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Polymers in Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems
Polymers in Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems
Polymers are
the backbone of
a transdermal
drug delivery
system.
Advances in
the field of
polymer
science have
paved the
way for transdermal delivery system designs
that have considerable flexibility. An
impressive amount of technical know-how
has been gained in this area of research.
This article summarizes the formulation
aspects of transdermal drug delivery
systems and emphasizes the physicochemical and mechanical properties of
various polymers being used in
commercially available transdermal drug
delivery systems. It is intended as a guide
for the selection of polymers for developing
such systems.
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Pharmaceutical Technology
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Polymers
Polymers are the backbone of a transdermal drug delivery system. Systems for transdermal delivery are fabricated as multilayered polymeric laminates in which a drug reservoir or a
drugpolymer matrix is sandwiched between two polymeric
layers: an outer impervious backing layer that prevents the loss
of drug through the backing surface and an inner polymeric
layer that functions as an adhesive and/or rate-controlling membrane. Transdermal drug delivery systems are broadly classified
into the following three types (1) (see Figure 1).
Reservoir systems. In this system, the drug reservoir is embedded between an impervious backing layer and a ratecontrolling membrane. The drug releases only through the
rate-controlling membrane, which can be microporous or nonporous. In the drug reservoir compartment, the drug can be
in the form of a solution, suspension, or gel or dispersed in a
solid polymer matrix. On the outer surface of the polymeric
membrane a thin layer of drug-compatible, hypoallergenic
adhesive polymer can be applied.
Matrix systems. Drug-in-adhesive system. The drug reservoir is
formed by dispersing the drug in an adhesive polymer and then
spreading the medicated polymer adhesive by solvent casting
or by melting the adhesive (in the case of hot-melt adhesives)
onto an impervious backing layer. On top of the reservoir, layers of unmedicated adhesive polymer are applied.
Matrix-dispersion system. The drug is dispersed homogeneously
in a hydrophilic or lipophilic polymer matrix. This drugcontaining polymer disk then is fixed onto an occlusive base
plate in a compartment fabricated from a drug-impermeable
backing layer. Instead of applying the adhesive on the face of
the drug reservoir, it is spread along the circumference to form
a strip of adhesive rim.
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Reservoir system
Matrix-dispersion
system
Peripheral adhesive
design
Backing layer
Rate controller
Adhesive layer
Microreservoir
system
Drug reservoir
Release liner
Occlusive baseplate
Microreservoir systems. This drug delivery system is a combination of reservoir and matrix-dispersion systems. The drug
reservoir is formed by first suspending the drug in an aqueous
solution of water-soluble polymer and then dispersing the solution homogeneously in a lipophilic polymer to form thousands of unleachable, microscopic spheres of drug reservoirs.
The thermodynamically unstable dispersion is stabilized quickly
by immediately cross-linking the polymer in situ.
Transdermal drug delivery technology represents one of the
most rapidly advancing areas of novel drug delivery. This
growth is catalyzed by developments in the field of polymer
science. This article focuses on the polymeric materials used
in transdermal delivery systems, with emphasis on the materials physicochemical and mechanical properties, and it seeks
to guide formulators in the selection of polymers. Polymers
are used in transdermal delivery systems in various ways, including as
matrix formers
rate-controlling membranes
pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs)
backing layers
release liners.
Polymers used in transdermal delivery systems should have
biocompatibility and chemical compatibility with the drug and
other components of the system such as penetration enhancers
and PSAs. They also should provide consistent, effective delivery of a drug throughout the products intended shelf life or
delivery period and have generally-recognized-as-safe status.
From an economic point of view, a delivery tool kit rather than
a single delivery tool is most effective (2).
Companies involved in the field of transdermal delivery concentrate on a few selective polymeric systems. For example, Alza
Corporation (Mountain View, CA) mainly concentrates on ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers or microporous polypropylene, and Searle Pharmacia (Barceloneta, PR) concentrates on
silicone rubber (3). A review of the marketed transdermal products and the formulations that are reported in various research
publications reveals an enormous diversity of polymers used
in the formulation, engineering, and manufacture of drug products (see Table I). Table II is a comprehensive list of all the polymers used for various purposes in commercially available transdermal delivery systems.
