Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Seis Facies
Seis Facies
n this study, we present an application of textural analysis to 3D seismic volumes. Specifically, we combine image
textural analysis with a neural network classification to
quantitatively map seismic facies in three-dimensional data.
Key advantages of this approach are:
1) it produces a detailed 3D facies classification volume
(whereas manual seismic facies classifications are typically 2D maps),
2) it enables rapid and quantitative analysis of the increasingly large seismic volumes available to the interpreter,
and
3) it eliminates many time-consuming tasks, thereby freeing the interpreter to focus on determining seismic facies
and integrating them into a geologic framework.
Finally, we extend our textural analysis-based seismic
facies classification technique to interpretation of AVO
attribute volumes, such as A + B (AVO intercept + gradient), to reduce the inherent nonuniqueness of seismic facies
to geologic and lithologic facies, and simplify the facies
analysis of complex, mixed-impedance reservoirs.
Seismic facies analysis. Seismic facies analysis is a powerful qualitative technique used in stratigraphic analysis from
seismic data and in hydrocarbon exploration. Seismic facies
are groups of seismic reflections whose parameters (such as
amplitude, continuity, reflection geometry, and frequency)
differ from those of adjacent groups. Seismic facies analysis involves two key steps(1) seismic facies classification
(i.e., seismic facies are defined, and lateral/vertical extents
delineated) and (2) interpretation (i.e., analysis of vertical/lateral associations, map patterns, and calibration to
wells) to produce a geologic and depositional interpretation.
This interpretation step is required because there is a
nonunique relationship between seismic data, seismic facies,
and depositional environment or rock property relationships (Figure 1).
In the past, the seismic facies mapping or classification
step has occurred through time-consuming, manual methods. Seismic facies are conventionally delineated in the context of mapped horizons (i.e., the interpreter analyzes seismic
facies that occur between mapped horizons). This is done
by examining successive vertical sections through the seismic volume to determine the dominant seismic facies that
occurs between the mapped horizons, and posting this information on a map. The output of this step is therefore a 2D
map that generalizes the distribution of seismic facies vertically within a mapped interval. In large and complex areas,
it may be difficult to map different seismic facies consistently.
Manual seismic facies mapping, although time-consuming and qualitative, has proven extremely useful for
hydrocarbon exploration and reservoir characterization,
even when seismic facies cannot be uniquely related to
physical properties. A skilled interpreters knowledge and
experience contribute greatly to the success of seismic facies
analysis. However, with increasingly large 3D seismic volumes, a more efficient and quantitative, 3D or volume-based
approach is required but one which still incorporates inter1042
OCTOBER 2002
Figure 3. GLCMs calculated from the extracted seismic data subregions for the four different seismic facies of Figure 1. The left GLCM
for each seismic facies class is calculated along the direction of dip at a
user-defined distance. The right GLCM is calculated in the direction of
dip at twice that distance to effectively characterize reflection continuity. As illustrated in this figure, a number of trends emerge. First,
continuous regions exhibit a tighter distribution along the upper left,
lower right diagonal than do semicontinuous regions (the high amplitude continuous versus high amplitude semicontinuous examples).
Second, higher amplitude regions have a greater extent along this same
diagonal (the moderate amplitude versus high amplitude semicontinuous examples). These characteristics are quantified through textural
attributes and used for the seismic facies classification. Finally, within
a specific seismic facies, the GLCM resulting from greater comparison
distance always exhibits a less continuous character (more dispersed
along the lower left, upper right diagonal). This characteristic illustrates the similarity of a GLCM calculation to the production of seismically defined variograms.
ple, 8-bit seismic data have 256 gray levels, and a GLCM constructed from 8-bit data will have 256 rows and 256 columns.
