LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

Warsaw, Poland, 24-28 June , 2002
G E N E R A L

L E C T U R E S

DEVELOPMENT OF JOINTING SYSTEMS FOR MODULAR

PREFABRICATED STEEL SPACE STRUCTURES
Z.S.MAKOWSKI1
1

Professor, F. Eng., Ph.D., D.I.C., F.C.G.I., D.Sc. Hon., London, UNITED KINGDOM

ABSTRACT: The steel industry witnessed within the last decades a remarkable acceptance of space structures for many structural
applications. The popularity of three-dimensional structures has been growing steadily, but their present acceptance all over the world is truly
phenomenal. Nowadays, space structures are willingly used by architects and engineers for sport halls, gymnasia, leisure centres, industrial
buildings and hangars. References 1,2,3 describe in detail the recent developments in many countries. The large number of space frames built
shows clearly that, through prefabrication and industrialisation, these systems often compete very successfully with more conventional
structures, at the same time providing architects with more impressive forms. As a rule, space frames are built with simple prefabricated units
which are often of standard size and shape. Such modular units, mass produced in the workshop, can be easily and rapidly assembled on site
by semi-skilled labour.
Key words: Joint, system, modular, prefabricated, steel, space structures
1. INTRODUCTION
In the past, the chief barriers towards the general use of these systems,
were the complexity of analysis of space structures and the difficulty of
joining several members in space at different angles. The introduction of
electronic computers solved the first difficulty.

The type of joint depends primarily on the connection technique

(bolting, welding or use of special mechanical connectors). It is also
affected by the shape of the members usually this involves a different
connection technique depending on whether the connecting members are
hollow section, structural tee, angle or wide flange (see Fig 1,2,3).

This paper looks at the problem of connecting members in space. It is

obvious that a connector is an extremely important part of any
prefabricated system and the final commercial success relies directly on
its effectiveness and simplicity.

Fig.2. The famous Eiffel tower, erected in Paris for the 1889 exhibition
by the French engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel is a typical
example of a three-dimensional structure. It also illustrates the
complexity of a three-dimensional joint in the age of gusset plates
and riveting.

Fig.1. An early example of prefabrication of cast iron three-dimensional

structures. The details of joint and strut described by a French
architect Violet-le Duc in 1863 as an example of prefabrication of
space structures which, according to him, will open lere dune
structure nouvelle.

OPENING SESSION

Many different types of connector have been proposed for space

structures the author of this note has details of over 250 different
types of connectors suggested or actually used in practice. Some
designers have made the mistake of trying to produce a universal
connector suitable for all types of structures. The early work of Konrad
Wachsmann (see Fig 4) belongs to this period and though his universal
connector proved to be rather complicated and not used in any practical
applications, it paved the way for further improvements that led
eventually to some very ingenious solutions.

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One can refer to Mr Alexander Graham Bell, as the father of

prefabricated space strctures. He was responsible for the development of
multi-layered space structures based on tetrahedron. His early
experiments in 1906-7 were carried out on prefabricated skeleton
structures using tubes and a specially designed connector.
The French engineer, Robert le Ricolais, realised the advantages of space
structures some 50 years ago however, his early models constructed in
timber used rather complicated connectors and probably this is a reason
why his ideas did not find a general acceptance at that time.
Fig.3. Early examples of the German system Oktaplatte used for tubular
space structures. It consists of tubular elements arranged to form
octahedra, which in turn are welded to steel hollow spheres which
constitute the nodes of the framework. Two hemispherical parts of
the joint are reinforced at the juncture with a steel diaphragm.

As a rule, the attempts to produce a universal connector resulted in

unnecessarily complex solutions, too sophisticated, consisting of too
many parts and ultimately too expensive. However elegant such a
universal joint may be, commercially it is doomed to failure.
The performance of structural connections of all types have been the
subject of intensive research during the last decade. Tests show that butt
welded joints in steel can develop 100% efficiency for tensile strength,
but welding aluminium structural alloys leads, as a rule, to unavoidable
annealing which can reduce efficiency to the order of only 50%. The
efficiency of riveted and bolted joints is usually assumed to be around
75% in both aluminium and steel construction.
A critical item in the fabrication for any space structure consisting of
large number of interconnected parts is the dimensional tolerance that
can be achieved during the erection. The tolerance of individual parts
depends mainly on the method used to join individual members. Some
Jointing systems are much better in this respect than others the SDC
system (see Fig 13) is an outstanding example, in which the connector
allows an easy adjustment of the length and angular inclination of
members meeting at a joint.
Welded connections give the maximum strength in steel space structures
and as a rule, are used for large spans. On the other hand, site welding
extends considerably the erection time and requires highly skilled
welders.
In jobs where prefabricated structures have to be erected by semi-skilled
labour, bolted connections are preferred and this is one of the reasons
why within the last few years large span space frames erected in the
Middle East have used almost exclusively prefabricated systems relying
on bolted connectors or specially designed mechanical connectors like
the British NODUS system (see Fig 19 - in chapter 8 Illustrations).
One must also realise that the often over-emphasised disadvantage of
bolted connections in that they are wasteful in the use of material as the
holes reduce drastically the useful load-carrying cross-sectional area of
the members, can be remedied through the use of specially designed end
pieces, which allow the utilization of the full cross-sectional areas of the
members.
The survey of the connectors which have been used in practical
applications shows that preference of the designer for a particular type of
connector depends greatly on his own experience and his connection
with a particular firm of civil engineering contractors.
The cost of the production of joints is one of the most important factors
affecting the final economy of the finished structure.
A successful prefabricated system requires joints which must be
repetitive, mass produced, simple to prefabricate and able to transmit all
the forces in the members interconnected at the nodes.

OPENING SESSION

The famous American comprehensive designer of geodesic domes,

Buckminster Fuller, proved to be more successful in spreading his ideas
as his first geodesic domes used very simple disc-type bolted connectors.
All connectors can be divided into two main categories:
(i) the purpose made joint and
(ii) the proprietary joint used in industrialized systems of construction.
The proliferation of numerous purpose made joints for one-off projects
is partly due to the unwillingness of the consultants to use a well-tried
proprietary system as it involves the payment of royalties. On the other
hand, there is an obvious paradox. As a rule the purpose-made joints are
either used for modest span structures or for very large-span structures,
when the limitations of most of the standard proprietary joints are
realised by the designer.
In the first case, the designer does not worry about the strength of his
joints, which normally are overdesigned. In the second case, the large
loads to be carried by his structure would not be resisted by the
commercially available systems, which cater only for average loads and
as a rule are not suitable for very large spans.
The design of the hangars at London Airport could be used as a typical
example of the second case.
For small spans bolted connections are preferred at there are numerous
examples of such applications.
The introduction of hollow sections into structural engineering produced
an impact on the development of joints suitable for tubular structures.
The German Oktaplatte system illustrates this point (see Fig 3). This
system originally used joints consisting of two hollow hemispheres and a
dividing diaphragm. This enabled a fully welded tube connection to be
made to the spherical node, and latticed panels to be fabricated before
fixing together, at works or on-site, using the spacing washer as a
tolerance piece.
The advantage claimed is that the individual tubular members are
straight cut at their extremities and welded without any edge preparation
to be hollow sphere. The same reason has been mentioned by several
Spanish and Romanian designers who stated that the sphere junctions
have had the great advantage that the tube ends do not need any
processing since the cutting of the tubes is straight. Such a welded joint
had an additional advantage of producing structures of greater rigidity
and hence smaller deflections.
The rigidly connected tubular member had also an increased capacity to
resist buckling load.
However, it is interesting to mention that Mannesmann firm, which
introduced the Octaplatte system, in fact decided to modify their original
system and introduced the Okta-S grid system, which is a bolted
version of the welded Oktaplatte system. In their modified system, the
tubular members are jointed on site to the hollow steel spheres by a
screwed socket connection (see Ref 4). The reason for the modification
was that site welding required for the original Oktaplatte extended
considerably the erection time and presumably increased its cost.
Many designers of tubular structures (see Ref 5) that it is essential to