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Pharmaceutical Technology
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Matrix formers
Polymer selection and design must be considered when striving to meet the diverse criteria for the fabrication of effective
transdermal delivery systems. The main challenge is in the design of a polymer matrix, followed by optimization of the drugloaded matrix not only in terms of release properties, but also
with respect to its adhesioncohesion balance, physicochemical properties, and compatibility and stability with other components of the system as well as with skin (4).
A monolithic solid-state design often is preferred for passive
transdermal delivery systems because of manufacturing considerations and cosmetic appeal. Although polymeric matrices
are used for rate control, adhesion (e.g., a PSA), or encapsulation of a drug reservoir in transdermal delivery systems (reviewed in later sections of this article), discussion in this section is limited to polymers that have been used in the design of
matrices with or without rate control.
Cross-linked poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) networks. Biocompatibility of PEGs makes them the polymers of choice for numerous biomedical applications. Proteins can be delivered by PEGs
cross-linked with tris(6-isocyanatohexyl) isocyanurate by means
of a urethaneallophanate bond to obtain polymer networks
capable of swelling in phosphate-buffered saline or ethanol and
forming gels. These systems have been shown to release the
solutes in a biphasic manner (5).
Acrylic-acid matrices. Acrylic-acid matrices with plasticizers
have been used to make drugpolymer matrix films for transdermal delivery systems. Some of the polymers that have been
reported are Eudragit RL PM, Eudragit S-100, Eudragit RS PM,
and Eudragit E-100 (Rhm America, Piscataway, NJ) (6). Eudragit NE-40D (a copolymer of ethyl acrylate and methyl
methacrylate), a nonadhesive hydrophobic polymer, also has
been used as a matrix former (7). The release rates of drugs
from these matrix systems are more closely described by the
square-root-of-time model.
Ethyl cellulose (EC) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). EC and PVP
matrix films with 30% dibutyl phthalate as a plasticizer have
been fabricated to deliver diltiazem hydrochloride and indomethacin. The addition of hydrophilic components such as
PVP to an insoluble film former such as ethyl cellulose tends to
enhance its release-rate constants. This outcome can be attributed to the leaching of the soluble component, which leads to
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Table I: Composition of transdermal delivery systems reported in the literature. (Continued on page 67)
S.No. Polymer
1
Ethyl cellulose T-50
2
BIO PSA HighTack 7-4301
BIO PSA MediumTack 7-4201
5
6
7
CoTran9722
Soybean lecithin (Epikuron 200)
Cariflex TR-1107
10
Acrylic adhesives
11
Polyisobutylene solutions
(Vistanex LM-MH,
Vistanex MML-100)
Acrylic adhesives
3
4
12
Polyisobutylene solutions
(Vistanex LM-MH,
Vistanex MML-100)
Silicone PSA
Silicone oil
EVA
Polyisobutylene
ScotchPak 1006
Manufacturer
Sigma
Dow Corning
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Type of System
Matrix
Adhesive-in-matrix
system. For matrix and
backing side layer.
Backing
Release liner
Gel
Matrix
44
45
Matrix
Gel
Drug in adhesive
46
47
48
Scopolamine,
broxaterol
Dihydro etorphine
Gel matrices
13
Drug in adhesive
49
Ketoprofen
Drug in adhesive
50
Drug in adhesive
51
Reservoir
Membrane
Adhesive
Backing film
52
3M
3M
Rhm, Germany
Dow Corning
Neoplast Co.,
Thailand
3M
Lucas Meyer,
Germany
Shell Chemical Co.,
Japan
National Starch
and Chemical Co.
Exxon Chemical Co.
Hydrocortisone
Coumarin
Melilot dry extract
L-Timolol maleate
L-Dopa
Nicotine
National Starch
Tacrine
and Chemical Co.
Exxon Chemical Co.
Dow Corning
Adhesive Research
3M
the formation of pores and thus a decrease in the mean diffusion path length of drug molecules to release into the dissolution medium. The result is higher dissolution rates. Substances
such as PVP act as antinucleating agents that retard the crystallization of a drug. Thus they play a significant role in improving the solubility of a drug in the matrix by sustaining the drug
in an amorphous form so that it undergoes rapid solubilization
by penetration of the dissolution medium (8).
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). HPMC, a hydrophilic
swellable polymer widely used in oral controlled drug delivery,
also has been explored as a matrix former in the design of
patches of propranolol hydrochloride. HPMC has been shown
to yield clear films because of the adequate solubility of the drug
in the polymer. Matrices of HPMC without rate-controlling
membranes exhibited a burst effect during dissolution testing
because the polymer was hydrated easily and swelled, leading
to the fast release of the drug (9).