In many instances even less dynamic range is needed for efficient GLCM calculation. For example, in many cases 5-bit
data (32 32 GLCM) are sufficient for seismic facies analysis. GLCMs are constructed by comparing pixel relationships
within a subregion for a specific distance (e.g., 4 pixels apart),
in a specific direction (e.g., subparallel to a datumned time
surface). Each element of the GLCM represents the relative
frequency of occurrence of two pixels, the co-occurance,
within the subregion. If pixel A, for example, has value i and
is at defined distance D, strike , and dip , from pixel B with
value j, then the GLCM matrix location i,j (row, column) will
be incremented by one. If another example within the subregion has the same relationship, then that GLCM element is
incremented again. This process of tallying relative occurrence is performed for each existing pixel pair within the subregion to produce the final GLCM for that area. For a sufficient
description of the data region, several GLCMs, with varying
orientations and look distances, are constructed.
Consider a two-dimensional image, taken from a synthetic checkerboard data volume (Figure 2). Constructing
a GLCM, with a distance of two pixels and a diagonal comparison direction, begins with the comparison between pixel
(A, 1, 1 - white) and pixel (B, 2, 2 - white). Pixel A has a
value of 1 and pixel B also has a value of 1; thus the matrix
element in the first row and first column will be incremented
by one. This process continues until all possible transitions at
this distance and azimuth are considered.
Next, consider a different possible orientation, a distance
of three pixels and a horizontal azimuth. In this case, pixel
A (1, 1) again has a value of 1 while pixel B (1, 4) has a
value of 8. With this transition, the last row and first column
of the GLCM will be incremented by one and the process will
again continue until all possible pixel transitions for that
azimuth and distance have been recorded into the GLCM.
Seismic-based GLCMs. The structure of seismic-based
GLCMs is quite simple to understand. Homogeneous regions,
or instances where the GLCM is calculated in direction of maximum continuity (e.g., parallel to continuous high signal-tonoise reflections) exhibit a tight distribution along the diagonal
(top left to bottom right) of the GLCM. This results from comparison of pixels with similar values, effectively a cross-plot
of correlated values. Less homogeneous or discontinuous
regions will have more occurrences (counts) farther away
from the GLCM diagonal, resulting from disparate pixel comparisons. Pixel value magnitude is also captured in the GLCM.
Regions of low amplitude have GLCMs with values clustered
near the center (effectively the zero crossing). Regions that
include higher amplitudes will have more broadly distributed
values within the GLCM either along the diagonal for continuous textures, or throughout the GLCM in more discontinuous textures (Figure 3).
Careful inspection of the GLCMs in Figure 3 demonstrates
that despite the variability in the character, there is always symmetry about the upper left-lower right diagonal. In the current study, GLCMs are symmetric matrices about the upper
left-lower right diagonal due to transitions from pixel a to pixel
b being considered equally important as a transition from b
to a. Further research is exploring the possibility of exploiting anisotropic GLCMs in the context of depositional grains
to extract geometries with geologic significance. Geometries
such as onlap, mounding from differential compaction,
and shingles representing progradation are of particular
interest.
OCTOBER 2002
1043
Dip-steering the analysis. Seismic facies must be considered within the structural/stratigraphic framework of a
data set and the desired scale for interpretation. Textural
analysis applied to seismic data must follow the stratigraphic dip of the reflections to produce satisfactory results.
Texture analysis and construction of a subregions GLCM
is extremely sensitive to the look-direction or azimuth in
which the pixels within the region are related. Following
the stratigraphic dip in a GLCM calculation, dynamically
changing depending on the stratigraphy, maximizes the
continuity of the image as expressed in the GLCM. The
process of guiding a calculation by stratigraphic dip is called
dip-steering.
Dip-steering of a GLCM calculation requires quantitative knowledge of the orientation of seismic reflections at
all points within an image. Many methods for dip-steering
calculations are available. Coherency or discontinuity
based dip-steering methods follow stratrigraphic frameworks through calculated trace to trace shifts in the lag distance. Others are based on an initial skeletonization of the
reflections within a data volume. To further exploit the
image-based nature of textural analysis techniques, we adopt
a gradient-based dip-steering algorithm. The multitrace
nature of the technique is thus exploited, and dips within
an image are estimated with high-accuracy. The first step in
this process requires calculation of the horizontal (dx) and
vertical (dy) gradient of pixel values within the image.