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keep the amount of workmanship on the tube itself to a minimum. The

easiest solution is to cut the ends off square and then to weld them to the
end piece or directly to the connector; however, there are many other
techniques, such as saddling, crimping, flattening, reducing, slotting,
etc., but as they are the second operation in fabrication, they add to the
final cost.

a)

An advantage of tubular structure is that the outside diameter can be

constant, simplifying the construction and sometimes enabling the
designer to use only one size of the connector for his whole structure.
Differing wall thickness of the tubes can often take account of the
variation of forces in the structure without changing the outside diameter
of the tube. The ideal solution is to obtain a member able to take the
same force in tension and compression however, this is specially
difficult to achieve in pin-connected structures because of the increase of
the slenderness ratio introduced by the hinged ends of the members.
Some systems, e.g. the Nodus joint (see Fig 19 - in chapter 8
Illustrations), enable the engineer to design the member as a fixed
ended strut and provide in his connector the ends fixed capable of
developing full restraint.
The hollow sphere concept has been developed into hemispherical
forms, though it has obvious limitations regarding the number of
members which can be connected, e.g. Segmo system (see Fig 31 - in
chapter 8 Illustrations). One of the most advanced connectors
developed for single- and double-layer grids is the Japanese NS
system (see Fig 37 - in chapter 8 Illustrations), only very recently put
on the market. Very many steel space structures have been constructed
within the last 5 years in the NS system.
From the category of the proprietary joints one has to describe briefly:
(1) the MERO connector
(2) the Unistrut (Moduspan) system
(3) Space Deck
(4) Triodetic system
(5) Unibat system
(6) Nodus system

2. THE MERO CONNECTOR

Introduced in 1942, by Dr. Mengeringhausen, proved to be extremely
popular and has been used for numerous industrial buildings, churches,
assembly halls and domes. In this form of construction tubular members
with threaded ends are connected to a steel sphere node drilled and
tapped to accept up eighteen members. A main feature of this system is
that the axes of all members pass through the centre of the connector,
eliminating eccentricity of loading at the joint, though originally the
MERO joint (see Fig 5) was developed for the pin-connected structures,
recently a modification of the shape of the end pieces welded to the
tubular members allow the members to resist fixity moments in addition
to axial forces.
The versatility of the bolted MERO spherical joint is already well known
to all designers of steel space structures. One has to report, however, that
in an attempt to reduce the cist of MERO structures, and as a result of an
extensive programme and development in their Wrzburg research
centre, the MERO firm some 5 years ago started to use four new versions
of a connector for some of their recently constructed space frames. They
are known as:
(1) the cylindrical joint (type ZK)
(2) the plate-disc joint (type TK)
(3) the hollowsemi-spherical joint (type NK) and
(4) the block joint (type BK).
These extremely efficient newly developed joints quickly proved to be
specially useful for single-layer shell-type structures. Their use results in
considerable cost benefit. They are described in detail in Ref 6.

OPENING SESSION

b)

c)

Fig.4. Many designers have made the mistake of trying to produce a

universal connector suitable for all types of structures, As a rule,
such an attempt will produce an unnecessarily complex, too
sophisticated connector consisting of too many parts. Konrad
Wachsmann in 1944 produced his famous connector consisting of
13 parts for prefabricated hangars. Fig 4a illustrates the
component parts of the connector, Fig 4b shows the assembled
node and Fig 4c gives the interior view of a giant hangar designed
as a double-layer grid using this joint.

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Fig.5. The MERO system, introduced in 1942, consists of modular bars and connectors. The spherical joint is cast in steel, drilled, tapped and
threaded to receive high tensile bolts. The tensile forces carried along the longitudinal axis of the bolts are taken over through the coneshaped end pieces welded to the ends of the tube. An excellent, widely used system. Thousends of buildins using this system are
constructed all over the world.

OPENING SESSION

20

Fig.6. The MODUSPAN system (previously known as the UNISTRUT system) is used exclusively for double-layer grids. The structures
consist of framing struts, all of the same length, the same for top and bottom layers and the diagonals. The struts are connected at the joints by
one bolt only to the specially shaped pressed-steel plate.

OPENING SESSION

21

Fig.7. The SPACE DECK system, the first British system pyramidal units which are erected apex downwards with the angle frames butting
against each other and inter-connected with bolts. The bottom layer is formed by tie-members of high-tensile steel which are fitted with
turnbuckles.

OPENING SESSION

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3. THE UNISTRUT SYSTEM

It was developed in 1955 by Charles W. Attwood with the help of the
Engineering Research Institute of the University of Michigan. The
UNISTRUT connector (see Fig 6) consists of pressed steel plate
produced automatic in a special tooling machine, ensuring an extremely
high precision in manufacture and very low cost through massproduction (see Ref 7).
A sized steel blank is automatically fed into the machine by a feeder. It
is transferred through two draw stations and three pierce stations (two of
which pierce holes and form lugs). The connectors for the top and
bottom layers are identical and therefore the UNISTRUT double-layer
grids consist of only four components:
- the plate connector
- the strut
- the high tensile bolt and
- the nut.
As all units are manufactured on a special jig, a very high degree of
tolerance is obtained so that the individual pieces are always very easy to
install. The UNISTRUT system is thus self-aligning and self-levelling.

4. THE SPACE DECK SYSTEM

It was introduced in the United Kingdom some 40 years ago as a fully
industrialised space frame system based upon the repetitive use of
factory made components, which when assembled on site, produce a
double-layer square-on-offset square configuration (see Fig 7). The basic
unit is an inverted square based pyramid consisting of an angle top tray
and four diagonal or bracing members. The units are interconnected by
bolting their top layer members and interconnecting the lower chord
node points by means of high tensile steel tie bars. Opposite ends of
each tie are threaded left- and right-hand, thus providing a trunbuckle
facility to adjust the centre camber of the structure.
The idea of using prefabricated pyramidal units has been further
developed by many other designers, though the details of the
connections differ. The PYRAMITEC structures of S. du Chteau are a
good example of such systems in France (see Figs 15,16). Whereas the
Space Deck is using only the square-based pyramids, the PYRAMITEC
system employed also triangle based pyramids (tetrahedral) as well as
hexagonal based pyramids. There are now many similar systems
developed in other countries.

Fig.9. The details of a joint used for a three-way latticed grid

construction over an amphitheatre in Fez, Marocco. A very
similar solution to that used by Du Chteau for his French
structures.

5. THE TRIODETIC SAYSTEM

It relies on ingenious method of joining materials replacing welding,
bolting or riveting, developed by a Canadian firm of F.Fentiman and
Sons Ltd.
The connection involves the use of an extruded aluminium hub, into
which may be inserted members of any cross-section following the
application of a deforming process to their ends. The TRIODETIC
connector can be used for any type of three-dimensional skeleton
structure (see Fig 10). The aluminium extension hub contains slot or
keyways and the connecting members have their ends pressed or coined
to match the slot. Normally the members are inserted into the hub using
automatic hammers.
Originally only aluminium structures were built in this system, but
nowadays TRIODETIC space structures are being erected using steel
tubes and aluminium hubs since practical tests showed that the use of
two different materials did not involve any electrolytic difficulties.
Fig.8. The TRIDAMATEC joint for three-way grids. Du Chteau used
this system for many structures built from modular latticed units.

