CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & BASICS Chapter 1 Page 1-1 Introduction & BasicsINTRODUCTION The objective of the Transformer Protection Seminar is to introduce the students to the characteristics of transformers and the various techniques used for protecting them against system disturbances. The seminar stars by providing some background on the theory of operation of numerical relays and how changing the relay settings atfects the relay characteristic curves, Current transformers and symmetrical components are then reviewed, as the mastery of protection requires a deep understanding of these two subjects, The course then gives a detailed description of the factions and components of power transformers. Chapter 2 of this course starts with introducing the transformer nameplate, which shows the various parameters of a transformer such as size, percent impedance, primary and secondary connections and type of cooling. The functions of tap changers, sudden pressure relays, winding temperature indicators are described in some detail Chapter 3 discusses basic transformer protection, using overcurrent, over-voltage, and instantaneous protection, for protecting the transformer from phase and ground faults. Several transformer protection schemes are recommended, based on the transformer size. Chapter 4 then moves to transformer differential protection. The chapter starts by discussing the theory of operation of differential protection, and its applications, as it applies to transformers. The various issues to consider, when applying transformer differential relays, such as inrush, CT saturation, tap changer, over-excitation protection, and transformer connection are addressed, and how the numerical differential relays address these issues is discussed in detail Chapter 5 gives an overview of the various ABB transformer differential relays. This includes the RET521, RET 650, RET670 and RET615 relays. The features of each are provided, and a comparison between them is made ‘The same procedure is repeated for Areva, General Electric, SEL and Siemens relays in Chapters 6 through 9, respectively. The last chapter of the course, Chapter 10, gives a detailed comparison of the features and functions of the transformer relays provided by the various manufacturers, in order to provide the student with a good basis for selecting the relay, most appropriate for their application. At the conclusion of this seminar, it is hoped that the student will achieve a deep understanding of the schemes used for transformer protection, and that he will be able to select the proper scheme and relay to fit his needs. Chapter 4 Page +2 Introduction & BasicsTramsformer protection and contre! RET615 RET615 is a dedicated transformer protection and conirol IED for power transformers, unit and step-up transformers including power generator-transformer blocks in utility and industry power distribution systems. RET615 is a member of ABB's Relion® protection and control product family and its 615 series. The 615 series IEDs are characterized by their compactness and withdrawable-unit design. Re-engineered from the ground up, the 615 series has been designed to unleash the full potential of the IEC 61850 standard for communication and interoperability between substation automation devices, Introduction & Basies Chapter 1APPLICATION RET615 is the advanced protection and control ED for two-winding power transformers and power generator-transformer blocks. RET615 is available in eight standard configurations to match the most commonly employed power transformer vector groups and to coordinate the applied transformer neutral earthing principles with the relevant earth-fault protection schemes, Hee O05 Chapter 1 Page 1-4 Introduction & BasicsStandard configurations i | ® sic | : “| i [os ower wows [Abc per o.n Chapter 1 Page 15 Introduction & Basicsrstioesion ew Rage, natonce ? ms sees ae 4 + - Inerarmnnavresensewarst — Lmgarigsa arg jtwag) feieis eis + |e is ea oe : ante wf anesence wiale inc rion raven 3° ancsene festa Dhrerene sotenrdestenrenmce:. [peseee | 20 peut sheleoniedar feetontuiter pean? [oceoure” “19 BEE! THE GE EPSPS psy rence ndoaen rane 9 [Dosen 10.0 De etetereledeist. ‘ote fee ine iene estasapenarr osrent criolemecenmane eves! | PEScwoni Seer reomeenen aus Awe rane cane carenaa pec | me ae Blain ctaicinig Fouacrer menses egree’ | prsciriont iets. | me) sottsdebsls Chapter 1 Page 1-6 Introduction & BasicsSETTING OF IEC TYPE RELAYS rent Setti Determines the starting point of the rely curve. Also called the low-set setting of the relay Set to provide overioad protection ‘Time Muitiplier Setting (TMS) Affects time of operation of the relay Set to protect equipment and/or coordinate with downstream devices Instantaneous (ines Determines the ending point of the relay curve. Sometimes called the high set setting cnet Inst i of the relay Setting Set to provide short circuit protection Chapter 4 Page 17 Inoduction & BasicsNow Using System Amps Current Setting - 0.3 TMS - 0.6 IT -40 CT Ratio 600/1 Relay