The local apparent dip of the reflectors is then calculated
via:
With dy/dx having units of time per CDP; however, for
convenience, these units can be ignored and the dip can be
expressed in terms of pseudo-radians or pseudo-degrees
relative to a horizontal time slice. For fully three-dimensional
analyses, two orthogonal apparent dip calculations are performed and the results used to estimate the true dip and
azimuth for dip and directional steering of the GLCM calculation.
Once reflection dip and azimuth are known everywhere,
this information guides the dip and azimuth of the look
direction for the GLCM calculation. Due to the discrete
nature of a seismic image (CDPs and time samples), a continuum of angular values is not feasible. Because the calculation is performed over multitraces, the potential angular
resolution is inversely proportional to the distance over
which the comparison is made, and the size of the analysis
subvolume. For example, a dip-accuracy of 15 pseudodegrees, can be approximated if the width is equal to three
pixels.
In our application, the interpreter controls the look distance, the size of the analysis subvolume, and the length scale
for dip-steering. The size of the subvolume depends on the
scale of the features the user wishes to analyze, and the comparison distances depend on the length over which continuity must be judged. In reservoir characterization, a typical
subvolume might be 325 m on a side and approximately 50
m vertically. Within this subvolume, we generally calculate
three GLCMs. Two GLCMs will be calculated in the direction
of maximum seismic continuity (dip-steered) at distances of
approximately 40 and 80 m. The third GLCM is calculated
orthogonal to the seismically defined dip and can be used as
a metric for frequency content and shape of the seismic data
within the analysis window. Statistical stability considerations also play a factor in deciding the comparison distances
within the subvolume. Generally, comparison distances average 20% of the overall subvolume dimension to ensure enough
1044
OCTOBER 2002
GLCM. Whereas homogeneity will be low for a highly contrasted data, textural inertia will be high. Inertia is a measure of the distance-weighted density of points away from
the GLCM diagonal, similar to the physical property inertia. Although textural inertia and homogeneity are related,
experiments with dip-steered calculations demonstrate that
together they provide more seismic facies discrimination
than either alone.
Textural entropy measures the organization of pixels.
Entropy is large when the values of the GLCM are uniform,
corresponding to a scenario when all transitions are equally
probable. Textural entropy is low when a particular ele-
1045
Figure 8. A typical
seismic facies classification using the
interpreter trained
probabilistic neural
network, where
multiple seismic
facies classes have
been identified. The
seismic classification scheme on the
right consists of
high amplitude
(HA), moderate
amplitude (MA),
low amplitude (LA),
continuous (C) and
semicontinuous
(SC) seismic facies.
OCTOBER 2002
analysis, a seismic facies classification can occur in principle with as little as one good example per facies class with
the textural attributes of the training images supplying the
weight vectors in the first layer of the network.
When an input pattern is presented to the probabilistic
neural network, the first layer computes distances from the
input vector to the training input vectors, and produces a
vector whose elements indicate how close the input is to a
training input. The second layer sums these contributions
for each class of inputs to produce, as its net output, a vector of probabilities. A second advantage of the PNN in pattern recognition is the ability to extract classification
probabilities directly from the second, hidden layer, in
addition to the classification of the maximum probability
from the output layer. The resultant data quantifies the confidence of the classification output based on the input training set. Finally, a competitive transfer function (a function
which simply selects the maximum value) on the output of
the second layer picks the maximum of these probabilities,
and produces a 1 for the chosen class and a 0 for the
other classes.