OPENING SESSION

23

Fig.10. The TRIODETIC system has been developed in Canada now

used all over the world. The connection involves the use of an
extruded aluminium hub containing slots and the connecting
members have their ends pressed to match the slots. The members
are inserted into the hub using automatic hammers.

Fig.13. The SDC joint developed by a French designer Stphane du Chteau.

The node is made up of two cast shells which when welded together
provide six circular apertures to allow the connection by welding of
six tubular units at the same nodal point. The tubular components can
slide into the node which allows a certain amount of angular
adjustment, permitting a gradual change of the curvature of the
surface of the structure. Used for domes and double-layer grids.

Fig.11. An early example of an American system for aluminium cast

connector for geodesic domes. The tubular aluminium members
slip into the pockets provided by the connector and are fixed to it
by bolts.

a)

b)

Fig.12. Examples of a recently introduced Yugoslav system for doublelayer grids. Fig 12a gives details of the TORUS joint, Fig 12b of
the second version known as the TORUS-GUSTO.

OPENING SESSION

Fig.14. The SPHEROBAT node consists of a hollow spherical forged

steel node with a detachable cap that is secured to the main part of
the node with a through bolt. Tubular members are tapered and
the tubes ends are drilled and threaded to allow for concealed
bolted connections.

6. THE UNIBAT SYSTEM

It was introduced some 25 years ago by S. du Chteau and at the time was
popular in France. It uses modular pyramidal skeletal units which are bolted
only at their corners to the adjacent units using high tensile bolts and have
their lower layer provided by tubular members which are flattened at the
nodes and jointed to the pyramids by only one vertical bolt.
Strictly speaking, the UNIBAT had no prefabricated standard joint and
therefore was not limited by usual restrictions imposed by the connector as
to plan form or architectural layout. It used any type of structural section,
hollow sections or rolled sections, separately or combined. The clear spans

24

possible for UNIBAT system are not limited as it usually is in other systems,
by the node connector, but simply by the maximum size of structural
section available. Theoretically, UNIBAT can be used for double- or multilayer structures. This system is rarely used now in France being replaced by
another system based on SPHEROBAT connector (see Fig 14).
7. THE NODUS SYSTEM
It was introduced in 1972 by the Tubes Division of the British Steel
Corporation. The development of the NODUS joint (see Fig 19 - in
chapter 8 Illustrations) has been an outcome of several years of research
and extensive testing carried out at the research centre of the British Steel
Corporation the Tubes Division at Corby. The NODUS joint is a typical
example of a mechanical connector. It comprises a body divided into two
half casings which are clamped together by means of a high strength
friction grip bolt. The bolt head is accommodated in a hexagonal recess in
one half casing, thus leaving the exterior of the joint flush with the outside
of the chord member so that cladding can be fixed directly onto the chords.
The mating half casting has four protruding lugs drilled for connecting to
the bracing members, either in line with or at 45 degrees to the chords, by
use of the appropriate half casings. The horizontal chord members are butt
welded to connectors having circumferential rings which lock into
corresponding grooves in the half casings. The bracing members have steel
forked connectors welded to their ends. These members connect to the
casings lugs by means of headed pins, secured with split cotter pins. A
sealing gasket is inserted between the half casings and is clamped with the
central bolt, which is tightened to a specific torque value.

at the Building Research Institute in Bucharest, (Ref 10, in Poland, (Refs

11 and 12) and in Italy on the Permit system developed at the University of
Bari, (Ref 13).
It is very difficult to prepare a reliable cost comparison of different
connectors developed in different countries for different local markets.
Improvement in welding techniques and recent development of computer
controlled tube flame cutting machines now makes the use of welded joints
a more economical proposition in some countries.
In Denmark, according to Mr. Thomsen (Ref 14), experience shows that on
a cost basis, system built up from individual members with bolted
connections cannot compete with systems built up from bigger shop-made
components with welded nodes.
On the other hand, the experience of MERO, NODUS and some Japanese
firms shows that firms specialising in prefabricated space structures often
receive orders not because their prices are lower (sometimes they are) but
simply because their products are known to be very reliable, tested and
because they can guarantee the delivery and erection within a specified time.
One should draw attention to an extremely interesting article (Ref 15)
which discusses the conceptual design of spherical joints in space
structures. It contains a formal topology of spherical joints in the context of
innovative design.
9. ILLUSTRATIONS

Although the NODUS system has been used principally in the construction
of horizontal double-layer grids, it can be adapted to a variety of other
applications including vertical, inclined or multi-layer grids. These
applications are particularly effective in the covering of exhibition halls,
shopping centres, museums or similar buildings where the structure is
exposed or viewed through glasing. Numerous buildings have been erected
in this system during the last nine years in the U.K., Middle East, and many
other countries. Altogether some 500,000 square meters have been covered
with the NODUS space frames.
In the early stage of the development of the NODUS joint, prototypes were
rigorously tested in a specially designed rig at the BSCs Tube Divisions
Research Centre at Corby. These tests applied loads to the joint in all
directions simultaneously and account was taken of varying bracing angles
which induced an eccentric moment. These tests enabled the yield strength
of the joint and the maximum working load to be determined. Due to the
construction of the joint, it was found that compression loads resisted by
members meeting at the NODUS joints would be 15% higher than those for
tension loads. The design of this connector makes it suitable for automatic
welding process (see Ref 8).
8. THE REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
It clearly shows that the search for an economical connector for various
types of space structures did not lose momentum.
An interest in this field is probably best illustrated by the competition
organised in 1964 by the French Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants de Tubes
dAcier for the development of efficient connectors for tubular space
structures. Over 40 entries were received. Reference 9 gives details of the
various proposals submitted during this competition. Several articles and
even books have been published to discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of numerous connectors.
It is also known that some commercial concerns have tested their own and
their competitors connectors. However, as a rule, the results of these
comparative tests are not available to the general public.
In addition to extensive tests on various connectors carried out during the
period of 1969-70 by Stewarts and Lloyds Co. Ltd., the Mannesmannrhre
Werke A.G. have produced results of their tests on the strength of the
OKTAPLATTE (see Fig 3) and OKTAPLATTE-S systems. Their tests were
carried out at the Technical University of Karlsruhe. There are also
publications giving details of tests on joints for space structures carried out

OPENING SESSION

Fig.15. Details of a double-layer grid system known in France as the

PYRAMITEC. The system consists of modular prefabricated
pyramids with triangular, square or hexagonal bases which can be
assembled by bolting.

25

Fig.16. The three basic configurations used in the Pyramitec system consisting of pyramids having triangular, hexagonal and square bases. The
top layer is constructed by bolting the flanges of the adjacent bases of the inverted pyramids using horizontal bolts. The bottom layer
consists of long tubular members flattened at nodal points and connected together by means of vertical bolts passing through the apices of
the pyramidal modules.

Fig.17. The details of connection used during the construction of the dome over the Fort Regent leisure centre at Jersey. The dome is a singlelayer grid structure consisting of almost square trays made of hollow sections which are joined together at their corners by site bolts and
finally site-welded.

OPENING SESSION

26

Fig.18. The French system known as the NEWBAT consists of members with flattened ends which fit into a cast node. The structure is assembled
by bolting and pinning only, no welding is required neither in workshop or on the work site.

