24 Hoa DC DH HUE

I HC HU
TRUNG TM GING DY V THC HNH C BN

B MN HA
BI GING
HA HC I CNG
(Dnh cho sinh vin khng chuyn ngnh ha)
ThS. NGUYN PH HUYN CHU

ThS. NGUYN TH MINH MINH
ThS. TRN TH HA
Hu 2006
http://hhud.tvu.edu.vn
BI M U
I.
i tng nghin cu
Ho hc l ngnh khoa hc t nhin, nghin cu v thnh phn cu to v tnh cht ca cc

cht v cc qu trnh bin i t cht ny sang cht khc.
Ho hc lin quan n hu ht cc lnh vc ca i sng con ngi. Ha hc cung cp
nhng kin thc c bn cho nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau.
V d: ho hc mi trng, ho thc phm, ho dc, ho hc nng nghip, ho hc vt
liu, ho a cht, ho sinh hc
V vy ho hc c vai tr rt ln i vi nn kinh t quc dn. V rt nhiu ngnh, nhiu
lnh vc cng nng nghip u lin quan n ho hc. Mt khc vic nm vng nhng kin thc v
cc qu trnh ho hc, cc yu t nh hng n cc qu trnh trong cc lnh vc sn xut, sinh
hc s gip cho con ngi c nhng tc ng tch cc theo hng c li cho nhng mc tiu m
cc nh khoa hc cn t c.
Do vic nm vng nhng kin thc c bn v ho hc l rt cn thit. Vi nhng kin
thc ny ngi ta c th s dng phc v tt cho cng vic chuyn mn ca mnh.
II. Vai tr v nhim v ca mn ho i cng

Cung cp mt cch c h thng kin thc c bn v cu to cc cht ho hc, v s tng
tc v cch thc vn ng ca chng trong t nhin.
Gip cho sinh vin nm c mt s quy lut v s vn ng ca cc cht. D on kh
nng, chiu hng v gii hn ca cc qu trnh ho hc, nhng hin tng km theo cng nh cc
yu t thc y hoc km hm cc qu trnh .
Tng bc gip sinh vin lm quen vi cc thao tc thc hnh c bn, cc cng vic trong
phng th nghim, tp s dng cc dng c, ho cht, tp ghi chp v x l cc d liu thu c khi
lm th nghim.
2
CHNG I
NHNG KHI NIM V NH LUT C BN