P.U, (overload) Curr. Set* CT Ratio = 0.3*(600/1) = 180A Relay P.U. (Instantaneous) = IT * CT Ratio 10* (00/1) = 6,000 A Chapter 4 Page 1-8 Introduction & BasicsCOORDINATION BASICS [Eiect of Raising the | Tap of a Relay t Effect of Raising Instantaneous Setting of a Felay Raising the Tapand | Lowering the Time Dial | Chapter 4 Page 1-9 Introduction & Basics400 20 10 5 3 2 3.20 1 1.60 as 0.80 03 0.40 02 0.20 O41 0.10 0.05 S — 1 t 1 2 3 a 10 os 20 +t, Is] Figure 2-13 Trip characteristic as per IEC Type B very inverse (VINV) Very inverse / (Type B) 13.5 : (wigsd Tp [s] Chapter 1 Page 110 Introduction & Basics10 20 vip 0.05 0.10 0.20 —7 Figure 2-15 Trip characteristic as per IEC Type C extremely inverse (E INV) Extremely inverse / {Type C} ff t- | Tp [sl (Wp)? ~4 Chapter 1 Page 1-11 Introduction & BasicsIEC CURRENT TRANSFORMERS ACCURACY CLASS OF IEC METERING CT'S This is defined in IEC 60044-1 as the r.m.s. value of the difference between the ideal secondary current and the actual secondary current. It includes current and phase errors and the effects of harmonics in the exciting current. The accuracy class of metering current transformers is shown below. a) For CT's Having Limits of Accuracy Classes 0.1 ~ 1.0 Accuracy | + Percent Current += Phase Displacement Class (ratio) Error (minutes) I % |S | | io] ao) S| a0] 100 | 120 | Current | 02 30 | 15 | 10 | 10 05 90 | 45 | 30 | 30 1 3 |15{ 10 | 10 | 180 | 80 | 60 | 60 = L | Table 1-1 b) for CT's Having Limits of Accuracy Class 3 and 5 [ Accuracy + Percent Current (ratio) Error Class | % | | current | Chapter + Page 1-12 Introduction & BasicsPROTECTION CT'S Characterization of CTs An example of a protection CT: *° rated primary current: 200 A, ° rated secondary current: 5 A. 1SVA 5P 10 accuracy limit factor = 10 > accuracy class = 5P accuracy power = 15 VA Its accuracy load: Py, = 18 VA Hts accuracy limit factor is ALF = 10 For = ALF * In, its accuracy is 5% (5P), (see Figure 1-1) To simplify, for the protection CT given in example, the ratio error is less than 5% at 10 In, if the real load consumes 16 VA at In. However these data are not sufficient. Also, it is useful to know the standard values Network voltage eharaetereties Ried insulation voltage’ 17 § LV Fover frequency withstand voltage: 28 V1 ran 50H Innpulse‘vtnstand voltage: 86 KV peak \ CT standara Vega 62.5 4A peak or ‘Accuracy limit a factor (ALF) v 4 Secondary ecuit 181-182 power 1 secondary itult 283-282 Figure 1-1. Typical CT Nameplate Chapter 1 Page 1-13 Introduction & BasicsDEFINITION OF KNEE POINT OF IEC EXCITATION CURVES Knee Voltage (Vin oF Vi) is determined by the point on the curve Vs (In) from which a 10% increase in voltage Vs leads to a 50% increase in the magnetizing current. Figure 1-2. Typical CT Saturation Curve Chapter 1 Page 1-14 Introduction & BasiesDEFINITIONS Rated (nominal) primary current | values: 10 - 12.5 'ds, it is chosen from the diser ‘Aand their decimal multiples, Defined by si 30-40 - 80 -60- Rated (nominal) secondary current Ip Equals 1 or 5A, Ratio (Hy / la) are standard, thus these values are discrete, The primary and secondary currents Accuracy load Load value on which the accuracy conditions are based. Rated (nominal) accuracy power Py Expressed in VA, it is the apparent power supplied to the secondary circuil for the nominal (rated) secondary current and the accuracy load. ‘The standard values are: 1-2.5-5- 10-15-30 VA Real power P, Is the power corresponding to the real load cansumption of the CT at In Accuracy class (Meterin This class defines the error limits guaranteed on the ratio and an the phase shift in specified power and current conditions. Special accuracy class Class X is class defined by British standard BS 3938, This class specifies the minimum value of the knee point voltage Vj; of the CT. It also imposes @ maximum value of Rer (CT secondary winding resistance). Sometimes, it specifies the maximum value of the magnetizing current I, at knee point voltage. Class X corresponds to a better metering accuracy than classes 5P and even more so 10P Chapter 1 Page 1-15 Introduction & BasicsReal accuracy factor (K, This is the ratio between the overcurrent corresponding to the nominal error and the rated current of the CT when the real load is different from the nominal load. Accuracy limit factor (ALF or Kn! This is the ratio between the nominal overcurrent (e.g. 10 In) and the rated current (tn). Expressed in kA, this is the maximum current ly that can be withstood for one second (when the secondary is short-circuited). It represents the thermal withstand of the CT to overcurrents (the standard values are given by the standards mentioned in the appendix). CT rated voltage This is the rated voltage to which the CT primary is subjected. It is important to remember that the primary is at HV potential and that one of the terminals of the secondary (which must never be opened) is normally earthed. Just as for any devices, a maximum withstand voltage for one minute at power frequency and a maximum impulse voltage withstand are also defined. Their values are defined by