Animal Companions and Human Well-Being: An Historical Exploration of the Value of Human- Animal Relationships Joes 4 Sare, ont rt rcon of nal nd Sci, Deparment of ne Sad, SA of Ye 2 Sen, Dent of Rant 350 Space Soe, Popa, Ponon |. INTRODUCTION ‘strc accounts of people's reltionshipe with animals are, forthe most par sketchy, and te Ute documentary evidence we have relers primary fo the lives of thewich and famous. Our Knowledge of ow ordinary people in ed toma, or benef fom thet company, hereore een snus, and sentiments that make sense tous Tht which would not necesanly have had any meaning for our hetarcl predecessors. All of this demande that we tea storia evidence with an ppropite degree of cation, In ain, "well-being is clety a multfacto fal concep and it would be inpeale, within the scope ofthis ef ele, to explore the pat impact of animals on all fis diferent consents ‘Ws thee prov in mind, the peeent chapter wil confine af the theme ofhaman health and the way in which animals general and compan tom animals n parca, have been perceived as conetbuting (ois maine ‘ance and improvement. While attempting ose ths work in bistorcl con4 ames text the chapter will not tempt a detaled review of recent studies of snimal-homan therapeutic ntractions, because this material a lea been equaey covered elsewhere (see Spell, 1996; Wilson & Tume 198), IL ANIMAL SOULS AND SPIRITUAL HEALING In the history of human ideas concerning the otgins and teatment of illness and disease, nonhuman animal play 2 vsteyof portant ole The precoe haracterstis ofthese roles depend, however, not ony on the prevaling view of animals, but also on the partes spematiral or "sent beh pene Im which they are imbedded Probably the most archaic ofthese belief systems, usualy referred to a8 animism, ivoles the concept Gaal ving creates, as well othe hata objects and phenomena, re imbued with a nvsle sul prot ese that animates the conscious body, bat tha cable to move abot and ct Independent of the body when the bere ether dreaming or esherwse Unconscious. According to the spi animist worldview, ll anesatons of sickness or misfortune ae the diet rez of assauls agent persons soul or “essence” by other angry or malevolent spins encoumesed daring these periods of unconsciousnes. In some cases, thee sptual seals are ‘ought to be retary: the res of some deliberate oF Inadvertent tora ttansgression onthe part of the person. Alternatively, the person ay be the Sinnocen vi of an aac by spr acing on behalf alevolent hansen for witch, Clues to the origins af spiral aan are often provided by the content ofthe dreams or vstons that immedintely preceded part bout fines, injury, or misfortone (ened, 1929. Camel, 1984; Eliade, 1964 Nallowell, 1926; Marin, 1978; Nelson, 1986; Speck, 1977, Weneel, 1991), Animist ble systems are characters ofall untng ad patting sc tes, and among these societies, offended animal sin are ofen vetted as the most common source of malign sprtal influences, Many Int peoples Delee, for example, that the spins of hunted animals ike the ghosts of ‘dered humans, are capable a seking vengeance. To avoid this happening allanimals, whether dead or alive, ae tested with ret respect Oferwiag, the unter of his family can expect to slfer some misfortune The ants ‘all no longer allow themelves tobe kl, o they may take thelr evenge by afliccing someone with dene, physical handicap, or even desth (Wenzel 1991). Asan Inuit informant once eloquently expresed fe ‘lm iyo mace sar ces har sa he wee eae "Coe pth heey ond wc mus eae pepe ly 1 mae Epon of the Vl of Haman Reni 5 a {itt two props he ane hy hunted For nace Spnieialdedimangtantesvoe crn pero eer ta Srneratrcate paki Peeg peeinlpenle eect Soe ceed eante iSetieaen rac chetmeritereae sethiatatitetntwenttnc Sees eee eee eee pee Eee eateries a ee ee ey oe ca ha et Sasa eee tae oe ish cheeses Seeing eter alee se js Ec pee oe Tiscielndsehtingse me osqures we te oes Seca aeicnetacs cereusaton Parra Seneca cesesincgermeenteciat ieeentincd aoeg tamer ns! te used to obtain the patronage of these kinds of guardian spirits _lofahoresen tres tee pau eee oe Heche tenting Eyieemeees tees sameasrans So tanaseneinnatoe na Sooners me cishatiirineceseace feo eee6 es A Srt ‘Brough the medium of