MATERIALS

Material is something that consists of matter.

something is made.

Material is the stuff of which

Materials comprise a wide rage of metals and non-metals which must be operated
upon to form the end product.
In the modern complex society of today, which is producing more technically
qualified people, complex products and more information than ever before a
constant challenge is being possed by the ever-increasing demands for materials of
greater
strength,
lightness,
safety,
reliability,
electrical
conductivity,
electromagnetism, hardness, hardenability, cutting power, softness, cheapness,
resistance to corrosion and radiation, and resistance to heat.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
The understanding of the properties of material is highly essential because without
this information and knowledge, the manufacturing process may be an expensive
and complex task which negates, the profit and utility of the end product.
Different material properties are,
Mechanical properties
Thermal properties
Physical properties &
Technological properties

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Elasticity:
A liquid or gas adapts itself to the shape of its container, but a solid has a shape of
its own, which it tends to preserve.
Loading a solid will change its dimensions, but the resulting deformation will
disappear upon unloading. This tendency of a deformed solid to seek its original
dimensions upon unloading is ascribed to a property called elasticity.
Plasticity:
Plasticity is that of a material by virtue of which it may be permanently deformed
when it has been subjected to an externally applied force great enough to exceed
the elastic limit.
Toughness:
(i)
Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy during deformation
up tofracture.
(ii)
Toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand bending or the
application of shear stresses without fracture.
Tensile strength:
In a tensile test, the ratio of the maximum load to original cross sectional area is
called tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength.

Yield strength:
When metals are subjected to a tensile force, they stretch or elongate as the stress
increases. The point where the stretch suddenly increases, is known as yield
strength of the material.
Impact strength:
Impact strength is a complex characteristic which takes into account both
toughness and strength of a material. The capacity of a material to resist or absorb
shock energy before is fractures is called its impact strength.
Ductility:
Ductility refers to the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension
without rupture.
Malleability:
Malleability is the capacity of a material to withstand deformation under
compression without rupture as for example in forging and rolling operations.
The ability of a metal to be formed by hammering or rolling is called malleability.
Brittleness:
Brittleness is defined as a tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation
and is therefore the opposite of ductility or malleability.
Hardness:
Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by
indentation.
However, the term may refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance to scratching,
abrasion or cutting.
Test such Brinell, Rockness, Vickers, etc., are generally employed to measure
hardness.
Creep:
Creep is the time-dependent deformation that occurs under stress; for most
materials, it is important only at elevated temperature.
Wear resistance:
Wear is the unintentional removal of solid material from rubbing surfaces.
Wear resistance is defined as the ability to resist wear and abrasion.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Heat capacity:
Heat property that is indicative of a material is ability to absorb heat from the
external surroundings; it represents the amount of energy required to produce a
unit temperature raise.
Heat capacity (C) = dQ/dt
Where,
dQ is the energy to produce a dt temperature change.

Specific heat:
It is the quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass of the solid to raise its
temperature by one degree.
Specific heat = 1/M*dE/dt
Where,
M=mass, E=Total energy content, T=Time
Thermal expansion:
When thermal energy is added to a material, a change in its dimensions occurs.
This phenomenon is thermal expansion and the property of a material responsible
for this is known as co-efficient of thermal expansion.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion () = 1/l*dl/dt = d/dt
Where,
L = length, = strain ( =dl/l)
Thermal conductivity:
The rate at which heat can flow through a material under the influence of a given
temperature gradient is determined by the thermal conductivity.
Thermal shock resistance:
Thermal shock defines the conditions of a body when it is subjected to sudden and
severe changes in temperature caused either by a change in external environment
or by internal heat generation. The ability of a body withstand such temperature
changes without failure is called thermal shock resistance.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Dimensions:
Dimensions of a material implies its size (ie) breadth, width, length, diameter, etc.,
and shape ie) section, square, circular, beam, channel, angle, etc.
Colour:
The colour of the material is very helpful in identification of a metal.
Eg)
Aluminium White
Copper
Reddish
Iron
Grey
Zinc
bluish white
Tin
Silvery white
Lead
Soft grey
Silver
lustrous white
Melting point:
Melting point of a metal is that temperature at which the solid metal changes into
the molten state.
Porosity:
Material is said to be porous if it has pores within it pores can absorb lubricant as in
a sintered self-lubricating bearing.