OPENING SESSION

27

Fig.19. The NODUS joint has been developed in 1972 by the British Steel Corporation Tubes Division for prefabricated steel tubular doublelayer grids. The joint consists of two castings, the chord connectors and the fork connectors for the disagonals. The main casings are
held together by means of a centre bolt. Four basic layouts of the grid can be obtained using the NODUS joint:
a) square on square offset
b) square on large square offset
c) square on diagonal
d) diagonal on square.

OPENING SESSION

28

Fig.20. The plan and elevations of a three-way double-layer grid supported at four points only over a square in Kuweit. The structure
supports sun shades designed by a French firm of Space Engineering.

OPENING SESSION

29

a)

b)

c)

Fig.21. The details of the three-way double-layer grid for the Kuweit roof. The structure consists of tetrahedral modular units made in tubular stee
The cast end pieces are welded to the tubular members which are bolted together at the joints.

OPENING SESSION

30

Fig.22. The K.T. Space Frame system developed in Denmark for double-layer grids. The tubular bars are fitted with internally fixed bolts
which are screwed into the spherical connectors.

Fig.23. The joints used in an American

system developed by Pearce. The
diagrams illustrate three basic space
frame geometries square, isosceles
triangle. The bars have sets of hinge
elements welded to both ends. Paired
hinge elements join strut ends
together with a simple bolted
connection.

OPENING SESSION

31

Fig.24. An American system known as the POWER-STRUT. Suitable for double-layer grids. There are only two types of basic components web
members (for diagonals) and chord members. They are connected to the module connector by means of bolts and nuts.

a)

b)

c)

Fig.25. The connectors developed by an American

firm of Space Structures Corporation of New
York. Fig 25a illustrates the OCTA HUB
connector, Fig 25b the ORBA HUB connector
and Fig 25c shows the joint used for aluminium
triangulated shell structures.

OPENING SESSION

32

Fig.26.

OPENING SESSION

33

Fig.27. A very economical system developed in France and known as the TRIDI 2000. The node consists of an assembly of plates welded
together. Members of any shape can be connected to the gusset plates by means of high tensile friction bolts. Many industrial buildings,
sport halls and assembly halls covered with this system.

OPENING SESSION

34

Fig.28. An Italian PREMIT system developed for prefabricated double-layer grid industrial buildings. It consists of two standard structural
components: a) the diagonal member, b) the chord member. Both elements have special end pieces. The connection is ensured without
eccentricity be means of four high strength friction bolts.

Fig.29. The Spanish ORONA system developed for double-layer grids and domes. The tubular members have specially formed ends with high
tensile bolts which are screwed into a spherical connector. Used with great success over a number of large span buildings.

OPENING SESSION

35

Fig.30. The COSMOS joint developed recently in South allowing variable angle adjustments from flexible knuckle joint. Tubular members are
fitted in the workshop with an end piece. No welding on site.

Fig.31. A French system SEGMO developed

specifically for double-layer grids. The joint consists of
two casings to which the tubular members are welded.

Fig.32. A French system Villeroy, consisting of two casings. Tubular membe

connected by means of high tensile bolts. A neat connection, able to
appreciable loads.

Fig.33. A simple joint used for small span single-layer shell structures or do
layer grids. In France this system is referred to as the SARTON system
tubes are flattened at the joint and connected by a single bolt. Suitab
moderate loads.

OPENING SESSION

36

Fig.34. A French system developed by Delcroix rarely used in practice.

Fig.35. A French system developed by Raccord H

based on spherical node with tubular member
with end pieces which are screwed and later we
the joint. Rarely used in practice.

Fig.36. A Polish joint developed for steel tubular three-way single-layer grid domes. Three bars are bolted to the gusset plate, and the other three bars
specially shaped end pieces welded to the gusset plate.

OPENING SESSION

37

Fig.37. This the NS Truss system U-type developed a few years ago by the Japanese Nippon Steel Corporation for tubular members. The node is a
steel sphere with threaded holes for the connection bolts. Used for numerous double-layer grids. The tubular members have cones welded to
both ends. The bolts are fitted into the end cones before welding. The fastening tool is inserted through the node opening into the square
hole at the end of the bolt. A spring at the head of the bolt presses the bolt to engage with the thread of the node.

OPENING SESSION

38

Fig.38. Stressed skin space grids introduced in the 1960s take advantage of the roof covering becoming an integral part of the load carrying
structure. They consists of thin sheet pyramidal modular units made in aluminium, glass fibre reinforced plastics sheets which are
interconnected in space systems. The drawing shows several examples of such structures designed by the author with the details of
aluminium cast connectors.

OPENING SESSION

39

Fig.39. The connector used for the aluminium stressed skin space
grid designed by the author for International Union of
Architects Congress Headquarters building erected in 1961 in
London.

OPENING SESSION

Fig.40. Type of connection used for timber double-layer grids.

40

10. REFERENCES
1. Z.S.Makowski (editor): Analysis, design and construction of doublelayer grids. Applied Science Publishers/Halsted Press, London and
New York, 1981.
2. Z.S.Makowski (editor): Analysis, design and construction of braced
domes. Granada Publishing Ltd., London and Nocholls Publishing
Company, New York 1984.
3. Z.S.Makowski (editor): Analysis, design and construction of braced
barrel vaults. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1985.
4. V.Hauk: The Mannesmann Okta-S joint for tubular space structures.
Proc. of the 2nd International Conference on Space Structures,
University of Surrey, 1975, pp.432-6.
5. (a) G.M.Rose: A comparative examination of a wide variety of joints
for space structures. Space Structures Conference, British Steel
Corporation, London 1970.
(b) S.Boar, M.Raskin: Noeuds de structures tubulaires spatiales. Sm80
St6, Liege, 1970.
6. Z.S.Makowski (editor): New trends in spatial structures. Bulletin of
the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures. April
1986, No. 90, vol XXVII, pp. 21-43.
7. S.C. Hsiao, G.C. Dygert: The Moduspan space-frame system. Proc. of
the 2nd Intern. Conf. on Space Structures. University of Surrey, 1975,
pp.296-299.
8. Design Manual: Space Frame Grids, 3rd Edition, 1976, British Steel
Corporation, Tubes Division.
9. Chambre Syndicale. Le Tybe dacier dans la construction metallique
noeuds et assemblages. CSFA, Paris, 1966.
10. Toader et al.: Aspecte privind calculul si realizarea unor invelitori
reticulate, Bul. Stiint., Institutul de constructii Bucuresti, T.21, No.3-4,
1978, pp.77-93.
11. Z.Kowal: Przestrzenne struktury prtowe z wzami toczonymi.
PNIB P.Wr. Wrocaw, 1975.
12.Raport Instytutu Budownictwa. Nr.1-2/R-131/75. Badanie wzw.
Wrocaw, 1975.
13. D.Mitaritonna, G.Prete: Proposta e sperimentazione di un nuovo
sistema di connessione nodale per grigliati spaziali in acciaio.
Construzioni Metalliche, No. 4, 1977.
14. K.Thomsen: Trends in the design of double-layer space grids. Proc.
of the 2nd Intern. Conf. on Space Structures, University of Surrey,
1975, pp. 382-398.
15. T.Arciszewski, Udmak: Shaping of spherical joints in space
structures. International Journal of Space Structures, vol.3, No.3,
1988, pp. 171-183.

Fig.41. Nodes of braced domes built with laminated timber components.

Very simple gusset plates are required to interconnect six
members meeting at a joint. Further details are given in an
excellent book on timber construction (Holzbau Atlas published
by Institut fr Internationale Architektur Dokumentation,
Mnchen, 1978).

