Air Compressors

Graph of Pressure against volume in a reciprocating

compressor
Volumetric efficiency Vh = Actual suction volume Vx/
Theoretical suction volume Vs

For greater efficiency air compression should be isothermal as this requires the
minimum work input. In practice Isothermal compression is not possible, an ideal
Isothermal cycle requires sufficient time to allow all the required heat to be
transferred out of the cylinder, practicality dictates that the piston must have a
relatively high speed to give a reasonable output,
Cylinder cooling on a single stage compressor gives better efficiency but there is a
limitation in the surface area to cylinder volume that can be used for cooling effect,
but multistage compressors with an efficient extended surface interstage cooler
gives cycle improved compression efficiency better approaching that of the

isothermal. In theory the greater the number of stages the closer the curve will
approach the ideal isothermal compression curve, however there is an increase in
cost, complexity, and the law of diminishing returns limit the number.
Compression in stages has the following advantages;
The compression ratio at each stage is lower and so the final temperature is
lower. This reduces problems with lubrication
. The machine is smaller and better balanced
water can be drained off at each stage
Compression better approaches the ideal isothermal

It is important that the compressor clearance volume is kept small as possible in

order to improve overall volumetric efficiency as the air trapped in this space must
expand to below suction pressure before new air can enter, this is an effective loss
of stroke.
A clearance is required in order to prevent the piston striking the cylinder cover
when starting or stopping off load. The clearance volume is sometimes referred to
as the 'Bump Clearance'.

Crankcase lubrication
Lubrication of the crankcase in a compressor does not pose any specific problems
and normally consist of splash lubrication with pressurised oil being fed to shell
bearings. Where drip cylinder lubrication is used, this should be kept to a minimum
conducive with liner wear. A standard mineral oil similar to that used in the main
engine may be used, although due to carbon deposits, higher quality oils are
generally used with the most effective being specifically designed synthetics which
have allow a considerable reduction in maintenance but are costly.
Mineral oils contain a blend of lighter elements such as paraffin's, and heavier
elements such as asphaltenes. During compression the lighter elements are
vaporised leaving the heavy ends, these coat the piston rings and discharge valves
in combination with oxidised oil deposits. These deposits also coat passage ways
and coolers resulting in higher interstage air temperatures. Deposits on discharge
valves cause them to become sticky and leak resulting in hot air being drawn back
into the cylinder for recompression. This increases the temperature and hence
causes greater oxidation and deposits, and so the condition deteriorates with
increasing rapidity.
Temperature can become very high, this may result in oily deposits at the discharge
valves carbonising. Eventually this carbon could glow red and cause detonation. It
is more likely, however, that oily deposits will be carried over to the air receiver and
air start manifold to be ignited by blowpast at the cylinder air start valve.

Deposits at piston rings cause leakage allowing oil to enter the cylinder from the
crankcase thus increasing the danger it is essential that crankcase lubrication be
kept to a minimum compatible with an acceptable wear rate. Regular maintenance
will minimise oily deposits build up and hence the risk of explosion

Materials and design of a reciprocating compressor

The compressor casing, cylinder covers and piston rings are generally of cast iron.
Pistons may be of cast iron, steel of aluminium. Aluminium being the preferred
material for use on the LP piston due to its larger diameter. Valves are usually made
so that parts can be interchanged between the suction and discharge valves. Seats
are of mild steel with small diameter air passages to prevent the fragments of
broken valve plate from entering the cylinder. Valve plates are of vanadium steel
heat treated and ground to provided the required hardness and surface finish.
Springs should be arranged such that they lift and seat squarely. Uneven spring
force or deposits on the seat cause valves to bend resulting in fatigue cracking.

For compressors designed for starting air requirements a water jacket relief valve is
fitted.