subsequent dreams and visions, At such tines the son's sou! was believed to renter the supernatral dimension and confer ‘i to spel guaran. The content of dreams was therefore considred © primary importance a = gide to ation in daly fe (Landen, 196), i some societies, it was regarded a viral aude to inure, kl, or eat sty member of the same species as one's gustan spr. Like the Ancient Narners albatross, it could result nthe withdrawal of sprit patonage, sd cause general misfortune, ness, and death On the other hand, and ‘ax equally large numberof eltres, the guardian spirit specially nwanded tu protégé the authority to ll members of sown species (Bend, 192, Hallowell, 1926) ‘As in most fds of individual achievement, not all men and women were «sualy good at obtaining the support of ail guaran spits Some never oksined visions and were regarded a “emp, fenfl and cowardly” fr the est oftheir ves. A small minority, on the coizary, diglayed exrardnaty Yolonary lens and were henceorth vegeded as medicine men, sorcerers, ‘or shamans (Landes, 1968). II, ANIMAL POWERS AND SHAMANISM. Mrcea lide ler shamanism aan “cal technique of etc” derived fm guaran pnt bel Both represen guests or asco religous poss, ant shamans afer from eveyone the oly inthe capacity ft te {penence which forthe mot part sequen to voc’ Ea 106, 10) Although shamanic ower was dened om the wsuunce of on of fete guardian spi, thereatonsip between te shaman ad Bs op “eps or Tamil” wa both mot ntnate and tore intense a tat stained by ordinary pesos. In mort ese the sheman nov ony eared the Drtorage of guardian spre but also developed the apaciy 0 con the ‘Shamans, pial could achieve thi pera wl by entering tate of temce recy, stall indeed by monornous chang rung. and dancing, and commony assed by the consumption al pchocve ds Such ses were considered to e ago to dente oly ee Ue wena peson’s sence becomes tly detached fm the body and csc findependen ations inime and pace. Accocing to Elade (1969, this ses uot experince enables the shina tet himself aan fom and reover the station that xsd the begining of tne when sa lar disintions separated hamans fom animal As et eb seo ‘estes mend wth anna aureimowicdeof the langage, and ats acu the aiy wo tnslorm Rms nossa sand whe hen ‘cain demands The vet es ind sybis ta which the pen 1 Moral upline Va Ha Ani eather 7 land the guardian sprit fase ro become two aspect of the sme individual (iade. 1960 Although they occasionally take human foe, the vast majority of shamanic “families ae animals of one lind or another Once he has adopted this iguise, the shaman i able to move about freely gather information, snd perform mal ats at distance fom his body Is unclear fom the vous Snthropologial accounts, however. whether the animal spnt had is own Independent enstence when notin the shaman's servic, ot whether it was Simply 2 mater form some by the shaman when engaging inthe pace ‘of magi. tones and legends conceraing shamans provide conflicting evidence InthisrespectInsome, shamans are sid tobe abl to disappear when attacked ‘or pursued, whereupon all that wil be sen sont awit footed animal ot ‘Sed departing fom the scene If hs annals njured or killed the shaman vil experience an Mental mishap wherever hi or ber body happens tobe (On che ater hand, shamans never Killed or consumed the sh of animals ‘elonging to their amir species, plying that these spiris ented Sep ety and could eal be mistaken for ordinary animals (Speck, 1918), ‘Depending on thet particular talent, shamans are Beleved tbe ale to foretell the future, advise onthe whereabouts of grne animals, or predic, lmpendng caastophes. Tel ablty to comtral the free of mare exn also be employed to maple the weather, subdue animal, o ng hen lowe to the hunter. Above all since al manifestations of il-heath ae thought fo because by angry or malignant spits, shamans poses vital monopoly the treatment of sickness. Because the Shaman i general he only adil ‘apuble of visitng the spe word a wil hog the agency of his ania familar, he provides the only elable method of covering and coumteacting the spinal origins of physical and mental Mines Elude, 194; Speck, 1918) IV. ANIMISM IN CLASSICAL AND ‘MEDIEVAL TIMES Although animist bei ystems are parcualy