Organogels. Some nonionic surfactants such as sorbitane
monostearate, lecithin, and Tween tend to associate into reverse
micelles (10). These surfactants in an organic solvent, upon the
66
Drug
Isosorbide dinitrate
Trimegestone
Arecoline
Reference
41
42,43
15
16
17
18
19
20
H x
O y
C
CH3
Manufacturer
Mitsubishi Petrochem Co., Japan
Wako Purechem.
Ind., Japan
Polyscience
Drug
PGE
Type of System
Drug-in-adhesive
matrix
Reference
53
Cytarabine, ara-ADA
54
Matrix
Matrix
Matrix
55
56
Drug in adhesive
53
Matrix
Membranecontrolled
reservoir system
7
57
Colorcon, UK
Propranolol
UCB, Belgium
Aldrich, France
Dow Corning
Nitroglycerine
Monsanto
Fentanyl
Dow Corning
Exxon Chemical Co.
Mitsubishi PetroAminopyrene,
chem Co., Japan
Ketoprofen,
Wako Purechem.
Lidocaine
Ind., Japan
Exxon Chemical Co.
Dow Corning
Rhm, Germany
hydrophobic and
hydrophilic drugs
can be incorporated into them.
Oil-soluble drugs
are miscible with
the lecithin phase,
and water-soluble
drugs are miscible
with the aqueous
phase.
Rate-controlling
membranes
Miconazole
Propranolol
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67
Drug Reservoir
Drug, alcohol,
glyceryl monooleate
methyl laurate
gelled with acrylic
acid copolymer
Clonidine, mineral
oil, polyisobutylene
and colloidal silicon
dioxide
Estraderm
(estradiol)
Alza/CibaGeigy
Habitrol
(nicotine)
Novartis
Nitrodisc
(nitroglycerin)
Searle
Nitro-Dur-I
(nitroglycerin)
Key Pharma
Reservoir
Drug in
adhesive
Monolithic
microreservoir
Drug in
adhesive
Prostep
Reservoir
(nicotine)
Lederle
Testoderm TTS Reservoir
(testosterone)
Alza
TransdermReservoir
Nitro
(nitroglycerin)
Alza/Ciba-Geigy
TransdermReservoir
Scop
(scopolamine)
Alza/Ciba-Geigy
Vivelle
Drug in
(estradiol)
adhesive
Noven/Novartis
68
Multilayered PIB
adhesive film
Pharmaceutical Technology
MAY 2002
Hydrogel from
copolymer of PVP
PVA, glycerol as
plasticizer
Nicotine in
carrageenan gel
Drug and alcohol
gelled with hydroxypropyl cellulose
Drug adsorbed on
lactose, colloidal
silica, and silicone oil
Scopolamine, light
mineral oil, and
polyisobutylene
Backing
Metallized
polyester/
ethylenemethacrylic acid
copolymer/EVA
Pigmented
polyester film
Membrane
Polyethylene
microporous
membrane
Adhesive
Peripheral acrylic
adhesive
Release Liner
Siliconecoated
polyester
Microporous
polypropylene
film
Mineral oil,
polyisobutylene,
and colloidal
silicon dioxide
Polyester
Polyethylene
film
Acrylate
adhesive
matrix
Poly foil
PIB
Siliconized or
fluoropolymercoated polyester film
Silicone foil
Polypropylene
Acrylatevinylacetate
copolymer and
poly(butyl butane)
Polyester
polyethylene
composite
EVA
copolymer
with 5% vinyl
acetate
Aluminized
plastic backing
film
Foil
polyethylene
combination
Paperfoil
combination
Aluminized
and siliconized
polyethylene
terephthalate
foil
Siliconized
polyethylene
terephthalate
Cross-linked
silicone rubber
Paperfoil
combination
Acrylic adhesive
Paper
polyethylene
foil pouch
Low-density
polyethylene
Polyethylene
Acrylate-based
ring adhesive
Polyester/EVA
copolymer
Flesh-colored
polyfoil
Siliconecoated
polyester
EVA copolymer Silicone adhesive Fluorocarbon
polyester film
Aluminized
polyester film
Microporous
polypropylene
EVA copolymer
film and
polyurethane film
Mineral oil,
polyisobutylene
Siliconized
polyester
PIB, EVA
copolymer
Polyester
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Pharmaceutical Technology
MAY 2002
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CH3
CH2
CH3
BF3
CH2
CH3
CH3
Isobutylene
Polyisobutylene
H
H2C
COR
O
Acrylic ester
COOR n
Polyacrylate
(see Figure 4). In its unstrained state, the polymer is in an amorphous state (25), and the Tg of the polymer is 70 C (26).