True porosity = Total pure volume

Bulk (total) volume

TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Castability:
Castability is that complex property of a metal or alloy which allows it, when
molten, to fill a mould so as to give a flawless casting.
Machinability:
Machninability is a complex property. A material is considered as easy to machine
if it can be machined by a given tool with little energy, and at high speed, without
unduly reducing the life of the tool, and the result is a finished surface, smooth and
within the required tolerance.
Weldability:
Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under the fabrication
conditions imposed into a specific suitably designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service.
This implies that a metal with good
weldability can be welded readily so as to perform satisfactorily in the fabricated
structure.
Solderability:
Solderability of a material is determined by the purity of its surface and by the
choice of solder and flux of greater importance in this connection is wheter the flux
can be completely removed after soldering, and if not, whether the residual flux can
promote corrosion. If the flux is to clean the surface of the metal properly it must
chemically very active which means that there is always a risk that the remaining
traces of flux will cause corrosion.

METERIALS IN STEELS
Ni steels:

Ni is grain refiner. It increases tensile strength without loss of ductility hardness is

also imparted. Ni is soluble in ferrite (S.S.Ni.ferrite) and toughens ferrite and
pearlite. Machinery and engineering steels us Ni 0.5-1.5. Heat resisting steels will
contain 35-45. Ni steel is heat treatable, used for axles, shafts, structural steel,
automobile and also engine parts, gears upto 3.5. That disadvantages is its high
cost.

Si steels:
0.5-4.5. The chef deoxidiser added to steel is Si. It is stronger than C steels. For
every 1% increases in Si it increases tensile strength by (1000 Kg/sq.cm). 980 Mpa.
Higher percentages 10-13% give good corrosion resistance hence, used in chemical
industries. It has also good magnetic permeability and low hysteresis loss and
hence used for dynamo poles, transformer cores (3%Si, 0.1%C)
Mn:
0.4%-1.75%. It has tensile strength and good ductility for every 1% Mn (upto 3%)
Tensile strength increases by 294 Mpa (300 Kg/sq.cm) beyond 8% it drops off.

Hardness and toughness are increased. It is cheaper than Ni steel for same
properties. Hence used for rails, rail road crossings, safes and vaults (cannot be
drilled easily by ordinary tools) rock crushing machinery, gears, armour plates,
shafts. High Mn used for tools, bullet proof, helmets, rifle barrels Had field 1114% Mn, 1-1.3%C has 550 BHN. It forms a strong carbide (FeMn) 3C combined Fe &
Mn carbide, has good impact resistance. Also used for of excavators.
Si-Mn:
Steels are heat treatable, with improved strength and toughness. Used for springscoil and leaf springs of automobiles 0.7-1%Mn, 1.8-2%Si, 0.5-0.6%C also highly
stressed structural members. S & P 0.03 max.