OPENING SESSION

16.
G.S.Ramaswamy, M.Eekhout, G.R.Suresh: Steel space frames,
analysys, design and constrution. Produced by Thomas Felford
Publishing, London, 2002
1

) Z.S. Makowski, Co-editor with H. Nooshin of International Journal of

Space Structures, Space Structures Research Centre, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, United
Kingdom.

41

LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
Warsaw, Poland, 24-28 June , 2002
G E N E R A L

OPENING SESSION

L E C T U R E S

42

Fig. 2: Plan of the main floor

work - preliminary design, final design, and supervision of construction be undertaken by an architect closer to the site: the firm of DeMars and
Wells of Berkeley, California. The control of design remained, however,
with Aalto. This arrangement was accepted by Father Barnabus and by
the Abbey.
ORGANIZATION OF WORK
It may be of interest to describe briefly the manner in which the task of
design, and eventually also of supervision of construction of the library
building was organized.
As noted, the concept of the library was developed entirely by Alvar
Aalto in Helsinki. Working on it in Aaltos office at that time was Eric
Vartiainen, a young American architect, who graduated from the
University of California at Berkeley where, in fact, Vernon DeMars was
one of his instructors. When the project was moved to the DeMars and
Wells office in Berkeley, Vartiainen came with it. An important part of
his duties was to maintain liaison with the Aalto office in Helsinki.
Working with Vernon DeMars and John Wells, Vartiainen developed the
necessary details of the project in a manner which, he felt, carried out
Aaltos concepts. These details were then discussed with Alto by
telephone and through the mails. Eventually, with Aaltos approval, these
details were incorporated into the design. The procedure was not simple,
particularly in view of the large - 10 hours - time difference between
Berkeley and Helsinki. It should be noted that, at the time, telephone and
mail were the only practical means of communication - the fax, let alone
the internet, did not exist!
Fortunately, Vernon DeMars, a famous architect in his own right, was a
long-time personal friend of Aaltos, and the partner-in-charge, John
Wells, was that rarity among architects, a man with a keen design sense,
combined with a complete command of the technology of construction.

These factors made it possible to complete the project seamlessly after

the untimely passing away of Alvar Aalto.
Our office was retained to supply the structural engineering services
when the project moved from Helsinki to Berkeley, and we saw it
through the completion of construction.
All those involved had a clear sense of the historical importance of the
project, one of only two Aalto designs in North America. The project was
completed in 1970.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE LIBRARY
The Abbey at Mount Angel consists of a number of buildings located at
the periphery of a flat-topped hill. The library is one of these buildings,
with the main entry at the top floor level, and with additional floors
below, following the slope of the hill.
The plan of the main floor is shown in Fig. 2. A porte-cochere defines the
entry on the south side of the building. The essentially rectangular south,
single-story side contains various offices and service areas. Adjacent to it
is the north side, which contains the stacks and reading areas. In plan, it
has the form of a fan, so characteristic of many Aalto libraries (and the
subject of many anecdotes). Located at the center of the fan-like area is
the control desk. Seated behind it, the librarian can see all of the main
floor reading/stack area, as well as the area of the entry hall. A very large
appropriately shaped opening in the main floor permits the librarian,
sitting at the control desk, to see also the reading/stack areas on the floor
below.
Some comments about the fan shape may be appropriate. The simplest
shape affording the librarian visual control is a segment of a circle;
however, the circular form is somewhat static. Instead, Alto chose a more
dynamic fan shape. It makes both the north side exterior and the interior

Fig. 3: North - South section through the Library

OPENING SESSION

43

main space more exciting and challenging.

The line of the fan shape itself was developed by Aalto as a free-hand
sketch on tracing paper. If memory serves, the scale of this sketch was
approximately 1:200. It was necessary to translate this sketch into a
dimensioned working drawing. Aaltos free-hand sketch proved
remarkably close to a spiral curve defined by a mathematical equation.
Instead, Vartiainen carefully measured and scaled-up Aaltos original
shape; this, properly dimensioned, became a part of the project drawings.
This is illustrative of the care that Eric Vartiainen took to make sure that
the project followed Aaltos concepts.
Above, in the roof, there is a strongly articulated skylight, which
provides indirect, diffused light. In plan, the skylight corresponds in
shape to the shape of the floor opening below, and is also centered on the
center of the fan area. However, both the sky and the floor opening are
defined by segments of circles.
The seminar room, which can accommodate an audience of more than
100 persons, is located off the entry hall.
Mechanical rooms are located on the floors below the main floor,
convenient to their function, but out of the way of the essential
operations of the library.

Fig. 5: A view of the Library from the outside

preferred shape for a column, because of its poor buckling
characteristics. However, in this case, the loads are insignificant. The
columns were designed by Eric Vartiainen, who added to the steel
surfaces a facing of teak wood, thus making them look wonderfully soft
and mellow. The very simple detailing of the base and top connections
assists in creating this feeling, and Erics design, accepted by Aalto,
proved most successful.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LIBRARY
In developing the structural system for the Library building it was
necessary to consider the usual factors:

Fig. 4: View of the Library from the north

DETAILING
In general, the structure is not exposed. This made the detailing of
structural connections somewhat easier, particularly the detailing of steel
connections. Nevertheless, every effort was made to keep the connections
simple, with a direct path of forces, easy to install and to maintain.
The detailing of the columns that support the roof of the porte-cochere at
the main entrance may be of interest. The columns are welded of
structural steel plate, and their shape in cross-section is a cross, the sides
of which varies with the height - smallest at base, largest at the top.
Strictly from the point of view of structural behavior, a cross is not the

OPENING SESSION

1.

The general layout developed by Aalto in the course of conceptual

design,

2.

Project location, including the governing codes,

3.

Short term (cost of construction) and long term (cost of

maintenance) economics.

Of course, very much in the forefront was the desire to develop a

structure which would match, and enhance, the concepts developed by
the architect.
As noted in a preceding paragraph, the building was to be located at the
edge of a flat-topped hill. Thus, at the main entry level, the building is
one story high, while at the bottom of the slope it is three stories high.
Local load conditions, based on the Uniform Building Code (Ref. 3),
require that the building structure be designed for very large seismic
accelerations. For these reasons, the structure from the foundations all the
way up to the underside of the roof is poured-in-place reinforced
concrete. The structure of the roof is framed in structural steel.

44

challenge. The problem of providing a structure, which would enhance

the space definition achieved by the architect, was more complex.
In this regard, of particular interest was the space of the reading area and
stacks on the main floor. Conceptual design envisaged four fin-like
rectangular columns extending the full height of the building, and
supporting the floors and the roof. We proposed instead that the columns
be circular, and placed in pairs. Aalto approved, and that is how these
columns were built, adding a measure of dramatic rhythm to the interior
space definition.
REFLECTIONS

Fig. 6: View of the Library from the south

Lateral loads resulting from seismic excitation or wind are transferred by
a system consisting of vertical reinforced concrete walls, and horizontal
diaphragms. At the floor levels, these were the poured-in-place
reinforced concrete floors - slabs and beams. At the roof, it was a welded
metal deck, suitably braced.
Foundations are a combination of spread and continuous footings, and
caissons. During construction, the contractor suggested excavating the
area, building the caissons as formed columns, and then placing
engineered fill; this was done.
The poured-in-place concrete was also well suited to supporting the brick
masonry veneer, which faced all exterior walls.
From the description above it is clear that the problems of structural
strength, stiffness and stability presented only a fairly common