characteris of hunting ad fathering peoples they have also persisted im varity of forms in ay aston nomadic and agreulural societies where they sen coe, though 2 proces of synelrene fasion, with more recently imposed religous crees and pracces An interesting contemporary example sll Rourshes among, ‘Cental American indigenous people such a the Mays. Akhugh Chistian” ‘aed and agucaltral the Mayan inhabitant of Charan she Micon pow Ince of Chapa believe in the existence of nda soul anil” or cha that ave assigned to each person at birth by the celestial powers, and which ‘share reciprealy ever stroke fortune tha thet man counterparts exper.8 ms Sere nc All chara ae nondomericsted mammals wit Sve digits, and they are pissy indatnguehable fom actal wild animals, Indeed, a peson ay Sn aecover the Wen of coal animal though ks recurrent appesance I decams or with the help of shaman (Gossen, 1996) “he Maya believe that most illness the rest of an injury inflicted on peron's canal. These injures may be ned dlbeatly vi witcher, by lnaher person mistaking one's chan for an onnay animal and hartng OF Lingo may be self” n he sense ha the person may alow hie- or herself to experince overly intense emotions, such a intense fst, rage, excitement, of sexual pleasure, hat ea frighten orupet the cham. The pesple of Chamala ae also entemely reluctant to kl any wild marred ‘wth ie dps, since by doing so they believe they might nadvereny Kl, Themselves ora end a relative is fara curative measures are concerned the ont traonal remedy for an ness esting from damage to one's Sol animals to employ the services ‘of ashaman who wil use various rituals, andthe nfloence of his om, MOTE poverfl soul animal, to dacover the source ofthe aficton and counteract St kecording to Mayan folore,shamane and witches allo possess the abiliy to adopt the material form of ther chanal sm order to ain acest the superar eel (Goss, 1996) "The purpose of dwelling on this particular example of contemporary Ame indian belie n soal animals sha ie sttes, carding to Gosen (1996), ‘theremarale renal of animistic shamanisc dems and practices in Cetra AAmurca, dest the coerce influence of neti fie cents of imported ‘onan Catholicism, Similar n Europe and around the Meiterancan basi, peas that vestiges of comparable belie systems survived in a mumber of Toa and regonal healing culls, at lest unt the erly modem period ih the precnscl period the connection wth animism was parculaly vious. th ancient Egypt, for example, the ene pantheon was dominated by isnt shamanic mags of anmal-eaded gods and goddess, lading ‘he dogcheaded Anubis who guided the souls of the dea on thei Journey ‘Group the underworld, and whose oter oles included physician and apothe- «ayo the gods, and guardian ofthe mysteries of mummifiation and reineara- ‘ot. Dogs and Snakes were lio the sacred emblems ofthe Stmeran goddess, (Gus thereat Physician” and ofthe Babylonian and Chaldean dey Marduk, ‘nthe god of healing and reineamation (Dale Green, 196; Schwabe, 1994) nthe lacs period the animist sociation are somewhat les prominent. bout sill readily dcerile. Within the Greek pantheon the gods were less represented ae animale but they retaned the shaman ably to rans fom themseves into animals inorder to dlgulse thelr tre Wentes, Dogs tndserpens als played central ole the eal of Asepioe (Aesclapss), ‘he son af Apollo, who was known asthe God of Medicine andthe Divine 1 Hr Exton ae Vala Ani Blah 9 Physician. Alpe’ sin the sacred grove t Eplaurs foncuoned as 2 Mind of ancien ah esr ike moderovay Lauren aac rw Spans sehing ree! fom 4 get vey of malas As pao he “care provde a ely isunce of usituona animals therapy Treamen intel various es of prea nd tari owe by pe cdo rgindaced) sep wie man body othe shine. Dusig thee STumbers the God ted each of fs "pans sometimes Boman frm ‘atmore oe inthe gue of snake or dog hat che hem on the reas fnjred or ang porns ofthe anatomy. appears that the dogs that Wed ‘ound the svine may have ben spell ined to ck people 1 was eleed ha these anil aestaly represented the god and ad the power tbcaeiines wih things (ae ren 1965; Tapa, 197) nerd ttle found wan the precincts ofthe temple Epirus ey to te Inaclus power of he Toe dogs Tn of eo Mind bey hal ea