the standards. For example: for a rated voltage of 24 kV, the CT must withstand 50 kV for 1 minute at 50 Hz and 125 kV at the impulse voltage. CT with several secondaries Some CTs may have several secondaries dedicated to protection or to metering, The most typical cases are CTs with 2 secondaries, more rarely with 3 secondaries. Physically, these CTs group in the same mould the equivalent of 2 or 3 separate CTs that can have different classes and ratios, Chapter Page 1-16 Introduction & BasicsACCURACY CLASS OF PROTECTION CT's | Class 7 Current Error at_| Phase Displacement | Composite | | Rated Primary | at Rated Primary Error at | | Current Current | ALFY hy | i (%) (minutes) Seaaely £1 £60 8% | Ta] zs 10% | | ‘Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30, Table 1-3. CHARACTERISTICS OF CT's 15 VASP 10 means 15VA= Accuracy power equal 15 VA SP = Accuracy Class 10 = Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF) which really means that the ratio error is less than 5% at 10 times |p if the real load consumes 15 VA ai |, Chapter Page 1-17 Introduction & BasicsAPPLICATION EXAMPLE 5 ACT Secondary Current with 30 VA Class 5P 10 Accuracy 30 VA ————_-=_ 6 volts (at rated secondary current) 5A 6v = 1.2 ohms (permissible burden of CT) 5A CT produces no more than 5% error at 10 X 6 = 60 volts COMPARING IEC AND ANSI RATINGS IEC 185 60/5, 25 VA 5P20 is equivalent to ANSIC57.13:Vymax = 25°20 __ 100 5 i.e. ANSI Class 100 CT IEEE C57.13 | IEC 60044-1 C100 _ | 25 VA 5P20 €200 ‘50 VA 5P20 [C400 400 VA SP20 f «C800 [200 VA 5P20- ~ Table 1-4. Equivalent CT Accuracy Ratings Chapter 1 Page 1-18 Introduction & BasicsOTHER TYPES OF CT STANDARDS TPX Non-gapped core current transformer CT produces no more than 0.5% ratio error Has a secondary lime constant of 5 sec or more it may be used with other TPX or TPY CT's in all types of protective applications IPY Gapped core Secondary time constant of 0 to 10 seconds Ratio error of 1% and larger cost than TPX Its advantage is that its remnant flux is quite small compared to that of non-gapped core CT's TPZ Have a linear core Have very short d.c. component collapse time Usually used with breaker failure applications Should only be used with other TPZ CT's Mh Js Closed iron gore (TPS) u: IML: Linearized cove (TPZ) Core with anti-remnance air-eaps (FPY) Figure 4-3 ‘Chapter 1 Page 1-19) Introduction & BasicsFACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFORMER PROTECTION INTRODUCTION The rating, selection, and/or setting of a transformer primary protective device is affected by the following two factors: (1) NEC requirements and (2) ANSI/IEEE through-fault protection requirements Note: This section wil! cover only those devices that must be included in an overcurrent device time-current coordination study, for example, fuses, circuit breakers, and relays. Other transformer protective devices, for example, differential relays and sudden-pressure relays are sometimes present but they do not usually enter into the coordination study. NEC REQUIREMENTS The NEC has specific requirements for transformers depending on whether they are protected by only a primary-side device or by both primary and secondary-side devices. Transformers 600 V Nominal or Less (Primary): NEC Article 450-3(b)(1) specifies that transformers that are rated 600 V nominal, o less, must be protected by an individual overcurrent device on the primary side that is rated or set at no more than 125% of the rated primary current (FLApe) of the transformer, as shown in Figure 1- 4 480 Volts a” Fuse [] tvece ) mcce) < 125% FLA, 208 Volts Figure 1-4. Primary-Side Protection for Transformers (< 600 V) Intvoduction & Basies Chapter 4NEC REQUIREMENTS Fy and Secondary): NE! (2) specifies that transformers that are rated 600 V nominal, or less, and ave an overcurrent -condary side that is rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated secondary current (FlAsec) of the transformer, are not required to have an individual overcurrent device on the primary side. if the primary feeder overcurrent device is rated or set at a current value not more than 250% of the rated primary current (FLApa) of the transformer, as shown in Figure 1-5. Even though NEC Article 450-3 permits higher ratings for the transformer primary and secondary-side protective devices, it does not permit violation of NEC Arlicle 240-3 for conductor (or bus) protection 480 Volts aT Fuse ALvecs)mccg) < 250% FLA, Feeder Vv | (Short circuit protection) FLA, Sd oe FLA. | Mcce , } < 125% FLA. Fuse (Overload protection) 208 Volts Figure 1-5. Primary and Secondary-Side Protection for Transformers (< 600 V) ‘Transformers Over 600 V (Unsupervised Installations): NEC Aniicle 450-3(a)(1) specifies primary and secondary side protection for transformers that are rated over 600 V in unsupervised locations, as shown in Figure 1-6. NEC Table 450-3(a)(1) [Table 1-5] specifies the maximum settings for the primary and secondary side protective devices, Transformers Over 600 V (Supervised Installations): NEC Article 450-3(a)(2) specifies primary and