The physical properties of the polymer change gradually with
increasing molecular weight. Low molecular weight polymers
are viscous liquids. With increasing molecular weight, the liquids become more viscous, then change to balsam-like sticky
masses and finally form elastomeric solids. PIB PSAs usually
comprise a mixture of high molecular weight and low molecular weight fractions. High molecular weight PIB has a viscosity
average molecular weight between 450,000 and 2,100,000, and
low molecular weight PIB has an average molecular weight between 1000 and 450,000. PIB has the chemical properties of
a saturated hydrocarbon. It is readily soluble in nonpolar liquids. Cyclohexane is an excellent solvent, benzene is a moderate solvent, and dioxane is a nonsolvent for PIB polymers (27).
Un-cross-linked polymers exhibit a high degree of tack or
self-adhesion. PIB polymers have a very low fractional free volume of 0.026 as compared with 0.071 for poly(dimethylsiloxane), for example. This characteristic together with sluggish
chain motility results in a low diffusion coefficient. However,
the final properties of the polymer blend are determined by
compounding and subsequent vulcanization or cross-linking.
Various fillers, processing aids, plasticizers, tackifiers, cure systems, and antidegradants are incorporated into the final blend.
Of all these compounding ingredients, fillers most significantly influence stressstrain and dynamic properties. Carbon
black, the most frequently used reinforcing filler by virtue of its
high surface area, interacts with the surface of polymer chains
and alters chain dynamics, thus enhancing tensile properties
and abrasion resistance. Other fillers that are used are talc and
calcined clay. Colloidal silicon dioxide is used as a filler in
clonidine patches (Catapres-TTS). Nonreinforcing fillers such
as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide are added to reduce
viscosity and cost. Fillers also are used to enhance the drug re72
Pharmaceutical Technology
MAY 2002
lease from the matrix. Titanium dioxide has been used in the
EVA matrix to reduce the amount of naloxone contained in the
depleted systems (28), and PVP has been used to enhance the
release of formoterol from acrylic PSAs (29). Petroleum-based
oils, butyl polybutenes, paraffin waxes, and low molecular weight
polyethylene can be used as plasticizers. Alkyl adipates and sebacates also are used to reduce the Tg value and improve the
low-temperature properties. Various resins with a Tg value
greater than that of the elastomer act as tackifiers.
Polyacrylates. Acrylic esters are represented by the general formula CH2CHCOOR. The nature of the R group determines
the properties of each ester and the polymer it forms (see Figure 5). Polymers of this class are amorphous and are distinguished by their water-clear color in solution and stability toward aging. As is typical of polymer systems, the mechanical
properties of acrylic polymers improve as the molecular weight
increases. However, beyond a critical molecular weight, which
is 1 103 to 2 103 for amorphous polymers, the improvement is slight and levels off asymptotically (30).
The Tg value of a copolymer can be altered by the copolymerization of two or more polymers. Most acrylic polymers
have a very low Tg value (see Table III); therefore, in copolymer
they tend to soften and flexibilize the overall composition. The
approximate Tg value for copolymers can be calculated from
the weight fraction of each monomer (W1) and the Tg of each
homopolymer as shown in the following equation (31):
1
Tg
copolymer
W1
W2
Tg
Tg
1
CH3
H3C
Si
CH3
Si
HO
Si
CH3
O
H3C
CH3
CH3
Si
CH3 n
Si
CH3
Silicate resin
Condensation
CH3
Si
CH3
O
H
Si
Si
CH3
CH3
O
O
H3C
Si
CH3
Si
CH3
CH3
O
n
Si
OH
CH3
CH3 n
CH3
Silicone PSA
Pharmaceutical Technology
O
n
Si
CH3
Polydimethylsiloxane
CH3
H3C
CH3
MAY 2002
OH
Polymer
Methyl acrylate
Ethyl acrylate
Propyl acrylate
Isopropyl acrylate
n-Butyl acrylate
Hexyl acrylate
Heptyl acrylate
2-Ethylhexyl acrylate
2-Ethylbutyl acrylate
Dodecyl acrylate
Hexadecyl acrylate
Cyclohexyl acrylate
Tg (C)
6
24
45
3
50
57
60
65
50
30
35
16
chemical resistance often may lead to stiffness and high occlusivity to moisture vapor and air, causing patches to lift and
possibly irritate the skin during long-term wear. The most comfortable backing may be the one that exhibits the lowest modulus or high flexibility, good oxygen transmission, and a high
moisture-vapor transmission rate (see Table V) (36).