te apie fete ap hur heel red ee, ‘ag cre oy fr Ag He al othe sc. he ad coo ot oa phon wee wr ev Although evident material i orn, the healing dogs and snakes at Epiauras ‘lean fled mich the sre function as sharanic spin helpers. Though thei ability fo renew themelvespertodially by shedding thei skins, nt 10 ‘mention dee potentially venomous quis, snakes have always possessed Strong asocations wih healing, death, and reincarnation (Mora & Mors, 1068), Likewise, in mythology, the dog commonly represented asan interme Ahir been his world and the next Some authors have uibuted tito the {dogs camion-eating propensities, while others asenbe it to the dogs proverbial ‘tchflnes and aleress o unseen “spiral” hens, aswell a ts mia, fmbiguous sats as 4 voluntary ccrupant ofthe boundary zone sepeaing Ihuman and anima, cltre and nature (White, 190: Serpel, 1995) Daring the ely centuries of Christianity. traces of ancient shamanle eas and practices were sil prevalent throughowt much of Europe, In ation to being healers, most ofthe ely Cele saints and Holy en of Bain and Ireland were asunguished by their special apport with animals, and mary, sccoding 0 legend, experienced body ansformatons Into anal form (armstrong, 1973, Melia, 198), St.Francis of Assis, who appears to have ‘ben inilenced by Irth monastic tation. fas also been described a 4 nature myst. Among other feats, he preached sermons to rapt audiences of bids and as able to pacify abid waves (Arestong, 1973). One of hs followers, St. Anthony of Pada (1195-1231), preached so eloquent to the0 dames A Serpe fishes in the en that hey allied up along the shoreline o listen to his words ef widom (Spencer. 193) The parictlar noon that dogs ould he injuries or sores by touching or Aeking them also persed well imo the Christan era St Roch who, bike Ashlepios, was generally depicted in the company of dog sem to have een cured of plague Sores by he ching of hs eanine companion, Se Chuo ‘he, St Bernard, anda number of ober saints were sea asaiaed with dogs Zed tany of them had reputations as healers, ‘A fant ghost of older, shamanistc traditions cam also be detected in the ‘rious medieral cult ofthe greyhound sit, St. Gulneort.Guinefor, so the legend goes, was unjusly slaughtered by his noble master who miskely Seleved tha the dog had killed and devoured his child. Soon aerward, Aowever, the babe was found seeping peacefully beside the remains of ‘ge predatory serpent that Glnefor had fought snd klled, Overcome with emote the Might threw the dogs eres nto a well, covered it with get le of stones, and planted » grove of wees aound fo commemorate the {ent During the 13th centry this grove about 40 kilometres orth a he ‘ty of Lyons, became te center of «pagan healing cul. Peasant from miles ‘round Brough thet sik and ang cldren ote shrine where mirsclous ‘ces were appareny performed (Schmit, 193), ‘Centuries ter, the close companionship af a “Spaniel Gentle or Com ‘brer”—s sor of nondescript, hi apdog—was sil beng recommended to fe lals of Eeabethan England asa remedy fora variety of ile, Wiliam anison nhs Desrgion of England (1577) admited to some septic on the subject: "es thought by some da vere wholesome for a weske Stomach to beate such a dog im the bosom, a for hth tht ath the abe io fele the dale smell and savour ofa fox. But how truck this ‘Mire et the learned jdge” The leaned De. Cals, author of De Canibus tems (1570), was les inclined to doubt. "though some suppose that such dogges ate ft Tor no serie, I daresay by thelr eaves they be ina ‘rong boxe” He was ofthe opinion that «dog carried on the bosom of seated person aborbed the dsease (Jest, 1866). Thus, over historia me, a kind of progression appets to occ rom & song, arhai Bele in the supematra healing power of certain animals ‘uch 25 dos, to tncreasingly vague and sper flk practices in hich the special "spinal? ques of te animal can no longer be dscermed, and all at remais is a sot of “guack” remedy of dbous therapeutic value In ‘medieval Europe, this tend was sociated with the Chute vigorous sures sion of preChrtan ant unary voli hele snd pect, fhe Year 1231 a0, tna effort to alt the spread of religious dent in Europe, the office ofthe Papal Inquisition was created in order to provide