secondary side protection for transformers thal are rated over 600 V in supervised locations, as shown in Figure 1-7. NEC Table 480-3(a)(2) [Table 1-6] specifies the maximum settings for the primary and secondary side protective devices, Chapter 1 Page 1 introduction & Basies,ne, 3 roo T , a = 575% FLA. a |) 125% FLA yY < 128% lay 5 225% Ina (0) Secondary < 600 V (0) Secondary > 600 V Figure 1-6. Transformers Over 600 V (Unsupervised Installations) PRIMARY PROTECTION ‘SECONDARY PROTECTION Over 600 Volts Over 600 Volts 600 Volts or Transformer | Circuit Circuit Circuit Breaker Rated Breaker | Fuse | Bresker | Fuso Setting or Impedance | Setting | Rating | Setting | Rating Fuse Rating Not more 600% 300% 300% 250% 125% than 6% More than 400% 300% 250% 225% 125% 6% and not more than 10% ‘Source’ NEC Transformer Protective Device Maximum Ratings or Settings (Unsupervised Installations) Chapter 4 Page 1-22 Introduction & Basiesjs 125% FLA f : 400 kV (2)Secondary < 600 V 2 125% ty Figure 1-7. 00% tp 5 250% FLA, t ¢ t_| (0) Secondary > 600 V 24 kv ransformers Over 600 V (Supervised Installations) PRIMARY PROTECTION SECONDARY PROTECTION Over 600 Volts Over 600 Volts 600 Volts or Below Transformer | Circuit Circuit Circuit Breaker Rated Breaker | Fuse | Breaker | Fuse Setting or Impedance | Setting | Rating | Setting | Rating Fuse Rating Not more 600% 300% 300% 250% 250% than 6% More than 400% 300% 250% 225% 250% 6% and not more than 10% ‘Source. NEC Table 1-6. Transformer Protective Device Maximum Ratings or Settings (Supervised Installations) Chapter 1 Page 1-23 Introduction & BasicsSYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS INTRODUCTION The symmetrical components method (mathematical operations) is the foundation for obtaining and understanding ground fault data on three-phase power systems. In short, the method of symmetrical components is one of the relay/coordination engineer's most powerful technical tools. While the method and mathematics are quite simple, the practical value ies in the ability to think and visualize in symmetrical components. This skill requires practice and experience. The symmetrical components method consists of reducing an unbalanced three-phase system of phasors into three balanced or symmetrical systems: the positive, negative, and zero phase sequence components. This balanced reduction can be performed in terms of current, voltage, and impedance. BALANCED SYSTEM A balanced system (ie., a three-phase fault) consists of three phasors, all equal in magnitude and 120° apart (Figure 1-8). For example: In= 120° = 1.0 + j0 Ip = 12240° = -0.5 -j0.866 le = 12120° = -0.5 + j0.866 Int la tle=0 Wal = Hel = Hcl N \ \. \ y ABC 120" Seence x Figure 1-8. Example of a Balanced System ‘Chapter 1 Page 1-24 Introduction & BasiesUnbalanced System An unbalanced system (.g., @ line-to-ground fault) consists of three-phasors, not all equal in magnitude or degrees apart (Figure 1-9). For example: In= 120° = 1.0 + j0 Ip= V2 226° =-1.0-j1.0 le= 1290°= 0 + j1.0 Intlstle=0 Wal = Hel = Hel “abc sequence Figure 1-9, Example of an Unbalanced System Chapter 1 Page 1-25 Introduction & BasicsOperators (J. A) The '' operator is a unit phasor with an angle displacement of 90° (Figure 1-10) i =1290°=0+j10 2 2180" 1.0 + j0 = 12270" = 0-j1.0=5j i = 1.2360" = 1.0+j0=1.0 j=1.2270°=0-j1.0= Figure 1-10. The “j" Operator Chapter 1 Page 1-26 Introduction & BasiesThe "a" operator is a unil phasor with an angle displacement of 120° (Figure 1-14). 20° = -0.5 + 0.866 2300° = +0.5 -j0.866 2240" =-0.5 -j0.866 260° = + 0.5 +j0.866 2360" =+10+0=1.0 2180? =-1.04j0=-1.0 Figure 1-11. The “a” Operator Chapter 1 Page 1-27 Introduction & BasicsSEQUENCE COMPONENTS The sequence components consist of three sequence sets: positive (+) sequence, negative (-) sequence, and zero (0) sequence. Positive sequence (+) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the same phase sequence (abc) as the original unbalanced phasors (abc). The term “positive” derives from the fact that Ip: is a positive (+) 120° behind J, (Figure 1-12). Note: Subscript 1 identifies the positive sequence component, subscript 2 identifies the negative ‘sequence component, and the subscript 0 identifies the zero sequence component. ac )2emience Figure 1-12. Positive (+) Sequence Components Negative sequence (-) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite (acb) to that of the original phasors (abc). The term “negative” derives from the fact that Ino is a negative (-) 120° behind |,2 (Figure 1-13). ~ ace 1, 120 Sequence 120° 120 Figure 1-13. Negative (-) Sequence Components Chapter 1 Page 1-28Zero sequence (0) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement (0°) irom each other (Figure 1-14), 360° - . ~ Figure 1-14. Zero (0) Sequence Components, ‘Chapter 1 Page 1-29) Introduction & BasicsFAULT CONDITION PHASOR DIAGRAMS Sequence Currents Figure 1-15 shows and the following characteristics apply to the current sequence component sets for three-phase faults, line-to-line faults, and line-to-line-to ground faults, © No negative or