Viewed from the outside, the Mount Angel Library building is quite
modest in scale. This is true whether it is observed from the south at the
level of the campus above, or from the north at the base level of the
building. In each case, it blends well with its neighbors, with which it
shares the brick veneer facing. At the south side, the building is only one
story high, and at the north side only three. Thus it is quite unobtrusive no grandiose statement here. What may attract attention is the curved
shape of the faade, behind which the fan-shaped reading/stack rooms are
located, but this form, too, is quite restrained. It appears that Aalto
accepted the exterior space definition provided by the existing buildings
of the Abbey.
The spaces inside are treated differently. The offices and service areas
are quite simple, no different, really, from any that have been designed
by a competent architect.
The main reading/stack areas are treated quite differently. The fan shape
area, the roof skylight, the large floor opening, and the interior column
design were already mentioned. Their very rich forms are accentuated by
the fact that all surfaces are plain, and painted off-white. Thus the form
reigns supreme, and what a rich and dramatic form it is! The interior
space is strongly defined, but in a very restrained way, so that it does not
overwhelm the user of the Library.
The overall mood is enhanced by the fact that many of the interior
furnishings of the building were designed by Aalto. This includes reading
lamps, desks and chairs, etc., as well as some fixtures such as door
handles.
In fulfillment of the intentions of the Abbey, the Aalto Library has been,
since it completion in 1970, a focal point for many wider community
activities. As an example, a seminar was held there in 1998,
memorializing the 100th anniversary of Aaltos birth. And this was just
one event out of many. One cannot help but feel that all those involved in
the project should be well pleased with the results of their efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The photograph shown in Fig. 1 was taken by John Wells, and his
permission to use it here has been much appreciated. All other
photographs were taken by the author.
The important assistance of John Wells in gathering materials necessary
for the preparation of this paper is gratefully acknowledged.
Above all, the assistance, advice, insights and patience of Betty
Medwadowski have been truly beyond measure.
REFERENCES
1.

Canty, Donald, Lasting Aalto Masterwork, The Library at Mount

Angel Abbey, published by the Mount Angel Abbey, 1992, Library
of Congress #92-080534 ISBN#0-918941-04-0.

2.

Reed, Peter, Alvar Alto, Between Humanism and Materialism, with

essays by Kenneth Frampton, Pekka Korvenmaa, Juliani Pallasmaa,
Peter Reed, and Marc Treib, The Museum of Modern Art, New
York 1998. A description of the Mount Angel Library is given on
pp 288-291.

3.

Uniform Building Code 1967, vol. 1 and 2, International

Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, California, 1967.

Fig. 7: Interior view of the main reading/stack area and the sky

OPENING SESSION

45

Fig. 8: View of the Library from the North

Fig. 10: Interior view of the main area and skylight

Fig. 9: Interior view of the main area and skylight

OPENING SESSION

Fig. 11: Interior view of the main area and skylight

46

Fig. 12: Auditorium ceiling and fixtures

Fig. 14: Detail of the base of a porte-cochere column

Fig. 13: Door from the Auditorium as seen from outside

OPENING SESSION

Fig. 15: Detail of Aalto-designed desk lamp

47

Fig. 16: Detail of an exterior window wood screen

Fig. 18: Interior view during construction

Fig. 17: Interior view of the main area stacks

OPENING SESSION

Fig. 19: Interior view of the main area

48

Fig. 20: View from the roof

Fig. 22: Detail of exterior

Fig. 23: Panel discussion during the opening ceremonies.

Seated in the Auditorium (l. to r.) are
Vernon DeMars, Ada Louise Huxtable, and Eric Vartiainen.

Fig. 21: Detail of exterior

OPENING SESSION

49

LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
Warsaw, Poland, 24-28 June , 2002
G E N E R A L

L E C T U R E S

ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF PANTADOME SYSTEM

M. KAWAGUCHI1 and M. ABE2
1

Professor, Dept. of Architecture, Hosei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184, Japan

Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Hosei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184, Japan

ABSTRACT: Some important structural features of Pantadome System are described. A structural system developed and named Pantadome System
by the principal author has successfully been applied to seven major spatial structures of various shapes and dimensions in different corners of the
world. Pantadome is a structural system (not a construction method) incorporating a temporary kinematic mechanism in it during construction for
a rational erection of domical structures. One of its important structural features is that the system does not need any such provisions as guys or braces
against possible lateral forces due to winds or earthquakes during the erection of a spatial structure. Thanks to this special feature a Pantadome
structure can be lifted even in an inclined direction as is shown in erection of Namihaya Dome. A Pantadome changes its shape very largely during its
erection, and the reactions in pushing posts change the magnitudes accordingly. In some special cases the reactions in the pushing posts become
negative, and a kind of unstable phenomenon becomes prone to occur. This was foreseen in construction of a recently built coal storage, and a
shock-absorbing device was developed to realize a safe construction.
1. INTRODUCTION

2. PRINCIPLE OF PANTADOME SYSTEM

It is well known that a spatial structure, or a structure of

three-dimensional characteristics, is one of the most efficient structures
capable of covering a very wide area, once it has been completed.
The spatial structure is not always efficient, however, in the process of
construction, because it requires big amount of scaffoldings, labor and
time and often encounters difficulties in terms of accuracy, reliability
and safety of work during its erection. Modern erecting methods such
as lifting systems which are very often adopted in erection of roofs of
flat, plate type can not equally be applied to a spatial structure.

The principle of Pantadome System is to make a dome or a domical

structure geometrically unstable for a period in construction so that it is
foldable during its erection. This can be done by temporarily taking
out the members which lie on a hoop circle. Then the dome is given a
kinematic mechanism, that is, a controlled movement, like a 3-D
version of a parallel crank or a pantagraph which is popularly applied
to drawing instruments or a power collector of an electric car (hence the
name, Pantadome). (Fig.1, Fig.2)
By folding the dome in this way, the constituent members of the dome
can be assembled on a lower level. The assembly work is thus done
safely, quickly and economically, since it can be carried out near the
ground level.Since the movement of a Pantadome during erection is a
controlled one with only one freedom of movement in the vertical
direction, guying cables or bracing members which are indispensable in
conventional structures to assure their lateral stability against wind or
seismic forces are not necessary in erection of a Pantadome structure.
The movement and deformation of the whole shape of the Pantadome
during erection are three dimensional and may look spectacular and
rather complicated, but they are all kinematically determinate and easily
controlled. Three kinds of hinges are incorporated in the Pantadome
System which rotate during the erection. Their rotations are all
uni-axial ones, and of the most simple kind. Therefore, all these
hinges are fabricated in the same way as normal hinges in usual steel
frames.
In Pantadome System a dome is assembled in a folded shape near the
ground level. As the entire height of the dome during assembling
work is very low compared with that after completion, the assembly
work can be done safely and economically, and the quality of work can
be assured more easily than in conventional erection systems since
inspection by structural supervisors is much easier. Not only the
structural frame but also the exterior and interior finishings, electricity
and mechanical facilities are fixed and installed at this stage. The
dome is then lifted up. Lifting can be achieved either by blowing air
inside the dome to raise the internal air pressure, or by pushing up the
periphery of the upper dome by means of hydraulic jacks. When the

Buckminster Fuller once tried to solve this kind of problems in a few

ways when he encountered them in building some of his geodesic
domes. For construction of one of his domes in Honolulu in 1957 he
adopted a system in which a temporary tower was erected at the center
of the dome from top of which concentrically assembled part of the
dome was hung by means of wire ropes. As assembly of the dome
proceeded the dome was gradually lifted, enabling the assembling work
to be done along the periphery of the dome always on the ground. He
also adopted another method when he built a huge dome of 117m in
diameter at Wood River, U.S.A., in 1959, where the assembled part of
the dome was raised on a balloon-like enclosure.
Some other cases have also been reported where different lifting
methods have been applied by several engineers to different domes.
However, none of the above attempts for lifting domes have become
popular unlike those lifting methods which became widely used to raise
plate-type roofs.
A patented structural system called Pantadome System which had
been developed by the author for a rational construction of spatial
structures was first successfully applied to the structure of World
Memorial Hall completed in Kobe in 1984. Pantadome System has
since been applied to the Sant Jordi Sports Palace in Barcelona, the
National Indoor Stadium of Singapore and some important structures of
wide spans realized in Japan. Seven major spatial structures have so far
been realized by this system in various corners of the world (Table 1).