CA HO HC
I. Nhng khi nim c bn
1. Khi nim nguyn t - phn t
Cc cht ho hc trong t nhin rt phong ph, gm hng ngn, hng vn cc cht v c,
hu c. Cc cht ny c to nn do s kt hp ca hn 90 nguyn t bn. Mi nguyn t c
c trng bng s tn ti ca hng triu nguyn t ging ht nhau v mt ho hc.
1.1. Nguyn t ho hc
L khi nim c trng cho mi loi nguyn t c in tch ht nhn xc nh, biu th bng
nhng k hiu ho hc ring.
1.2. Nguyn t
L phn t nh nht ca mt nguyn t ho hc, tham gia vo thnh phn phn t ca cc
n cht v hp cht.
V d: H, O, Na
1.3. Phn t
L phn t nh nht ca mt cht, c kh nng tn ti c lp v c y tnh cht ho
hc ca cht .
V d: H2, H2O, Na
2. Khi nim nguyn t khi, phn t khi
- Nguyn t khi l khi lng ca mt nguyn t tnh theo n v C.
V d: Nguyn t khi ca Hydr = 1 n v C
Nguyn t khi ca Oxi = 8 n v C
- Phn t khi l khi lng ca mt phn t tnh theo n v C.
V d: Phn t khi ca HCl = 36,5 n v C
3. Khi nim nguyn t gam, phn t gam, ion gam
3.1. Nguyn t gam
L khi lng ca mt mol nguyn t tnh bng gam (nguyn t gam v nguyn t khi c
cng tr s nhng khc n v).
V d: Oxi c nguyn t khi = 16 .v C
nguyn t gam = 16g
3.2. Phn t gam:
L khi lng ca mt mol phn t tnh bng gam
V d: H2SO4 c phn t khi = 98 .v C
phn t gam = 98g
(Phn t khi v phn t gam c cng tr s nhng khc n v)
3
4. K hiu ho hc - Cng thc ho hc
4.1. K hiu ho hc
Mi nguyn t c biu din bng mt k hiu gi l k hiu ho hc
V d: Na, O, Ne, Ar
4.2. Cng thc ho hc
Mi cht ho hc c biu th bng mt cng thc
- Cng thc phn t: biu th thnh phn nh tnh v nh lng ca cc cht.
V d: H2O, NaCl, KMnO4
- Cng thc cu to: biu din th t kt hp ca cc nguyn t trong phn t.
Ru: CH3 - CH2 - OH
V d: C2H6O
Ete : CH3 - O - CH3
5. n cht - Hp cht - Dng th hnh ca mt nguyn t
5.1. n cht
L cht m phn t ca n ch gm cc nguyn t ca mt nguyn tt lin kt vi nhau.
V d: lu hunh, cacbon, hidr
5.2. Hp cht
L cht m phn t ca n gm nhng nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc loi lin kt vi
nhau.
V d: NaCl, H2O, KMnO4
5.3. Dng th hnh ca mt nguyn t
L nhng dng n cht khc nhau ca cng mt nguyn t ho hc.
V d: xi v zn
Than ch, kim cng, than v nh hnh
6. Nguyn cht - Tp cht - cht tinh khit
- Nguyn cht : L cht m khi trong cht khng ln bt k mt cht no khc.
V d: nc nguyn cht, ng nguyn cht
- Tp cht: l mt lng nh cc cht b ln vo mt cht khc.
V d: vng 99,9 ngha l trong 100g vng c 0,1 g cc tp cht Ag, Cu
Trong khoa hc chnh xc hn ngi ta dng khi nim cht tinh khit, siu tinh khit.
- Cht tinh khit: l cht ho hc khng ln cc cht khc.
Thc t kh c cht t tinh khit 100%.
Nu trong mt cht m lng cht cng t ta ni n c tinh khit cng cao.
Trong nghin cu tu theo yu cu, ngi ta c th dng cc loi ho cht c tinh khit
khc nhau.
Ngi ta thng phn thnh:
- Ho cht tinh khit

- Ho cht k thut
(lng cht l trong cht chnh c mt gii hn no )
4
7. Phng trnh ho hc
biu din s tng tc gia cc cht ngi ta dng phng trnh ho hc.
V d: NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
Qua phng trnh trn ta thy:
- Tng khi lng cc cht tham gia phn ng bng tng khi lng ca cc cht to thnh
sau phn ng.
- Tng s nguyn t ca cc nguyn t 2 v bng nhau.
II. Cc nh lut c bn ca ho hc
1. nh lut bo ton khi lng (Lomonossov 1756)
- nh lut: Khi lng ca cc cht tham gia phn ng bng khi lng ca cc cht to
thnh sau phn ng.
- ng dng: - Dng cn bng cc phng trnh phn ng
- Tnh khi lng cc cht tham gia v to thnh sau phn ng.
2. nh lut thnh phn khng i (Dalton - 1799)
nh lut: l mt hp cht ho hc d c iu ch bng cch no th bao gi cng c
thnh phn khng i.
V d:
Nc d iu ch bng nhiu cch khc nhau nh t hidr v xi trong khng kh, thc hin
phn ng gia mt axit v mt baz, t cht hydrcacbon cng lun lun u cha hydr v
xi theo t l khi lng hydr v xi 1:8.
3. Phng trnh trng thi kh l tng
Nhng nghin cu v tnh cht ca cc cht kh cho thy rng nhit khng qu thp v
p sut khng qu cao (so vi nhit v p sut thng), phn ln cc kh u tun theo mt h
thc gi l phng trnh trng thi kh l tng.
Trong :
PV = nRT
P: p sut cht kh
V: th tch cht kh
n: s mol kh
T: 0K (T = t0 + 273)
R: hng s kh
(Khi P tnh bng atm, V tnh bng lt th R = 0,082lt atm/mol )