Vanadium:
Scavenger in steels to remove O2 & N2 . O2 that cannot be removed by Si is
removed by V. which is powerful de-oxidiser in steels also it improves the grain size.
About 0.3%V is added of which about 0.15% is left behind in the steel. If also
increases creep and endurance resistance, V is a strong carbide former, V 4C3 which
increases hardness and hardenability and resists tempering.
It is used for
automobile and loco forgings, torsion bars, etc.
W:
Another strong carbide former in steels, it is added from 0.5-20%O, 0.05-1.3%C
combined with C and Fe to form WC and Fe 2W (Fe tungside). These compounds
have high melting point and solubility at elevated temperatures is very small. Also
reduces the tendency for recaaburisation during working, alloying with V and Cr
usually. Most important alloy steel is High speed steel 18%W, 4%Cr, 1%V (18-4-1)
steel. Possesses red hardness ie) retains its hardness even at 540C (1000F). The
tool, will not dull even at high machining speeds. This has revolutionised all
machining operations. Machines using HSS tools can work at high speeds, 2-3 time
speeds of ordinary C tool steel. It is used for drills, taps, saws, dies for forging and
wire drawing.
Cr:
A very common alloying element (0.5-30%). It is a hardner in steels as it is a stable
carbide former. Cr carbides and Cr cementite (FeCr 3)C. It is also increases
corrosion at high temperature 0.5-1.5%Cr used for tools springs and compressor
parts and machinery steels. Higher percentage Cr 18-28% used for heat resistance
parts like hot dies, boiler parts, furnace stays, exhaust valves of I.C. and
aeroengines 12-18%Cr is employed for stainless type of steels used for cutlery,
table ware, valve and pump parts, surgical instruments and parts of parts of food
processing equipment, ball and roller bearings and in chemical industry.
Ni-Cr steels:
1-3.5%Ni, 0.5-1.5%Cr, 0.2-0.55%C. Best ratio Ni/Cr=2 1/2. This is one of the best heat
treatable steels as rate of cooling is slow. It incorporates advantages of both Ni and
Cr. ie) Hardness(Cr) and ductility (Ni) and hence used for machinery parts. For
good hardenability and toughness like crankshaft, connecting rod, armour plates,
auto parts, gun barrels and tank parts.
Cr-V:

0.8-1.1%Cr, 0.25-0.3%V, deoxidises steel. V improves carbide and ferrite. Gives

very good toughness and resist to fatigue used for axles of locos and aero engines
and for I.C. engine valve springs.
Mo steels:
It is generally used along with Cr, Ni, Mn as it has very little effect if added by itself.
It will enhance the properties of these elements. It increases strength without loss
of ductility reduce temper brittleness. It is stable carbide former and has good
toughness and hence used for deep hardening (complex carbides) steels. It will
enhance corrosion resist of stainless steels. Another advantages is that it promotes
endurance strength, fatigue resistance at high temperature. Cr0.5-0.8% opposes
secondary hardness during tempering Ni 1.5-2%, Mn 0.25-0.75% used for
machinery steels used for automobile and aero engines structural parts and shafts
and axles, turbine rotor, steering knuckles, landing gear and structural parts of aero
engines.

Cobalt:
In addition to its use for magnets as it promotes retentivity of magnetism in steels,
it is also a weak carbide former, but decreases hardenability. It hardens ferrite at
high temperature and hence contributes towards red hardness. Co can replace W
in high speed steels.
Ti:
It is the most important of all carbides, the strongest carbide is of Ti, next to
columbium. TiC will not be affected so easily as other carbides. Intragrangular
corrosion is not found if Ti added to stainless steels as a stabilizer. It is added upto
a max. 2%, carbide effects reduce hardeneability.
It prevents formation of
austenite in high Cr steels.
High strength steels:
For highly stressed parts like gas turbines, turbo jet engines and missilies,
temperatures of operation may be as high as 800C. Fatigue resist, creep resist,
corrosion resist are added qualties required.
16%Cr, 25%Ni, 6%Mo, 0.8%Si, 1.5%Mn and 0.08%C. T.S. (2700 Kg/sq.cm) 265 Mpa
at 650C for 1000 hrs (1% creep test)
Heat resisting steels:
Parts like aero engines valves, conveyors in furnaces gas turbine parts require
creep resistant steels.
They require,
1. Resistance to scaling and oxidation
2. Strength at elevated temperature.
3. Structural stability.
i)

O7Cr90Mo 55 0.7-1.0Cr, Mo 0.45-0.65, 0.1-0.68%Si, 0.1 C max boiler

superheatertubes, pressure vessels, exhaust valves of aero engines, str. At
450C is 314 Mpa
(32 Kg/sq.cm)

ii)

15Cr3Mo55 Cr 2.9-3.4, Mo 0.45-0.65

C = 0.1-0.2, Si 0.1-0.35
Components requiring high tensile properties, crankshafts cylinder liner, aero
autogears, machine parts.
ii)

35 Cr1Mo66V 25; Cr 1-1.5 Mo 0.5-0.8; 0.2-0.3V, 0.25-0.45C high temperature

boltsand nuts parts of annealing furnace, gas turbine rotors.
PREPARED
C.RISHIKESH