OPENING SESSION

50

(a)

(air pressure j
hydraulic jacks
(b)

No.1 Hinge
No.2 Hinge
No.3 Hinge

(c)
removed temporarily
No.1 Hinge Line
No.2 Hinge Line
No.3 Hinge Line

No.1 Hinge
No.2 Hinge
No.3 Hinge
No.4 Hinge
No.5 Hinge

(d)

Fig.1. Principle of Pantadome System

Fig. 2. Model Study of Pantadome

Principle

dome has taken the final shape, the hoop members which have been
temporarily taken off during the erection are fixed to their proper
positions to complete the dome structure. The lifting means such as
air pressure or hydraulic jacks can be then removed, and the dome is
completed. When the dome is very big, it can be doubly folded as
shown in Fig.1 (d), so that assembling works can be done at a level that
is very close to the ground level.
The Pantadome System is sometimes misunderstood as a construction

OPENING SESSION

method, but it is not. It is a structural system in which a kinematic

mechanism is incorporated so that it can largely change its shapes for a
rational construction.
After completion the hinges installed in the structure at
three different levels are very often left as they have been during the
erection, and the hinges at the two lower levels act as structural hinges
even after completion of the structure so that it can breath freely
according to temperature changes to avoid the thermal stresses in it.

51

OPENING SESSION

52

RHOMBIC PLAN

m2

ABROAD

12

20

1,250

2,600

14,000

FIRST ATTEMPT

m2

1989

200

SINGAPORE

OVAL PLAN

18

SPECIAL
FEATURES

20

760

STEEL
WEIGHT

LIFTING
POINTS

1,680

TOTAL
WEIGHT

LIFTING
HEIGHT

7,700

1984

110

WORLD

COVERD
AREA

BUILT

PUSH-UP POSTS

PLANS INDICATE

SMALL CIRCLES IN

DIMENSION

AND

SHAPE

NAME

m2

Table 1.

ABROAD

HEAVY SNOW

PURE CIRCLE

28

2,770

5,430

10,500

m2

1995

116

FUKUI

m2

QUICK LIFT

INCLINED ROOF

16

29

1,160

4,690

11,000

1996

127

NAMIHAYA

Realized Pantadome Structures

UNFINISHED SHAPE

12

32

950

3,000

12,000

1990

128

ST.JORDI

m2

UNITS

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

32

14

4,660

6,500

1998

127

NARA HALL

m2

BIG COVERED AREA

LIGHT WEIGHT

14

30

6,500

7,500

40,000

2001

251

COAL STORAGE

3.IMPORTANTCHARACTERISTICS OF A PANTADOME
3.1

Lateral Stability of A Pantadome

One the structural features of a Pantdome is that the system does

not need any such provisions as guys or braces against possible
lateral forces due to winds or earthquakes during its erection.
This feature will be best understood by looking at Figure 3.
A horizontal force H may occur at the top part of a Pantadome at
an instant of erection of the dome due to wind, earthquake or any
other reasons. The force is transmitted successively through No. 1,
2, 3 joints to the adjacent lower panels in the form of shear forces
h1, h2 and h3. Provided that the vertical supports are rigid enough
to provide any necessary vertical forces at No. 1 hinges, it may be
easy to understand that the whole system is capable of
transmitting the horizontal force to the ground at any phase of
erection. The magnitude of the horizontal shears h is different
from a panel to another on the same level according to their
rigidities in the direction of the force H. The panels which are
parallel to H normally take the maximum shares.

Fig.4 Erection of Namihaya Dome

Fig. 3 Lateral Shear Transmission

3.2 Application of Lateral Stability Namihaya Dome

Lateral stability of a Pantadome explained above can not only be
utilized for resistance to the lateral forces such as due to wind and
earthquake, but it can also be applied to a more interesting
attempt lifting of a dome in a non-vertical direction.
This was most typically realized in the construction of Namihaya
Dome, whose erection will be described below (Figs. 4 and 5).
The Namihaya Dome was constructed as one of the main venues
for the National Athletic Meet held in Osaka in 1997.
The dome was designed by Showa Sekkei Co., and it has an oval
plan of 127m and 111m in major and minor diameters,
respectively. The main function of this building is swimming
pools, having a racing and a diving pools of international
standards. In other seasons than summer it is used for athletic
games and exhibitions, and for ice skating in winter. One of the
special features of the dome was that its equator was not
horizontal, but inclined 5 degrees. The Pantadome structure
was designed accordingly, and it was erected in the direction
inclined 5 degrees from the vertical.

OPENING SESSION

Fig. 5 Non-Vertical Lifting of Namihaya

53

3.3

Folding of Walls

In earlier built examples of Pantadome System the

positions of hinges were such that No.1 hinges
were put on the top part of the dome and No.3
hinges along the bottom periphery. No.2 hinges
were located between No.1 and No.3 hinges,
mostly on top of the columns or similar locations
in the dome. The positions of No.2 hinges are
somewhat arbitrary, however, as long as the
folding mechanism of the Pantadome system is
possible during construction. As an example of
such application the construction of Nara
Centennial Hall will be explained below (Figs. 6 to
9).
3.3

Phase 1
Assembly of
Roof Structure

Phase 2
Assembly of
Wall Structure

Nara Centennial Hall

Nara Convention Hall designed by A. Isozaki is a

building to accommodate two music halls of high
standard. It has an elliptic plan of 138m and 42m
in major and minor diameters, respectively. The
height of the roof is 24.8m. The vertical section
of the wall has a single configuration everywhere,
in the shape of a clothoid having a very little
curvature at the bottom and bigger ones upward.
23,850

For a better acoustic insulation every part of the

envelope (roof as well as wall) was designed
heavier than in ordinary buildings. The roof is
covered by a structural steel plate of 6mm in
thickness on top of which are put precast
light-weight concrete panels (100mm) and in-situ
concrete (80mm) with insulating layers in between.