(Khi P tnh bng mmHg, V tnh bng ml th R = 62400ml mmHg/mol )
ng dng:
m
m
mRT
PV =
RT M =
M
M
PV
V vy nh lut ny c ng dng xc nh phn t gam ca cc cht kh bng thc
nghim.
Ta bit n =
5
4. nh lut Avgadr
- nh lut:
cng mt iu kin nht nh v nhit v p sut, nhng th tch bng nhau ca cc
cht kh u cha cng mt s phn t.
T iu kin chun (.v phn ng xy ra gia cc cht kh) ta c " iu kin chun
0
(O C, 1 atm), mt mol ca bt k mt cht kh no cng u chim mt th tch bng nhau v bng
22,4lt".
- ng dng:
T cng thc: m = V.D
Nu D l khi lng ring ca cht kh iu kin chun ta c:
M = 22,4.D
T ta c th xc nh phn t gam ca cht kh khi bit D ca cht cht iu kin
chun.
5. nh lut ng lng
5.1. ng lng ca mt nguyn t
Trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc nguyn t kt hp vi nhau theo nhng t l xc nh gi
l t l kt hp hay ng lng ca chng.
Vy "ng lng ca mt nguyn t l s phn khi lng ca nguyn tt c th tc
dng hoc thay th va vi mt phn khi lng hydr hoc 8 phn khi lng xi .
ng lng k hiu l .
V d:
HCl c Cl = 35,5
v H = 1
ng lng ca mt nguyn t thc cht l s phn khi lng ca nguyn t ng vi
mt n v ho tr m n tham gia phn ng.
A
=
n
Trong :
A: khi lng mol nguyn t
: ng lng ca nguyn t
n : ho tr ca nguyn t
* Ch :
V ho tr ca mt nguyn t c th thay i nn ng lng ca n cng thay i.
V d:
ng lng ca C trong CO l C = 12/2 = 6
ng lng ca C trong CO2 l cC = 12/4 = 3
i vi cc nguyn t c ho tr khng i th ng lng cng khng i.
- ng lng gam ca mt nguyn t l khi lng ca nguyn t tnh ra gam ng
lng ca nguyn t .
5.2. ng lng ca mt hp cht
ng lng ca mt hp cht l s phn khi lng ca cht tc dng va vi mt
ng lng ca mt nguyn t hay mt hp cht khc bt k.
6
ng lng ca mt hp cht thng c tnh theo cng thc:
M
=
n
Trong : M: khi lng mol phn t ca hp cht
- Trong phn ng trao i
n:
- s ion H+ m mt phn t axit tham gia trao i
- s ion OH- m mt phn t baz tham gia trao i
- Tng s in tch ion m hoc dng m mt phn t mui tham gia trao i.
- Trong phn ng xi ho kh
n: s ecletron m mt phn t cht xi ho thu vo hay mt phn t cht kh mt i.
V d: ng lng gam ca KMnO4 trong cc mi trng nh sau
M
- Mi trng axit: MnO4- + 5e + 8H+ = Mn2+ + 4H2O KMnO4 =
5
M
- Mi trng trung tnh: MnO-4 + 3e- + 2H2O = MnO2 + 4OH- =
3
M
- Mi trng baz: MnO-4 + 1e- = MnO2-4
=
1
- ng lng gam ca mt hp cht l gi tr ng lng ca cht tnh ra gam.
V d: ng lng gam ca HCl bng 36,5gam
ng lng gam ca H2 bng 2gam
5.3. Nng ng lng (N)
Nng ng lng gam ca mt dung dch l s ng lng gam ca cht tan c
trong mt lt dung dch.
V d:
dd HCl 1N c 36,5gam HCl nguyn cht trong mt lt.
dd H2SO4 0,1N c 4,9 gam H2SO4 trong 1 lt
5.4. nh lut ng lng
"Cc cht phn ng vi nhau theo nhng khi lng t l vi ng lng ca chng" hay
"cc cht tham gia phn ng vi nhau theo nhng s lng ng lng gam nh nhau".
A
mA
Ta c
mB
mA
hay
mB
=
Trong , mA, mB l khi lng hai cht A, B phn ng va vi nhau. A, B l ng

lng ca hai cht A, B.
7
p dng nh lut ng lng cho phn ng xy ra trong dung dch:
Gi s c 2 cht A v B phn ng vi nhau theo phng trnh:

