 244xvi Advanced Foundation Engineering 7.8 Design of combined footings by elastic line method 2at 7.9 Design of mat foundations by elastic plate method 242 7.10 Floating foundation 243 7.11, Problems 250 Chapter 8 Deep Foundation 1 Vertical Load Bearing Capacity of Single Vertical Pil 251 8.1 Introduction 251 82 Classification of piles 251 83 Types of piles according to the method of installation 252 84 — Uses of piles, 254 85 — Solection of pile 256 86 Installation of piles 256 8.7 Load transfer mechanism 259 88 Methods of determining ultimate load bearing capacity of a single vertical pile 263 89 General theory for ultimate bearing capacity 263 8.10 Ultimate bearing capacity in cohesionless soils 265 811 Critical depth 266 8.12 Tomlinson’s solution for Q, in sand 267 8.13 Meyethot’s method of determining Q, for piles in sand 269 8.14 Vesic’s method of determining Q, 270 8.15 Janbu's method of determining Q, 273 8.16 Coyle and Castello's method of estimating Q, in sand 273 8.17 The ultimate skin resistance of a single pile in cohesionless soil 274 8.18 Skin resistance Q, by Coyle and Castello method (1981) 275 8.19 Static bearing capacity of piles in clay soil 277 8.20 Bearing capacity of piles in granular soils based on SPT value 280 821 Bearing capacity of piles based on static cone penetration tests (CPT) 295 8.22 Bearing capacity of a single pile by load test 306 823 Pile bearing capacity from dynamic pile driving formulas 309 8.24 Bearing capacity of piles founded on a rocky bed 313 825 Uplift resistance of piles 314 826 Problems 316 Chapter 9 Deep Foundation 2 : Behaviour of Single Vertical and Batter Piles Subjected to Lateral Loads 319 9.1 Introduction 319 9.2 Winkler’s hypothesis 321 93 The differential equation 32Part A Venti Part B Batter I Piles Subjec 94 95 26 97 98 29 9.10 on 912 913 ana 915 916 917 9.18 9.19 9.20 Contems xvi -d To Lateral Loads Solution for laterally loaded single piles Modulus of subgrade reaction Closed-form solution for pile of infinite length Finite difference method of solving the differential equation for a laterally loaded long pile (Glesser, 1953) Non-dimensional method of analysis of vertical piles subjected to lateral loads Broms method for the analysis of laterally loaded piles (1964a, 1964b) Lateral defiections at working loads in saturated cohesive soils (Broms, 1964a) Uttimate lateral resistance of piles in saturated cohesive soils (Broms, 1964a) Lateral deflections at working loads in cohesionless soils, (Broms, 1964b) Utiimate lateral resistance of piles in cohesionless soils (Broms, 1964b) AA direct method for solving the non-linear behaviour of laterally. loaded flexible pile problems Case studies for laterally loaded vertical piles in sand Case studies for laterally loaded vertical piles in clay B-Y curves for the solution of laterally loaded piles Solution for the laterally loaded piles by the use of p-y curves Pressuremeter method to solve laterally loaded pile problems Poulos method of elastic analysis for laterally loaded single piles Piles in Cohesionless Soils 921 9.22 9.28 924 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 ast Mechanism of failure of batter piles under lateral loads in cohesioniess soils Statement of the problem of batter piles subjected to lateral loads Mode! tests on instrumented batter piles in cohesionless soil (Murthy, 1965) Variation of soil modulus along batter piles Non-dimensional solutions for laterally loaded batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Relative stiffness factor for batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Uttimate lateral bearing capacity of batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Lateral resistance of batter piles as a ratio to that of vertical pile in sand (Murthy, 1965) Coefficients of passive earth pressure for batter piles in sand Behaviour of laterally loaded batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1985) Problems 7 325, 325 326 329 332 339 351 351 356 360 967 374 378 383, 397 409 414 423, 423, 426 426 427 428 431 432 440 454xvill_ Advanced Foundation Engineering. Chapter 10 Deep Foundation 3: Pile Groups Subjected to Vertical and Lateral Loat 457 10.1. Introduction 487 10.2 Number and spacing of piles in a group 487 103 Pile group efficiency 459 10.4 Efficiency of pile groups in sand 460 10.5 Pile group efficiency equation 461 10.6 Vertical bearing capacity of pile groups embedded in sands and gravels 461 10.7 Bored pile groups in sand and gravel 462 10.8 Pile groups in cohesive soils 462 10.9 Settlement of piles and pile groups in sands and gravels 463 10.10 Settlement of pile groups in cohesive soils 465 10.11 Allowable loads on groups of piles 466 10.12 Negative friction on piles 466 10.13 Analysis of pile foundations comprising vertical and batter piles and subjected to vertical and lateral loads 469 10.14 Pile groups subjected to eccentric vertical loads 479 40.15 Anchor piles 481 10.16 Uplift capacity of a pile group 482 10.17 Examples 483 10.18 Problems 488 Chapter 11 Deep Foundations 4: Drilled Pier Foundations 491 11.1 Introduction 491 11.2 Types of drilled piers 491 11.3. Advantages and disadvantages of drilled pier foundations 492 11.4 Methods of construction 493 11.5 Design considerations 498 11.6 