zero sequence currents flow for three-phase faults, only positive sequence currents flow. Only positive and negative sequence currents flow for line-to-line faults. © Positive, negative, and zero sequence currents flow for faults involving ground, Sequence Voltages Figure 1-16 shows and the following characteristics apply to the voltage sequence component sets for three-phase faults and line-to-line faults, © No negative or zero sequence voltages exist for a three-phase faull and the positive sequence voltage collapses to zero at the point of the fault © No zero sequence voltages exist for line-to-ine faults. © Positive, negative, and zero sequence voltages exist for faults involving ground, (Chapter 1 Page 1-30Sequence Currents 1 | Positive Seq. | Negative Seq. | Zero Seq. NIA NA 7 | NA | / | oN Ua NIA ca Te es tay By Dy | © abc | boG | cas ac I bG ta, b, | i 1G OE) ea, | Figure 1-15. Sequence Current Components Chapter 1 Page 131 Introduction & BasicsSequence Voltages Negative Seq. | Zero Seq. Fault Fault foltages | Voltages Voltages | ZERO AT a,b,c ngs Liss FAULT b a b NIA ab JU a & a 7 a | a . z= by & c = i) Je NA ae { Be by b b, Ce | | mba ans | Coe a a, Bo, a ae i wk, | b=c=0 | & cae XL ~ ~N | a, b, Gu Bi 6 | pecmg b | ~ | a0 ag a ay, By, Cy oc oo b by ‘a, [Ax By G J be ee bo . & om, i: A, Da G a; G oC ne a | by c0 b Figure 1-16. Sequence Voltage Components. Chapter 1 Page 1-32 Introduction & BasicsSEQUENCE IMPEDANCE FOR CABLES. Positive Sequence Impedance Usually given in tables Negative Sequence Impedance 2=21 Zero Sequence Impedance Zork, SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE FOR MOTORS Positive Sequence Impedance X1= Xen Negative Sequence Impedance X= X Zero Sequence Impedance Since motors are ungrounded, they have no zero sequence impedance. Chapter 1 Page +33) Introduction & BasicsSEQUENCE IMPEDANCE FOR GENERATORS Positive Sequence Impedance Xt = Xe Negative Sequence impedance Xz is usually 20% higher than X, Zero Sequence Impedance Xq is usually much smaller than X; EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR LINE TO GROUND FAULTS Is = 3E “Zi, # Za + Zo + 3Z, Chapter 1 Page 1-34 Introduction & BasicsSEQUENCE IMPEDANCE FOR TRANSFORMERS, The zero sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase trensformers deserve special attention because of the different combinations of connections (e.g., delle-wye, wye- delta, etc.). Figure 1-17 shows the various transformer connection combinations and the corresponding zero sequence current flow equivalent diagram, Referring to Figure 1-17, the following observations are noted: {f either one of the neutrals of 2 wye-wye (Y-Y) transformer bank is ungrounded, zero Sequence current (Ip) cannot flow in either winding. > Where both neutrals of a wye-wye (Y-Y) transformer bank are grounded, zero sequence current (Ig) flows in both windings In delta-wye (4-Y) or wye-delta (Y-A) transformer grounded banks, zero sequence ‘currents (Ip) have @ path only through the wye (Y) winding. No zero sequence currents (Ip) flow in @ delta-delta (4-A) transformer bank If the connection from neutral to ground contains an impedance (Zn), the zero sequence equivalent circuit model must be modeled as an impedance of 321, Chapter 1 Page 1-35 Introduction & BasicsZero Sequence Transformer Models CONNECTION DIAGRAM | EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT | Primary Secondary Zero Sequence (2,) P Ac —— A q ‘ eae 8 2 Reference Bus Figure 1-17. Transformer Zero Sequence Model Chapter 1 Page 1-36 Introduction & BasiesTHROUGH-FAULT PROTECTION (LIQUID-IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS) Foul Type Primary « Side Secondary Side (Connection) " " “phage a phage ery Ling to-bine seb Line-o-Line oe ose ba ot a2 ° /\o “Ln 40 Unger $/ 2 os a % 5 ° Lp te) =___2Phase Full Load Current Phase Fault Cunent by =4522° ena Ht gy #10 Por Unit Figure 1-18. Effects of Secondary Faults on Transformers Chapter 1 Page 1-37 Inoduction & BasicsLOCATING GROUND FAULT RELAYS IN LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEMS 138KV Direction of Flow || ‘of Fault Current rout Taos (ON THE PRIMARY SIDE OF THE TRANSFORWER — 11,000 Diectionst Faw Trnsiomer fA = at ot esuncurent are Sele CF rate ‘ner 60 or 8008) Seer 600 Set Pickup of Phase element of heey at 1§ tes the transformer FLA 15a = 624 wor Relay tap = —————=362 omps «00 (Choose Tap 4 -relay picks p at 640 & [ps0= 4 *(e0005)) Chapter 1 Page 1-38 Invoduction & Basiescoats || For a ground fault on the transformer secondary bushings a “oi lfault (secondary) 400 amps Will relay element C see it No. (why) Wil relay element 0 see it No (why) Wil relay element B see it No (why) trey element see t (taybe) ‘ete uit wil ont see 46 oss 4op* LJ = roams 138 Since the rlay is set to operate when the current reaches 640 amps Relay A wil not operate, and the full go on undetected “orever ‘The only way 1 detec is faut iso put the CT for the round relay between the nestrat and the groun Chapter 1 Page 139 Introduction & Basies“The some ground faut wil generate 40 amps 400 Wich produces — = 