A+BC
Gi NA, NB ln lt l nng ng lng ca dd A v B. VA, VB l th tch ca dung
dch A v dung dch B phn ng va vi nhau.
Theo nh lut ng lng ta c: cc cht A v B phn ng va vi nhau theo s ng
lng nh nhau nn:
VA.NA = VB.NB
T y ta c th xc nh nng ng lng ca mt cht khi bit nng ng lng
ca cht kia bng thc nghim.
8
CHNG II
CU TO NGUYN T V H THNG
TUN HON CC NGUYN T HO HC
Cho n gia th k XVIII ngi ta cho rng nguyn t l ht nh nht cu to nn vt cht
v khng th phn chia nh hn na. Nhng n cui th k XIX nhiu cng trnh khoa hc thc
nghim chng t rng nguyn t c cu to phc to t nhiu loi ht c bn khc nhau.
I. Nhng c s vt l nghin cu cu to nguyn t

1. Thnh phn nguyn t
Nh nhng thnh tu ca vt l hc, cc nh khoa hc khng nh rng nguyn t gm
hai thnh phn chnh l electron v ht nhn nguyn t.
1.1. Electron (k hiu l e): V nguyn t gm cc electron
- Khi lng ca e eclectron
1
me = 9,109.10-28g =
.v C
1837
- in tch ca electron:
qe = -1,602.10-19C
in tch ca e l in tch nh nht gp nn n c chn lm n v in tch.
qe = -1 n v in tch hay = -1
1.2. Ht nhn nguyn t
L phn trung tm ca nguyn t, gm cc ht proton v neutron. Ht nhn mang in tch
dng, s n v in tch dng ca ht nhn bng s electron trong v nguyn t. Khi lng ca
ht nhn xp x khi lng nguyn t.
- Proton (k hiu p)
Khi lng: mp = 1,672.10-24 = 1,008 .v C
in tch : qp = 1,602.10-19C = +1
- Neutron (k hiu n)
Khi lng: mn = 1,672.10-24g = 1,00 vC
Neutron khng mang in
2. Thuyt lng t planck
Nm 1900 Planck trnh by quan im lng t u tin v cho rng: "nh sng hay bc
x in t ni chung gm nhng lng t nng lng pht i t ngun sng".
C
E = h = h
Trong
E: lng t nng lng
h: hng s Planck (h = 6,625.10-34 J.S)
: tn s ca bc x
: bc sng bc x
C: tc nh sng
9
Bc sng cng ln th tn s sng cng gim v ngc li, E gi l lng t nng lng v
vi mi bc x d pht ra hoc hp th u bng mt s nguyn ln ca E.
2.2. H thc tng i Einstein (1903)
Nm 1903 Einstein tm ra mi quan h gia vn tc v khi lng ca vt chuyn ng
vi nng lng ca n qua biu thc".
E = mC2
Kt hp vi trc ta c:
C
C
E = h mC 2 = h
h
h
mC = hay =
mC
l bc sng ca bc x, cng ln th tn s sng cng b, nng lng cng nh v
ngc li.
3. Bn cht sng v ht ca ecletron
3.1. Mu nguyn t Bohr (1913)
Bng vic p dng ng thi c c hc c in v c hc lng t khi nghin cu cu to
nguyn t nm 1913, Niels Bohr xy dng mu nguyn t vi ni dung sau:
- Trong nguyn t electron chuyn ng trn nhng qu o c bn knh xc nh. Khi
chuyn ng trn cc qu o ny nng lng ca elctron c bo ton.
- Mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng ca electron cng xa ht nhn th nng lng
ca electron cng cao.
- Khi electron chuyn t qu o ny sang qu o khc n s thu hoc pht ra nng lng
bng hiu gia 2 mc di dng mt bc x c tn s .
E = h = En' - En
Vy: chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t gn lin vi vic thu hoc pht ra nng
lng di dng bc x nn electron cng c tnh cht sng v ht nh bc x.
3.2. H thc De Broglie (1924)
Khi pht biu v thuyt lng t, 1924 De Broglie nu gi thuyt "khng ch c bc x
m cc ht nh trong nguyn t nh e, p cng c bn cht nng v ht, c c trng bng bc
sng xc nh".
h
=
mv
Vi: m: khi lng ca ht
v: tc chuyn ng ca ht
Nhng nghin cu v sua cho thy gi thuyt ca De Broglie l ng n. V electron cng
c bn cht nng v ht nn mi phng trnh m t chuyn ng ca electron phi tho mn ng
thi c hai tnh cht .
3.3. H thc bt nh Heisenberg (1927)
T tnh cht nng v ht ca cc ht vi m, 1927 nh vt l hc c Heisenberg chng
minh nguyn l bt nh.
"V nguyn tc khng th xc nh ng thi chnh xc c to v vn tc ca ht, do
khng th xc nh hon ton chnh xc cc qu o chuyn ng ca ht".
Nu gi sai s ca php o v tc ca ht theo phng x l vx v sai s ca php o
to theo phng x l x th ta c biu thc ca h thc bt nh l :
10
h
m
Trong
h: hng s Planck
m: khi lng ca ht
Theo biu thc ny ta thy vx v x bin thin thun nghch vi nhau. Nu x cng nh
(x 0) ngha l cng xc nh chnh xc v tr ca ht th vx cng ln (vx ), ngha l
khng th xc nh chnh xc gi tr tc ca elctron.
x.vx
II. Hm sng v phng trnh sng ca electron