Interactive training and iterative QC. Figure 4 shows the
workflow for seismic facies classification using textural
analysis and neural networks. Two extremely important
aspects of the technique are: (1) interactive training of multiple seismic facies classes simultaneously and (2) the capability to do iterative training and quality control checking
of results between the seismic interpreter and the neural network classification prior to full data analysis. This iterative
approach for multiple, user-defined classes enhances the
ability of a probabilistic neural network to reproduce the
geologically significant classifications.
Training the neural network begins with the definition
of textural analysis parameters, such as calculation volume
size, dip-steering window size, bit depth of the data, and
analysis distance. Specification of these parameters is based
on the experience of the interpreter, and actual parameter
values are dependent on the frequency and spacing of the
data, as well as the scale of the analysis. To train the neural
network, the interpreter selects one or several key seismic
lines, and digitizes polygons of a consistent scale that are
examples of different seismic facies (Figure 5, upper). The
computer automatically calculates on-the-fly the data and
dip/azimuth information associated with the training polygon (Figure 5, lower) and performs a textural analysis on
these subregions (Figure 6). The interpreter inspects the
resulting GLCMs and can either reject the training polygon
or accept it and classify it as a specific seismic facies. The
1047
OCTOBER 2002
reflection (LAC) on the near offset volume and a high-amplitude-continuous (HAC) on the far offset volume. Conversely,
a poorly sorted, coarse-grained class I sand may be highamplitude continuous on the near offsets and dim to a lowor moderate-amplitude, continuous package on the far-offset volume. The full stack data would be some average of
the two end-members, complicating the interpretation.
In a properly constructed AVO attribute volume, lateral
transitions between classes I, II, and III can be mitigated. Using
an AVO attribute volume as the basis for seismic facies classification can thus minimize the complexity of interpreting
multiple stacks of data to identify sand-prone intervals. For
the location described above, the A + B volume contains a single high-amplitude continuous reflection denoting a single
sand body regardless of AVO class (Figure 12, lower). The
inclusion of the AVO classification information can be exploited
to further discriminate high-impedance sands from lowimpedance sands for rock property assignment.
Potential pitfalls of quantitative facies analyses. As with
any quantitative analysis, data quality weighs heavily into the
confidence of the interpretation. In cases where data quality
is suspect, the potential subjectivity of a traditional, manual
seismic facies analysis can be an asset when interpreters are
aware of the limitations of their data. For example, where data
are known to be nonstationary across a reservoir interval,
manual seismic interpretation can compensate for this variability. Automated seismic facies methods, however, may not
necessarily take this data variability into account unless spatially variant training is employed.
Further, the use of computer generated facies data without appropriate geologic insight and interpreter understanding of the technology is dangerous. Such application of
technology can give automated methods a black-box reputation and lead to a misunderstanding of the technology being
applied, its expected benefits, and its limitations. Fundamental
knowledge of the geology and geophysics of an exploration
or development target, as well as an appreciation of the technology applied, is critical to the successful application of any
technique in an integrated workflow.
Conclusions. This article demonstrated:
1) The combination of seismic textural analysis and neural
network techniques can be successfully applied to automate the seismic classification step of traditional seismic
facies analysis, with resulting improvements in the efficiency, degree of detail, and reproducibility of the seismic facies classification product. Time-efficiencies and
quality improvements result in more time for the interpreter to interpret the classification results, and to translate it into a robust geologic framework.
2) Two- and three-dimensional textural analysis provides a
significantly different approach to seismic facies classification over single, trace-based seismic attributes in that
seismic texture is a multitrace, volume-based attribute that
provides a quantitative measure of the reflection amplitude, continuity, and internal configuration of reflectors.
Seismic textural analysis thus provides a means to quantify the description of elements contained in seismic facies
analysis.
3) The use of neural networks to classify textural attributes
provides an efficient method by which the seismic interpreter can interactively teach the computer the seismic
characteristics of interest. Probabilistic neural networks
also offer the advantage of providing a quantitative measure of the confidence placed in each facies classification,
OCTOBER 2002
1049