10 ampsinthe CT secondary (200) Urolay Eisset at 1 amps “The fou current wi be 10 mes the relay pickup Leaag a fast and dette operation Time! 4 10 Curent amp amps Chapter 1 Page 1-40 Invoduetion & BasiesCHAPTER 2 TRANSFORMER COMPONENTS ‘Chapter 2 Page 2-1 Transformer ComponentsINTRODUCTION Electrical energy is transmitted economically over long distances by high voltages, but low voltages are necessary for distribution so that electric circuits may be safely handied (Figure 2-1). The transformer is the electrical device that, by electromagnetic induction, allows electrical energy to be received at one voltage and delivered at another (higher or lower) voltage. One of the most important factors of electrical distribution system design is sizing the transformer that best fits the immediate demand load as well as being able to satisfy a reasonable expectation of future growth. When sizing a transformer for a particular application, the engineer must consider the following characteristics: kVA rating, single or three-phase voltage, frequency, indoor or outdoor service, voltage ratings, voltage taps, winding connections, type of cooling, basic impulse insulation level (BIL), efficiency, ‘grounding system, and miscellaneous transformer accessories, 13.600 Vols Generated (Generation Plant 230,000 Volts Transmission Tegrsmission Large ‘Dry-Type — Incustat aS Indust Distinction steiner Volags substation Transformer Redvct Dietibuton 34,500 Vols Distibuton Tysnat Bie = a ee cont 8 a 130s, rd Vlogs Revadion ca Popes Contr = ane Notee stil oar a oa, jure 2-1. Power Distribution System Chapter 2 Page 2-2 Transformer ComponentsTRANSFORMER MODEL A transformer operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two or more inductively coupled coils. Figure 2-2 shows the three basic paris of an ideal transformer: the primary winding, the secondary winding, and the core. Both windings are wound around the core. The primary winding receives its energy from the alternating current (ac) source, which creates an alternating magnetic flux (én) in the magnetic core. The core is designed to focus the alternating flux so that the flux passes through the secondary winding. This altemeting flux then produces a voltage on the secondary winding. Energy is transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding by electromagnetic induction. The amount of energy transferred depends on the design of the transformer. In a properly designed transformer, almost all of the eneray received from the ac source by the primary winding is transferred to the secondary winding. The output voltage depends on the relationship between the number of tums on the primary winding (Np) to the number of turns on the secondary winding (Ne) rma Secondary Curent Etrent bp os Hy ——7— Xy | | Prima Es Voltage | | €P Seggaaery | iy x. Hg \ ° “ | Seconda Primary. \dary Winding Winding Ip + Current in Primary Winding Ep - Voltage Applied to the Primary Winding Np - Number of Turns in the Primary Winding tg - Current in Secondary Winding Eg - Voltage Output for the Secondary Winding Ng - Number of Turns in the Secondary Winding Figure 2-2. Ideal Transformer Model Chapter 2 Page 2-3 ‘Transformer ComponentsPRIMARY AND SECONDARY WINDINGS Power can flow through any transformer with equal effectiveness from the low voltage to high voltage windings or from the high voltage to low voltage windings. The winding that nominally receives the input power is called the primary winding. The power output windings are called the secondary or tertiary windings. Note: The terms primary winding and high voltage winding are not equivalent. Example A: Referring to Figure 2-3, is the low voltage winding of the generator- transformer (T;) the primary winding or the secondary winding? Is the low voltage winding of the utility transformer (T2) the primary winding or the secondary winding? Generator Ustity (Source) 4.18 KV Bus Generator. ‘5000 kVA, 25MVA sty Transformer 36 36 Transformer va 1 13.8 kV Bus, Loads Loads Loads Loads Figure 2-3. Example A One-Line Diagram Answer: The low voltage winding of T; is called he generator transformer's primary winding and the low voltage winding of T» is called the utility source transformer's secondary winding, Chapter 2 Page 2-4 Transformer ComponentsPRIMARY AND SECONDA\ YY VOLTAGESICURI 7 a All electrical equipment must have voltage and current ratings, either directly indirectly, labeled on the device itself. These voltage or current ratings shaw the maximum voltages and currents that the electrical equipment can safely withstand (voltage) or carry (curent) without overheating or damaging the transforme: insulation. Power and distribution transformers are rated in kilovolt-amperes (kVA), which means thal definite vollage and current ratings (limits) have been assigned by the manufacturer, both to the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. This kVA rating is intended to indicate the maximum load that can be connected to its secondary circuit, which, as explained above, could be either its high or low voltage winding. The