Cng trnh ca De Broglie t nn mng cho mt mn c hc mi dng m t chuyn
ng ca cc ht vi m. Nm 1925 - 1926, Heisenberg v Schrodinger c lp nhau ra 2
phng php ca mn c hc ny v u t kt qu nh nhau nhng phng php ca
Schrodinger n gin hn nhiu. Mn hc mi da theo phng php Schrodinger m t chuyn
ng ca cc ht vi m gi l mn c hc lng t. Cc kt qu thu c ca mn c hc ny khi
p dng cho cc h vi m u ph hp vi thc nghim.
1. Hm sng ()
Trng thi chuyn ng ca hi vi m c m t bng hm s (x,y,z,t) l mt hm xc
nh, n v v lin tc gi l hm sng.
- ngha vt l ca hm sng:
Ta khng th xc nh chnh xc electron c mt to no nhng c th bit xc sut tm
thy electron nhiu nht vng m phn ln thi gian electron c mt .
V hm sng (x,y,z,t) c th l hm thc hoc phc nn n khng c ngha vt l trc
tip. Ch c bnh phng modun ca hm sng l ||2 (thc v lun lun dng) mi c ngha l
mt xc xut tm thy ht ti to tng ng.
|(x,y,z,t)|2 d cho bit xc sut tm thy ti thi im t trong nguyn t th tch d c tm
l M (x,y,z).
Hnh nh ca hm mt xc sut trong khng gian gi l m my in t.
Hm sng phi tho mn cc iu kin sau:
- Hm sng phi n tr (ti mi im trong khng gian ng vi to (x,y,z) ch c mt
gi tr duy nht cho xc sut tm thy electron ti ch c mt gi tr tng ng).
- Hm sng phi hu hn v lin tc (ngha l khng th bng bt k to no nhng
c th bng 0).
- Hm sng phi tho mn iu kin:

+
| d = 1
cho tng xc sut tm thy electron t - + phi lun lun bng 1, gi l hm sng
chun ho.
2. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger
tm c hm sng m t chuyn ng ca ht vi m th phi gii phng trnh sng gi
l phng trnh Schodinger. l phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t c nh vt l ngi
o Schrodinger a ra nm 1926.
11
l phng trnh vi phn bc 2 ca hm c dng nh sau i vi ht (hay h ht)
dng thi dng:
h2