the Church ‘i an instrument fr idetlying and combating heey. Prior to this tine, 1h alin eV ofa Anin Reatoships n religious and secular authorities had adopted a telasvely lenient atitude to Uhereerity of pagan cuvome and Ivf that sounded lacly hroughous Europe. The Ingustion systematically ooted them ot and obliterated them, “Ancient nature culs and rials connected wth pre-Christian deities or sacred ‘groves, wees, streams, and wells were utleslyextapted. Even the harmless fut oft. Guineont waste objet af persecution. A Dominican fa, Stephen fof Rourban, had the dead dog dsintered, an the sacred grove ct down and Sbured, along with the remains of the fail greyhound: An edict was abo passed ‘aking ita crime for anyone to vst the place inthe fue {Sehait, 1983) ‘Although the pctreis realy stoned bythe inquisition peculiar meth- ods of obtaining and recording evidence, i appears thatthe scaled “witch {Gaze that swept hrough Europe between the 15th and 17th centres oi ‘ated as an atck on local folk ealers ot canning folk the lst degenerate ractoners of atcha shamanism (riggs, 1996. According tothe estaba ‘ent view, nt only dd these medieval witches consort with the Devi in ‘imal for, they ako posesed the define shaman ably to rasform both temselvesand others into animals (Cohn, 1973) InBitainand Scandi a ches were also believed to possess supertural “mp or fas, ‘most af which appeared im animal form. Infact, jing fom the evidence resented in contemporary pamphles and tal cords, the maori ofthese Familias belonged to species we nowadays Leep a ets dogs cats, cage bide, mee, as, ferrets, an 50 on (Ewen, 1935; Thomas, 1971). In bes words, lose assodation or ality with animals, once ign of shamanie power ot budding suinthood, became instead «symptom of daboism. Animal compan ions sll remind cern atherwoetdly” quay in the popular iagination ofthe Middle es and the Renaisance, bat manly a ptential instruments ‘ot malgfciam—the power to harm ote by superattal means All ofthese trends also reflected the marked medieval tendency t npose rigid separation between human and nonbiman animal tendency tht ‘was enforced by iene of human conduct hat emphasized econ ci ity and chastity while athe same tine rejecting what were then viewed animale abuts, such a impelseness,coseenest, aod heeatiousness (as, 197; Salsbary, 1999), V. ANIMALS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION ‘The lose of the 17h century and dhe dawn of theo called Age Enlighten ment” brought with Uhm certain changes nthe pli pereption of animals {hat have been thoroughly documented by storia ofthe exly moder petiod (eg, Mache 1994; Thomas, 1983). These changes incl 4 gad2 Jone A See Twos in sympa atudes to animals and nature and gradual decline {mth anthropocentic attitudes that characterised the medieval and Renal ‘ce periods (Salsbury, 1994). The pereepon of wild sna and wilderness 2 threatening fo buman survival also decreased in prevalence, whe the Draice of pevkeeping expanded out ofthe arstocracy and ina the newly ‘emergent, ban middle clases. This change in animal related atudes and ‘behavior canbe plausibly sttbuced, atleast in part tothe steady migration ‘ef Europeans out of rua areas and into towns and cites at this ime. This ‘unl exodus helped o distance growing sectors ofthe popltion fora any iret involvement in the consumptive exploitation of animals, and removed {heneed for value systems designed to lepimize or reinforce sich practices (Sepell 1996, serpll & Paul, 199; Thomas, 1983) “Te notion that mraring relationships wath animals could serve a socilis= Ing function, especlly fr children, ao surfaced about hs tne, Weng ' 169, John Locke advocated giving eilren “dogs, squires, birds oF any Such things" to Teak after sa meaneof encouraging them to develop tender feeingsand asene of esponstity fr others (Locke, 1699p. 14),Desting {het suthorty from the works of John Calvin and Thomas Hobbies, many 1Bh-centary reformers believed that children could lea to rlet ony at onzol, thelr own innately baste characteristics through the act of caring for and eantlling teal animals (Myers, 198), Compassion and concem for sil wef also became one of the verte didate themes of clea ltertre during the 1th nd 19th centuries, where