Vertical load transfer mechanism 500 11.7 Vertical bearing capacity of drilled piers 503 11.8 The general bearing capacity equation for the base resistance g, (= Gna.) 505 11.9 Bearing capacity equations for the base in cohesive soil 505 11.10 Bearing capacity equation for the base in granular soil 506 11.11 Bearing capacity equations for the base in cohesive IGM or rock (O'Neill and Reese, 1999) 508 11.12. The ultimate skin resistance of cohesive and intermediate materials 510 11.13 Ultimate skin resistance in cohesionless soil and gravelly sands (ONNelll and Reese, 1999) 513 11.14 Ultimate side and total resistance in rock (O'Neill and Reese, 1999) 514 11.15 Estimation of settlements of driled piers at working loads 514 44.16 Uplift capacity of drilled piers 526 11.17 Lateral bearing capacity of drilled piers 82711.18 Case study of a drilled pier subjected to lateral loads 11.19 Problems Chapter 12 Deep Foundation 5: Caisson undations: 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of wells or caissons 12.3 Stability analysis of well foundations 412.4 Limit equilibrium method of determining the grip, Length of wells in cohesionless soils 42.5 Grip lengths of wells in cohesive soils 12.6 Determination of scour depth in cohesioniess soils, 127 Thickness of steining of wells 128 Examples Chapter 13 Foundations On Collapsible And Expansive Soils Part A Collapsible Soils Part B E 13.1. General considerations 13.2 General observations 12.3 Collapse potential and settlement 18.4 — Computation of collapse settlement 18.5 Foundation design 186 Treatment methods for collapsible soils pansive Soils 13.7 Distribution of expansive soils, 18.8 General characteristics of swelling soils 139 Clay mineralogy and mechanism of swelling 13.10 Definition of some parameters Contents xix 534, 535 539 539 541 542 550 555 555 559 563 13.11 Evaluation of the swelling potential of expansive soils by single index method (Chen, 1988) 13.12 Classification of swelling soils by indirect measurement 13.13 Swelling pressure by direct measurement 13.14 Effect of initial moisture content and initial dry density on swelling pressure 18.15 Estimating the magnitude of swelling 18.16 Design of foundations in swelling soils, 13.17 Drilled pier foundations in expansive, soils, 13.18 Elimination of swelling 18.19. Problemsxx" Advanced Foundation Engineering Chapter 14 Cellular Cofferdams 593 14.1 Introduction 593 142 Cellular cofferdams 594 14.3 Components of cellular cofferdams 595 14.4. Dimensions of cellular cofferdam 596 14.5 Stability of cellular cofferdams 596 146 Examples 603 14.7 Questions and problems 607 Chapter 15 Machine Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Load 609 15.1. Introduction 609 152 Basic theories of vibration 610 15.3 Simple harmonic motion 610 154 Free vibration of a mass-and-spring system without damping «612 15.5 Free vibrations with viscous damping 615. 15.6 Forced vibrations of mass-and-spring system without damping 619 15.7 Forced vibrations of mass-and-spring system with viscous damping621 15.8 Forced frequency dependent exciting force with viscous damping 625 15.9 Properties of response curves 626 15.10 Machine foundations subjected to steady state vibrations 628 15.11 Vibration analysis of rigid circular footings by elastic half-space analog method 632 1.12. Elastic-soil-spring method of vibration analysis of foundations (Barkan, 1962) 646 15.13 Vibration analysis of foundations subjected to simultaneous vertical, sliding and rocking oscillations by elastic soil-spring method (Barkan, 1962) 654 15.14 Machine foundations subjected to impact loads (Barkan, 1962) 657 15.15 Design criteria for machine foundations 664 15.16 Screening vibrations 666 15.17 Examples 668 Chapter 16 Geotextiles Reinforced Earth and Ground Ancho! 683 16.1 Geotextiles 683 16.2 Reinforced earth and general considerations 685 16.3 Backfill and reinforcing materials 68, 16.4 Construction details 601 16.5 Design consideration for a reinforced earth wall 622 16.6 Design method 693 16.7 External stability 628 16.8 Examples of measured lateral earth pressures ™— Contents rt 169 Ground anchors m2 16.10 Problems 17 Chapter 17 Soil Improvement 721 17.1 Introduction 724 17.2 Mechanical compaction 722 17.3 Laboratory tests on compaction: 722 17.4 _ Effect of compaction on engineering behaviour 728 17.8 Field compaction and control 731 17.6 Compaction for deeper layers of soil 740 17.7 Preloading 7a 17.8 Sand compaction piles and stone columns 787 17.9 Soil stabilisation by the use of admixtures 748 17.10 Soil stabilisation by injection of suitable groups 749, 17.11 Soil stabilisation by electrical and thermal methods 750 17.12 Problems 751 Chapter 18 Braced-Cuts and Drainage 753 Part A Braced-cuts 753 18.1 General considerations 753 18.2 Lateral earth pressure distribution on braced-cuts, 754 18.3 Stability of braced-cuts in saturated clay 758 18.4 Bjerrum and Eide (1956) method of analysis 760 18.5 Piping failures in sand cuts 764 18.6 Problems 765 Part B Drainage 766 18.7 Introduction 768 188 Ditches and sumps 768 18.9 Well points 767 18.10 Deep-well pumps 769 18.11 Sand drains 769 Appendix A SI. Units in Geotechnical Enginecring 77 References 7 Index 793Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series