same kVA load rating also applies to the primary circuit, because it must take from the source the same power that the secondary circuit delivers to the load. The fact that the primary side KVA rating equals the secondary side kVA rating is called the conservation of power relationship, that is, power in (kVA) equals power out (kVAvu). Expressed as a formula, this relationship leads to the following equations: + Single-phase transformers: Note: All vollage and current quantities are phase quantities. + KVAin = KVAcut = KVA = kVp Ip = KVe x le + Three-phase transformers: Note: All vollage and current quantities are line quentities. = KVAin = KVAcut = KVA = V3 x KVp x Ip = V3 X V5 xX My Example B: Referring to Figure 2-3, whal are the current ratings of the primary and secondary windings of both three-phase transformers? Answer: 1. KVAi) = KVAeu = 5,000 KVA (T;) 2. Ins = 5000f V3 x 4.16) = 693.9 A(T) 3. Ieee = 5000/ V3 x 13.8) = 209.2 A(T.) 4. KVAin= KVAcus = 25,000 KVA (Tz) 5. Ips = 25000/( V3 x 69) = 209.2 A (T2) 6. Ieee = 25000/( V3 x 13.8) = 1045.9 A (To) Chapter 2 Page 25 ‘Transformer ComponentsRATIOS AND RATIO RELATIONSHIPS ‘The simple transformer circuit diagram that is shown in Figure 2-4 will be used to explain transformer ratios and relationships. a) aed 2 o | 3 ¢ D é 3 ( ! P Np 3 c Ns Es 3 C | 3 § | Hy oh 5 CNG xp Primary Side Secondary Side Figure 2-4. Simple Transformer Circuit Diagram Turns Ratio: The tums ratio of a transformer, which is identified by the symbol ‘a’, is defined as the ratio of the number of turns on the primary winding (N,) to the number of tums on the secondary winding (Ns). Voltage Ratio: The voltage ratio of a transformer (E,/E,), which also equals the turns ratio, is defined as the ratio of the primary voltage (E,) to the secondary voltage (E-). Ratio of Currents: The ratio of the currents (|p/l.) is equal to the inverse of the turns ratio (1/a) Volts-Per-Turn Relationship: The turns ratio of a transformer is directly Proportional to the voltage ratio of a transformer, as shown in the following formula: : Tums ratio = Np/Ne = voltage ratio = E,/E, =a where’ Np N. = the number of turns in the low voltage winding fhe number of turns in the high voltage winding E, = the voltage generated within the high voltage winding E, = the voltage generated within the low voltage winding Chapter 2 Page 26 ‘Transformer ComponentsRATIOS AND RATIO RELATIONSHIPS Rewriting the above formula relationships leads to the following formula, which states that the volts-per-lum ratio on the primary side of the transformer equals the volts-per-tum ratio on the secondary side of the transformer turn (secondary) volis-per-tumn (primary) = voils-pe JN No. Ampere-Turns Relationship: The turns ratio of a transformer is inversely proportional to the current ratio of a transformer, as shown in the following formula’ : Tums ratio = NplN = the reciprocal of the ratio of the currents = Iu/lp where: N,= the number of tums in the high voltage winding N= the number of tums in the low voltage winding |g the current flowing in the high voltage winding |= the current flowing in the low voltage winding Rewriting the above formula relationships leads to the following formula, which states that the number of ampere-tums on the primary side of the transformer equals the number of ampere-turns on the secondary side of the transformer. + ampere-turns (primary) = ampere-turns (secondary) Ip X Np= le x Ne Combined Relationships: Combining the volts-per-turn relationship with the ampere-turns relationship, it is easily seen that the primary and secondary current relationships are exactly the opposite of the primary and secondary voltage relationships. The following formula summarizes the combined relationships: ¢NpING= Epis = lly = a Chapter 2 Page 27 “Transformer Components.RATIOS AND RATIO RELATIONSHIPS Example C: What is the current rating of each winding of a 100 KVA, 2400/240 volt, single-phase distribution transformer (Figure 2-5)? +152? A107 coo f 2 | 2 8 | 2 > | 2 o 2400 V < > Ng=60 240 V / 20 ¢ i 5 co | 3 > | Ha O- S C - 'o Xp Primary Side Secondary Side Figure 2-5. Example C Transformer Diagram Answer: 1. |p=100/2.4 = 41.67 A 00).24 = 416.7 A Example D: Referring to Example C, and assuming that there are 60 turns on the secondary winding of the transformer, how many tums are on the primary winding of the transformer. Answer: 1. Els = Ny/Ne 2. Np = (EplEs) x Ne = (2400/240) x 60 = 600 turns Example E: Referring to Examples C and D, what is (1) the transformer’s voltage ratio/ turns ratio, and (2) the ratio of currents? Answer: 1. EplEs =Np/Ne = 2400/240 = 600/60 = 10:1 =a 2. Molle = 41.67/416.7 = 1:10 = 1a Chapter 2 Page 2-8 Transformer ComponentsTRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE The impedance of a transformer is @ measured paremeter that indicates the transformer’s ability to support a given secondary load with a prescribed primary voltage drop. The measured impedance includes the effects of the winding resistance, reactance, copper and core losses, and various other parameters. Ohmic