is lar purpose was fo Inedeate an ihe of Kindness and geniiy, particularly in male children (Grer, 199, Rio, 1987, Turner, 1980) nthe late 18th century, shores concerning the soctling influence of inal companionship also fezan tobe applied othe extent othe mentally IL The eet wel documented experiment in thie ook place a England at te York Retreat, the baincild ofa progressive Quaker called Willa “Tule, The York Retreat employed treatment methods that wee exceptionally calightened when compared wih thowe that ested nother ental nations ‘ofthe dy. tnmates were pemited to wea their ow clothing, nd they were encourage to engage in handicraft, to write, and to read bok. They were lb allowed to wader fely around the reas courtyards and gardens, ‘which contained various small domestic animals. In his Destin of the Rarrat (1813, p. 96), Samuel Tuk, the founders grandson, described how ‘he ermal courtyards ofthe retreat were supped witha mabe fails Ss0ch as rabbis, se gu, haw, and poultry. These creatures are generally ‘very fama withthe patents and is balieved they ate not only the means ‘of mocent pleasure: Bu hat the otercoure wth them, sometimes tends to fwaten the Social and benevolent fesings™ 1 tn pln te Ya Hamann Hlonships ps Dring the 19th century, pet animals became increasingly common feat of menu ineietons tn England and deewhere: For eareple, ns hithy {tical report onthe appaling condos endoed by the inmates of Beth Hospital during the 1830s, the Brtsh Charty Commissioners sugested Ot ‘the rounds oflunatc asylums shouldbe stocked with sheep hares + mon ‘or some other domestic or soll animals o create a more pleasing snd {prs ike mosphere Such recommendations were evidently aken sero ‘According to an article published inthe Mlusrated London News of 1860, ‘women’s watd atthe Hethlem Hosptal was By that tne “cherally ight nd enlivened with prints and bust with avianes and pet animals” while a ‘the me's ward the same fondness was manifested or pet irs and animal ts, canriesequirels, greyhounds. Some patents pace the long el Jery incessantly pouring out their woes to these who Eaten to them, or if ‘here be none tlisten othe dogs and ets” (ced in Alldeidge, 1991. The beneficial fects af animal companionship also appear to have be recognized a servings therapeutic ole i the trentment of physi ale ‘during tis period. In er Notes on Nursing C1860), for instance, Flore [Nightingale obseres that a mall peti often an excellent companion for sic, for long chronic eases especialy VI. ANIMALS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY Despite the apparent suces of Ith-centuy experiments in animal lactated ‘national ear, the advent of scientfe medicine virtually eliminated ania from hosp setngs by the ely decades af the 20th centry (Alder, 1991. For the ollowing 50 years, weal the only medial contexts in which snimals re mentioned are those concered with zoontie lease and public health or ar symbolic referents im prychosnalyic theories concering the gins of mena Mess ‘Simund Freud ides concerning the oii of nerons tended to retest ‘he Hobbesan idea of mankind’ inherently beastie nature (Myers, 1998). ‘According to Freud fants and young children are estentaly sila to ‘nia, sofa as they are ruled by instncave cravings or pulses organized ‘ound base bologial fencuons sucha ening excreting seal, and sll preservation Pend referred to eh bas, animal aspect of uman nature at {he AS children mature, helt adal aretkers tame” or socialize them by ‘noiling fear or gut whenever the hid at too fmpley im response to ‘hse inner dives, Children, ia tum, respond to thie exceral pseu 10 conform by repressing these orgs from consciousness. Mental nes resus, ‘ors Fread maintained, when these botledup animal drives ad no healthy4 es A Ser or caine oulet in later be, and errupt uncontrollably into consciousness (Staton, 1995), Tred interpreted the recurrent animal images that susfaced in his patients Ares and free associations a metaphorical devices by meas of which people ‘suis unaceepabe thoughts or fecings “Wild beasts," e rgd represent psionate impulses of which the dreamers lad, whether they ae fs ow ‘rthose of ther people” (Freud, 1958, p10) Because these beastly thoughts and impulse are