In a novel modification to the conventional design, a patch
was fabricated in which the backing itself acted as a reservoir
for the drug. The upper internal portion of the drug reservoir
infiltrated the porous backing and became solidified therein
after being applied so that the reservoir and the backing were
unified. This modification enabled the backing itself to act as
a storage location for the medication-containing reservoir (37).
Polymer
Polyurethane
film
EVA
Oxygen
Transmission
MVTR
(cm3/m2/24 h) (g/m2/24 h)
700
PE
4.6
52.8
26.4
9.4
7.9
450
0.3
4.6
0.3
2950
3570
PVC foam
Polyolefin foam
PE, Al vapor
coat, PET, EVA
PE, Al vapor
coat, PET
PE, PET
laminate
PET, EVA
laminate
HighPET side
80
80
15.5
17
HighPET side
HighPET side
Backing layer
When designing a backing layer, the developer must give chemical resistance of the material foremost importance. Excipient
compatibility also must be seriously considered because the
prolonged contact between the backing layer and the excipients may cause the additives to leach out of the backing layer
or may lead to diffusion of excipients, drug, or penetration enhancer through the layer. However, an overemphasis on the
MAY 2002
High
12
Pharmaceutical Technology
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
HighPET side
100
PE Polyethylene
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate
MVTR Moisture-vapor transmission rate
PP Polypropylene
PU Polyurethane
PET Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (polyester)
*http://www.3M.com
76
Enhancer
Resistance
Low
Release liner
During storage the patch is covered by
a protective liner that is removed and
discharged immediately before the application of the patch to the skin. It is
therefore regarded as a part of the primary packaging material rather than a
part of the dosage form delivering the
active principle (38). However, because
the liner is in intimate contact with the
delivery system, it should comply with
specific requirements regarding the
chemical inertness and permeation to
the drug, penetration enhancer, and
water. In case cross-linking is induced
between the adhesive and the release
liner, the force required to remove the
liner will be unacceptably high (23). 3M,
for example, manufactures release liners made of fluoro polymers (Scotchpak 1022 and Scotchpak 9742, 3M Drug
Delivery Systems, St. Paul, MN).
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Mr. Sunil T. Narisetty
for his valuable suggestions in the
preparation of this article. Vinod Nair
is supported by a senior research fellowship from the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India.
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Before submitting a completed work, authors are urged to
review manuscripts for clarity of expression, details of grammar, and typographical accuracy. Acronyms and abbreviations
should be defined. The author is responsible for all statements
in his or her work. All accepted manuscripts are subject to copy
editing. Although rejected manuscripts are returned to the author, Pharmaceutical Technology is not responsible for the safety
of manuscripts, artwork, or photographs.
Copyright. Manuscripts are reviewed with the understanding
that they are the authors original work, they have not been
published previously, and they are not under consideration for
publication elsewhere, including on the Internet. Accepted
manuscripts become the property of Pharmaceutical Technology and may not be published elsewhere without written permission from Pharmaceutical Technology. If any illustrations or
figures in a manuscript have been published elsewhere, the author is responsible for obtaining permission to republish.
Manuscripts may be submitted in the following ways:
via e-mail to Michael MacRae, editorial director (mmacrae@
advanstar.com)
via postal mail on a Zip disk or CD.
Preparing the document. The text file should be formatted in
text-only code or Microsoft Word. Disks should be labeled with
the file name and the name of the word processing, graphics,
and/or spreadsheet programs used. Authors should furnish
two hard copies of the manuscript. A length of 1020 pages
(double-spaced copy) is preferred.
Illustrations may be in color or black and white. Color photos
should be enclosed with the article in the form of a transparency
or slide. TIFF (Mac), TIF (PC), JPEG, and EPS/EPSF (Mac or
PC) files also are acceptable but must have a minimum resolution of 300 dpi.
If you have questions about the submission of your manuscript, feel free to contact the editor. Send manuscripts to
Pharmaceutical Technology
MAY 2002
www.phar mtech.com