Measurements: Figure 2-6 shows the test connection for measuring the impedance (Za) of @ transformer in ohms. Transformer impedance is measured by short circuiting the secondary winding and by applying @ low voltage to the primary winding until rated current (Iateaea)) iS circulating in the primary winding. The impedance is then calculated using the following formula: . Za = Vineasweinril ratectpr) Percent Measurements: The percent impedance (%Z) that is shown on 2 transformer nameplate is the impedance voltage drop of the transformer that is based on the self-cooled (OA) rating of the transformer. Figure 2-6 is also the same test connection that is used for measuring the percent impedance of a transformer. The manufacturer calculates the percent impedance by using the following formula . %Z = [Vmeacureatorif Veatectpri] X 100 “Transformer Unger Test Ht Rated Current (ha) ‘Short Circuit He 7 Ammeter (rated peimary curren} Voltmeter (impedence voliags do ‘Watimater (watts loss in Wanelomen) Figure 2-6. Transformer Short Circuit Test Circuit Chapter 2 Page 2-9 ‘Transformer Components‘TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE, The reactance of the transformer is derived from the impedance measurement and the resistance measurement is represented by the following formula: + Xq=(Z?-R%)"” = reflected equivalent reactance feflected equivalent impedance where: Zn = Vmessuesprifhateston) Ra = Wneasuredl” testo) = Feflected equivalent resistance 6076-5 @ IEC. 2000 -13- ‘Table 4 - Recognized minimum values of short-circuit impedance for transformers with two separate windings. ‘Shortcireult impedance at rated eutent Rated power ‘Minimum short-circut impedance — 2 —_ te 1250 50 te 2500 60 fe 6300 70 we 40000 x88 fe 23000 ie 2 190 000 Bs ‘aoove 100 000 226 NOTE 1 Values fr rated power areater then 100 000 KVA ave generally subjecied lo apvea ‘ment batwaen manufacture and purenaser NOTE 2_ in caso of single-phase urite comecied to for (ated poner apoles to tvee-phace Bank at. Chapter 2 Page 2-10 Transformer Components,COOLING SYSTEMS Energy losses in a transformer appear as heat in the core and coils. This heat must be dissipated without allowing the windings to reach a temperatur could cause deterioration of the insulation. Cooling Circuit: Cooling a transformer is required io conserve the life of the insulation, which is @ function of temperature and time. The heat that is generated in the core and coils must be transferred through the insulation to the surrounding air oF cooling fluid and then through the enclosure to the outside environment. This, thermal path (Figure 2-7) is similar to an electrical circuit that has resistances connected in series. - feedback I eat [ | — (eer! source h 7 Core! > }insulation! [Cooling Housing D}Radiators Kar Calls vt Y Medium v al > feedback Fens (a) Thermal Circuit feedback (b) Equivalent Electrical Circuit Figure 2-7. Transformer Cooling Circuit The more efficient (lower resistance) each step, the more heat that can be transferred from the core and coils. When designing a cooling system, the designer must consider the following parameters that affect this heal transfer + The insulation must be able to provide good dielectric and mechanical strength, but also be thin enough to allow for the fast transfer of heat. + The cooling medium (air or oil) must move past the heat source so that the heat may be quickly removed from the source. + The enclosure must be mechanically strong, but also thin enough to rapidly transfer heat through it. ‘Chapter 2 Page 2-11 Transformer Companenis,COOLING SYSTEMS + External devices such as fins and radiators may be added to speed up the transter of heat to the environment, + Pumps may be added to the external circuit to enhance flow in a liquid-flled transformer. + Fans may be attached to the radiators to cool the fluid, which will increase the flow of fluid through the radiators. + Pumps and fans are usually controlled by a feedback circuit that consists of thermal sensitive elements that are placed in the oil, air, and windings. Cooling Methods: The methods that are used by manufacturers to cool transformers vary depending on the transformer type, size, and application. The important principle is that the cooling medium efficiently transfer the heat from the core and coils to the outside air. The cooling medium for dry-type transformers is air, and in some cases gas. In liquid-filed transformers, the insulating dielectric fluid is used to transfer the heat. Figure 2-8 shows the flow of oil in a self-cooled (Class. OA) transformer and Figure 2-9 shows the various cooling methods for five types of cooling classes. Chapter 2 Page 2-12 Transformer Camponents, Bushings ZO I a BL BU | Direction of Transformer ae I I Cooling Radiators Figure 2-8. Self-Cooled (OA) Transformer ‘Chapter 2 Page 213COOLING SYSTEMS (b) AirFan Cooled Type AFA (c) Oil-Cooled Type OA —(d) Oil-Cooled With Fans Type FA Pump7 b---- soe (e) Oil-Filled With Pumps Type FOA Figure 2-9. Various Transformer Cooling Methods Chapter 2 Page 2-14 Transformer Components