profoundly theatening tothe Fp, they ae locked avay in ‘ars corers of the subconscious where they can be safely ignored—at last, {dung person's waking hoors To Freud andhiselowers the aim of psycho nasi wast unmask thee frightening denizens of the unconscious tind, ‘eval ter trae natures and thus, efetivey, o metal them. red’ concep ofthe ids sort of a, animal esence human nae ‘bess more than a superial esemblance to animistic and shamans eas ‘omcerning animal souls and guardan spin, and the “inne or spinte ‘ongin of heal Serpe in pres). the works of atl ung, parla his discussion of mytolgiea archetypes in dreams and visions, and is Concept ofthe “collective unconsciosthis resemblance becomes more ot Tessexplct (Cook, 1987) Ittealso echoed in the writing f Bors Levinson, the founder of*pt-lacitated therapy” In his book, Pets and Haman Development, etnson sae soem i nr nd be uw meme ‘eit me Rol on harsh eng sigh it oun mma The soln to is growing sens of alinaton was, according wo Levinson, to sore healing connection with ou ow, unconscious anal matures by ‘Sublishing postive relationships with real animale, such ae dogs a, and ‘tu pets: He argued tht pes representa hallway station on the toad back {© emotional welbeing” (Levinson, 1969, px) and that "we ned aisle illest eifore our inner selves" (Levinson, 1972, pp. 28-8) Levinson ‘wen beyond the Freudian des hat animals were esenallys symbole dpe forthings we are aad to conftont nthe Heh to arging that relations with animals played such a prominent eles aman evoon that they have now become integral to our psychologeal well-being (Levine, 1972, p15) VIl_ ANIMALS, RELAXATION, AND. SOCIAT SUPPORT During the last 20 years, and atleast ary in response tothe skepticism of ‘he medical esuablhment, the theoreveal emphasis has thited sway rom 1 re Enron fhe Ve of Muman-Anina elt ro ‘hese relatively metaphysical ess abou animal a paychoeprtal mediators, therapeutic benefits of animal companionship (Serpell, im pes). The pray tatlt for dis change of emphasis was 2 singe, groundbreaking study of 82 outpatient from acai care ult who, satay speaking, were fond to lve longer if they were pet owners (Friedmann ea, 1980) This Ending promptedawhleseries other healh-elated tae (ae Gary & Stllones 1998) and also stimulated alot of dscusson concerning the possible mecha. nism() responsible forthe apparent salutry effects of pet ownership. OF ‘hese, a least wo have stood the test of time. According tothe fst, annals sareableo induce an immediate, physiologlealyde-arousing state of lation ‘Spl by attracting snd holding our atention (Katcher etal 1983) Ascording to thesezond, companion animals are capable of providing people wth form of stresredicing or stres-bulfering social support (MeNicholas & Calls, 1005; Serpell, 196; Siegel, 1990) ‘Although the de-arowsing elec of animal conact ave heen demonstrated by a considerable number of recent sds, Ile evidence ents at present that these effects re responsible for mare than transient or shorter improve ‘ments n physiologe parameters, such as heart ate and blood pressure (Fried ‘mana, 1095) In const, he concept of pts serving ae sources of sta ‘support seems to offer reaively conning explanation for the more long: ‘Cob (1976) defined socal support as “nfornaion Fading ie subject ‘eieve that hes cared for and oted, esteemed, and» member of nework of mutual obligations." More recent authors, however, hae tended ta dstingsish beeween “peeved social support and “social network characteristic. The former epresensa largely qualitative description ofa perso’ level of ssl: ‘ion withthe support he of she receive from particle social relationships, le the later i a more quantiative messre Incorporating the number, Frequency, and type ofa person's overall socal interactions (iksen, 1994). However we choo 1 deine i the importance of sca sport wo human welF-being hasbeen acknowledged implicitly throughout hisiory. Loneliness the absence of socal support—has alvays been viewed as such a painfl and ‘unpleasant seneation tha snce ime immemorial, societies have sued solitary confinement oe and aca strata 4s methods of punishment “The atabrograpical acount of elgioas hermits cistaways, and ONES of war provide a lear picture of the