Phase 3
Lifting

1FL

B1FL

The interior of the wall is constituted by exposed

precast concrete panels of 120mm in average
thickness reinforced by steel sections, while its
exterior is covered by 33mm thick roof tiles which
are lined by concrete precast panels of 50mm.
The overall stability of this domical structure is
assured by a curved skin (or thin shell) structure of
the wall which is stiffened by the roof diaphragm
at the top.
Since the dome has a long and narrow elliptic plan,
the wall resists effectively lateral forces in the
longitudinal direction, but its resistance is not
To
sufficient in the transverse direction.
increase the lateral resistance of the building in the
transverse direction, the double wall which
separates the two music halls from each other is
utilized in design as a pair of shear walls in that
direction (Fig.7).
The peripheral wall was
divided into the top and bottom halves and into
120 sections along the periphery, and each of the
240 wall panels was prefabricated in a factory, and

Phase 4
Works on
Interior
Structures

Fig. 6 Erection Process of Nara Centennial Hall

Pantawalls

Fig. 7 Pantawalls to Take Transverse Shear Forces During and After Erection

OPENING SESSION

54

transported to the building site. The whole structural scheme of this

building was designed as a Pantadome.
Three hinge lines necessary for Pantadome kinematic mechanism were
put at the top, bottom and the middle of the wall panel. The
construction of the dome was proceeded with in the following
sequences:
The roof trusses are assembled on temporary supports. When the
trusses are completed, they are made simply supported at the two ends,
the secondary structural members are fixed to them and the top
finishing is continued (Phase 1 in Fig 6). The lower panels of the
wall are brought into the positions, and they are secured to the concrete
lower structure by means of the bottom hinges (hinges No.3). Then
the upper wall panels are brought to the positions, and connected to the
roof and the lower panels by the top (hinges No.1) and the middle
(hinges No.2) hinges (phase 2 in Fig. 5). By this stage the roof is
finished to the maximum possible extent, both exterior and interior. It
is not necessary to finish the interior surface of the peripheral wall,
because it is of precast exposed concrete. When the assembling work
is completed, the whole dome structure is lifted by means of hydraulic
jacks and temporary posts (phase 3). 64 hydraulic jacks are
employed, and each pair of them are set on top of one of the 32 lifting
units. The lifting forces of all the jacks, the lifting speeds at all the
lifting units and the stresses at a few important points of the dome
structure are measured and controlled in the central control room with
the aid of computers.
The steel skeletons of the transverse double wall at the middle of the
dome are provided with hinges to make Pantawalls, so that they can
resist the possible lateral forces in the transverse direction due to wind
or earthquake during the lifting work (Fig. 7).
When the roof has reached the specified height, the lifting work is
finished, and adjacent wall panels are put together with each other by
bolting and welding. Then the dome structure is completed (phase 4).
All the secondary structures and finishings inside this huge envelop are
then worked out without being disturbed by the weather.
Lifting work of the Nara Convention Hall started on December 1, 1997.
The dome was lifted only in the morning, everyday, to receive the visits
of the citizens, many of whom wanted to see the dome largely change
its shape everyday. Thousands of people visited the dome during the
lifting work. On December 6 the dome reached its final height.
The dome was completed in October, 1998.

Fig. 8 Shape of the Structure at an Earlier Erection

Fig. 9 Aerial Views of Erection of Nara Centennial Hall

OPENING SESSION

55

4. Instability Possible to Occur in Erection Process

When one tries to apply Pantadome System to various types of spatial
structures, it should be noted that in some special cases the structures
may become unstable during erection processes. This phenomenon may
be best exemplified in conjunction with construction of a coal storage
This facility was designed and constructed in an industrial area near
Tokuyama City to store some 300,000 tons of coal. It has a huge
hexagonal doughnut-like shape in plan. The section of the doughnut
roof is a triangle having a span of 90m and a height of 45m. The
diameter of the overall plan is some 250m (Figs. 10 and 11). The area
covered by the roof is approximately 40,000 m2. The roof is a steel
spatial structure covered by a fabric membrane (PVC coated polyester
fabric).The erection process of the roof is shown in Fig. 12.
When the erection method of the roof was planned in the design stage,
a kind of unstable situation was foreseen in the final stage of lifting.
This can be most conveniently explained in terms of reaction in
pushing hydraulic jacks during the lifting work. The roof was pushed
up by means of 14 hydraulic jacks and pushing posts as shown in Fig.
10 (black circles) and Fig. 12. Total reaction in the jacks is plotted in
Fig. 13 against height. The right end of the graph implies the location
of the roof 0.2 m below its final position. It is clearly seen that the
reaction in the jacks reduces rapidly as the roof approaches its final
shape (Phase C to D in Fig. 12). This is due to the fact that in the final
shape the joints No. 1, 2 and 3 align almost in a straight line.
Theoretically the reaction tends to become minus infinity, as the roof
comes close to its final position.
The movement of the roof in this process is so quick and dynamic that a
kind of impact effect is anticipated.
To avoid this phenomenon, a set of simple shock absorber was
provided to every upper chord member at the No. 2 hinge (Fig. 14).
The shock absorber consists of a pair of EPP (Expanded
Polypropylene) blocks, each of which is provided at the end of the
upper chord member at the No. 2 hinge. When the pushing work
proceeds, and the shape of the roof comes closer to its final one (Phase
( C ) in Fig. 12) , the two bocks of a shock absorber touch each other,
and come to push against each other. Then the roof structure changes
its manner of force transmission from axial force system to bending one
softly and smoothly without producing any impact phenomenon.
This method was followed in the building site, and the structure was
completed safely, economically and well in time.
5

Fig. 10 Plan and Section of the Coal Storage

COMCLUSIVE REMARKS

In previous presentations of Pantadome System various examples

realized with this system have been described, but the general
characteristics underlying those examples have not been explained.
In the present paper some characteristics of Pantadome System which
should be in mind when one tries to apply the system to various spatial
structures are described. After explaining the principle of this system,
the horizontal resistance of the structure inherent to this system has
been noted. With this resistance a pantadome can be erected without
worrying about its lateral instability due to wind, earthquake or other
reasons. This resistance assures the structure to be safely lifted even in
non-vertical directions, as in the case of Namihaya Dome.
It was then shown that the No. 2 hinges can be located even in external
walls as in the example of Nara Centennial Hall. In that example the
Pantadome principle was applied to the internal walls as well to provide
horizontal resistance to the structure in transverse direction.
In some special case an unstable transition from axial to flexural
systems of the structure should be investigated. This phenomenon
occurs when the three Pantadome hinges align in a straight line in
erection process of the dome. This can be very dangerous, since the
movement of the frame in this phenomenon is very quick, and it may
bring about an impact effect to the structure.
This phenomenon was foreseen in the design stage of a huge coal
station recently built in an industrial area near Tokuyama, and a simple
shock-absorbing device was provided to the structure during the
erection. With this device the structure was completed successfully, in
terms of safety, economy and construction time.

OPENING SESSION

Fig. 11 Aerial View of the Coal Storage

56

6. REFERENCES
1.

Kawaguchi, M. et al A Domical Space Frame Foldable During

Erection Proc. Third Int. Conf. On Space Structures, 1984
2. Moeschler, E. Die Hubmontage des Daches eines Hallenstadions
in Barcelona Stahlbau, 1989, Heft 9
3.
Moeschler, E. The Lifting of a Roof for An Indoor Stadium
Proc. FIP XIth Int. Cong. on Prestressed Concrete, June, 1990
4.
Kawaguchi, M. et al Design and Construction of Sant Jordi
Sports Palace Journal of the Int. Assoc. for Shell & Spatial
Structures., vol.33, No.2, 1992
5. Abe, M. et al Design and Construction of Singapore Indoor
Stadium IASS-MSU Int. Symp. Istanbul, 1993
6.
Kawaguchi, M. Possibilities and problems of Latticed Structures
Proc. IASS-ASCE Int. Symp. Atlanta, 1994
7.
Kawaguchi, M. Sports Arena, Kadoma, Japan Journal of
IABSE, SEI vol.6, No.3,1996
8.
Kawaguchi, M. Ein Pantadome fr die Convention Hall
Bauwelt, vol.89, No.4,1998
9.
Kawaguchi, M. et al. A Structural System Suitable for Rational
Construction, IASS Symp. Sydney, 1998
10. Une, H. et al. Design and Realization of A Large-Scale Coal
Storage Facility, IASS Symp. Nagoya, 2001

Fig. 13 Change of Reaction in Jacks

Fig. 14 Location of Shock Absorber

(D)

(C)

(B)

(A)

Fig. 12 Erection Process of the Coal Storage

OPENING SESSION

57