Rotary Compressor

The rotary compressor may be of the impeller type similar to that used in the
turbocharger , scroll, twin rotating lobes or of the sliding vane type similar to the
one shown above. In practice there would be several more vanes than shown.
Rotary compressors are capable of handling large quantities of low pressure air
much more efficiently than a reciprocating compressor. In order to produce
increased pressures it is possible to stage rotary compressors but leakage problems
increase at higher pressures as well as stress on the vanes.
The sliding vane compressor consists of a slotted rotor with its axis offset from that
of the cylindrical casing. Vanes fit in the slots and have contact with the casing
On the suction side the space contained between the casing, the rotor and an
adjacent pair of vanes is gradually increasing allowing air to be drawn in.
On the compression side this same space is gradually reduced causing the pressure
increase. When the leading vane uncovers the discharge port air will flow to outlet.
Larger compressors of this type are water-cooled, smaller compressors tend to be
air cooled.
The main problems related with sliding vane compressors concern wear at the vane
tips and sealing of the ends

Rotary/reciprocating Compressor

Rotary compressors in general do not require internal lubrication but they are not
suitable alone for providing air at a pressure for starting duties. They can, however,
be linked to reciprocating stages to produce a hybrid compressor.
The compressor is lighter, more compact and better balanced than an equivalent all
reciprocating unit. In basic terms the rotary first stage supplies air to the
reciprocating second and subsequent stages. All stages being driven by the same
shaft

Safety Valve

Materials
Cast iron-Casing, Liners, Pistons( the LP piston is sometimes made from an
aluminium alloy, Cylinder covers Steel- Crankshaft, Conrods, Pistons, Valve seats
Vanadium Steel- Valve plates

Starting air compressor circuit

Starting and stopping sequence is adjustable, the magnetic valves are open when
the compressor is stopped so any residual pressure is blown off. On starting the
magnetic valve are sometimes delayed to close so as to allow the compressor
motor to reach full speed before the compressor is loaded up.
The non-return valves prevent HP air leaking back from the receiver on which the
filling is also of the non return type.

Calculation of required cylinder compression for a multistage

reciprocating compressor
r = stage pressure ratio
R = compression pressure ratio
for a two stage
r = R1/2
for a three stage
r = R1/3
for example, a 3 stage compressor requiring a final pressure of 64bar would have
the following interstage pressures 1st stage 1bar compressed to 4bar
2nd stage 4bar compressed to 16bar
3rd stage 16bar compressed to 64bar
It would appear that most of the work is being carried out in the final stage, this is
untrue as with the increase in pressure is a complimentary reduction in volume, if
the temperature conditions remain the same then work will be equally divided
between the stages.
By reducing the suction pressure, the cylinder is required to do more work on the
air before the discharge valve opens. This means that the air will be delivered at a
higher pressure. The higher temperature can lead to problems with the cylinder
lubrication as well as a drop in efficiency as well as carbonising of the oil and

increased deposits on the valves and piston rings and interstage passages. In the
extreme it can lead to seizure and possible diesel detonation of the oil laden air.
The reduction in pressure at the suction can be due to a partially blocked suction
filter or partially choked suction valve. The lower pressure conditions in the cylinder
at the start of compression can cause oil laden air to be drawn from the crankcase
up the liner. This oil can lead to increased deposits in the compressor as well as
further downstream in the distribution system
(P1.V1)/ T1 = (P2. V2)/T2
and
(P1/P2).(T2/T1) = (V2/V1)
P1.V1g = P2.V2g
and
P1/P2 = V2g/V1g From these we get;
T2 = T1. (P2/P1) (g -1)/g
g = 1.4
and if we take for and example
P1 = 0.4 bar
P2 = 1 bar
Pf = 5 bar
Tinitial = 300 K we end with final temperatures for the two compression's of
T1= 617 K and T2 = 475 K
from the graph it can be clearly seen that losses due to the bump clearance has
increased and the period of constant pressure delivery has been reduced.

Coolers
Plain Tube-easy to clean
-very effective due to large surface area of large number small diameter

tubes

-plugging of failed tube allos cooler to continue in service with little loss in
efficiency
-must allow for thermal expansion by having one tube plate floating
'U' tube-suitable for higher pressures than plain tube
-self compensating for thermal expansion
-efficient due to large number small diameter tubes
-failed tubes may be plugged
-more expensive than plain tube and diificult to clean
Coil tube
-self compensating for expansion
-suitable for high pressures
-difficult to clean
-inefficient due to large tube diameter
- not easy to plug
-expensive