psjchologial eles of rota elation. Mont deni elingeetnlent to phys rare wb ined ‘oapeah before declining often quite sharply. Thiderese in pine enealy sociated withthe onset of tate of apathy and dsp, sometimes 0 severe {hat it nvolves complete catatone withdraval(Serpel, 199),1 ome 4 Sep ‘Within the last 10 yeas, an extensive mec Iteratute has emerged con- fmming 2 xinng.pvitor lnk Renecen sacl suppor and improved human hah and sures (Gee Enhsen, 100% Exterling eta, 1994, House eal, 1838, sherbourne ee, 1992: Villon, 1993). The precise mechansns underyng these Mesving elects of rot! support ae still the subject of some debate, but most authors appear now to agree that the principal ‘betes aie fom the capacity af supportive sci elationship ober ot smeorate the deleterious heath eflecs of prolonged or chronic hfe tess {der etal, 1995). In theory, this salsoryeflet of socal suport shold pny to any postive social relationship; any reltonship in which person {ed cared for loved or seemed As aa the ast majority of medical esa esandpracioners are concemed, however, the only eationship hat ae seamed to matter ate the that exit etween cowl alilted persons frends, mata partners, immediate fay mersber, and so on. Despite the towing evidence of recent antrozoologil research the notion tha anal onpanions might abo contbute socially to human health has sil recived vey limited medial recageton (Serpe, 1996) VU CONCLUSIONS For most of human history, animals ave occupied a central postion in theories concerning the ontology and weatment of sickness and dese. OVfended nina pis were often beved fe the source af illness, injury, or miso ture, but, at the sine time, the aistance of anal guaran spris—elter ‘ns own or those Belonging to 4 medicine man or shattn—coul also be ‘led on to mediate in the proces of heling uch llctions. ‘hough uch ides survived here and thereto the modem er, the spread ‘of antropocentc and monothestic bel systems during the lst 1000 fo 2000 years vray annihilated animist belt inthe supernatural powet of animals and animal spins throughout mich ofthe worl. tm Europe daring. the Middle Ages, the Christian Chueh actively persecuted animist believer, ‘nding them as witches and heretics, and denying this fale spins ‘wit dhe deni and his mitins in animal form During the period ofthe Enlightenment, the ie dat pet animals could serve socazng fonction for children and the mentally Became pop nd by the 19th century the inteduction of ania to istiuioal care faclies was widespeead However, these ety and preliminary expeinents ‘msnimalasnted therapy were soon duplced by them of ce ie Adutng he ery par ofthe 200 centery Animale condnuedo ply asomewhat !egive symbolic olen the development of pychoanalyi theoties concer Ingthe ongns of mental ner, bot no further medical discussion of thee 1 Mss Palin ie Vi HA Reais vv ‘le as therapeutic ajuncts occured unl the late 1960s and 19708 when (ch des seuraced in the wring ofthe influential cl pychotherpi, ‘Recent interest in the potential medial value of animal companionship was lagely tiated bya singe stdy that appeared to demonstrat ie prolonging, ‘lle of pet ownership among heart atack sfferers This sty as since ‘prompted many overs most of which have demonstrated eter short term, Feluig elects o animal conte, or long-term health improvementsconsistet ‘with view of companion animals a5 sources of soci suppor. Despite these Finding, the postive theapeatie vale fata cormpaionship continues © receiv ie Tecopnon tn malnstream medial iterator, and a8 Fld of research it gromiy underspported by government finding agencies ‘Considered in rewospect, scl to ecape the concliion that the ‘current nail or unilingnes ofthe medial extablshment o adress this topl seriouly ta legacy ofthe same antropocentriam that has dominated european and Western thinking since the Middle Ages Hopefully, with the ‘rad demise ofthis old-shioned and prejudiced mindset, we can esi fo-a more holistic and openminded view ofthe potential contnibaion of thie to buen wel betng, REFERENCES. deg P91). Aca arn ay het ep ial, Pci err ee Bes ica eee OY oe ‘on .AG 198mg at Gna (73-861) a Rey, The for campaan de (06 Shana Ace mies ay, ean W. 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