+ V = E (*)
2
8 m
Trong :
-V: th nng ca ht ti to x,y,z

E: nng lng ton phn ca ht trong ton h
2
2
+
+ 2
: ton t Laplace: = 2
2
x
y z
m: khi lng ca ht
Trong trng hp tng qut c th vit phng trnh Schrodinger di dng: H = E
* Trng thi dng l trng thi m nng lng ca h khng ph thuc thi gian ngha l E
ca h khng i.
Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ta s thu c cc hm sng m t cc trng thi
chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v cc gi tr nng lng E ng vi cc hm .
3. Kt qu gii phng trnh sng Schrodinger
Bi ton n gin nht c cc nh khoa hc thc hin l bi ton ca nguyn t hydr.
Sau khi xy dng hm th nng v a vo phng trnh (*) ngi ta gii phng trnh ny
v thu c hm sng n,l,ml nghim ca phng trnh sng m t trng thi chuyn ng ca
electron nguyn t gi l orbital nguyn t.
Khi gii phng trnh ny, ngi ta nhn c ng thi cc cp nghim E v cng cc
i lng vt l xc nh hm , c trng cho trng thi v v tr chuyn ng ca electron trong
nguyn t l cc s lng t n, l, ml.
ng vi mt gi tr ca E c mt hm sng , mi t hp (E, ) c trng cho mt trng
thi ca electron.
Trng hp nhiu hm cng ng vi mt gi tr nng lng E th ta gi l c s suy bin
nng lng.
* Ch : Phng trnh Schrodinger ch gii c chnh xc vi nguyn t hydr v cc ion
n nguyn t ging hydr. Cn vi cc nguyn t nhiu electron th phi s dng cc phng
php gn ng.
4. Cc s lng t v ngha
Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ngi ta thy xut hin cc s lng t xc nh hm ,
chng xut hin do cc iu kin ton hc bi ton c nghim ch khng phi bi p t, cc
hm ph thuc vo cc s lng t ny.
4.1. S lng t chnh (n)
- V tr s: nhn cc gi tr nguyn dng: 1, 2 ...
- V ngha: xc nh nng lng ca electron
En = -
2 2 me 4
n 2h 2
12
Trong :
n: s lng t chnh
m: khi lng ca electron
e: in tch ca electron
R
2 2 me 4
Nu thay R =
ta c E = - 2
2
n
h
Ta thy vi n cng ln th nng lng E cng ln, electron cng cch xa nhn.
Nhng electron c cng gi tr n tc l cng mc nng lng to thnh mt lp electron.
S lng t chnh n
Mc nng lng tng
ng
4.2. S lng t orbital (l) (s lng t momen gc)

- V tr s: l nhn cc gi tr nguyn t O n (n - 1). ng vi mt gi tr ca n th c n gi
tr ca l.
- V ngha: Xc nh hnh dng v tn ca orbital. Nhng electron c cng gi tr l lp nn
mt phn lp v c nng lng nh nhau. Lp th n c n phn lp.
S lng t orbital (l)
Phn lp
phn bit nng lng ca cc phn lp cng tn nhng khc lp ta ghi thm gi tr s
lng t chnh trc k hiu phn lp: v d: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s ...
4.3. S lng t t ml:
- V tr s: l mt s nguyn c gi tr t -l n +l k c gi tr 0.
+ Vi mt gi tr ca l, th ml c (2l + 1) gi tr.
V d: l = 1; ml c 3 gi tr l -1, 0, 1
l = 2; ml c 5 gi tr l -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
Mt gi tr ca ml ng vi mt orbtal (AO)
- V ngha: c trng cho s nh hng ca orbital trong khng gian chung quanh ht
nhn.
Tm li, khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger, ngi ta tm thy 3 s lng t c trng cho
trng thi chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v tm c hm sng n,l,ml gi l orbital
nguyn t, k hiu AO. Hm ny ph thuc vo 3 s lng t n, l, ml. B ba s lng t n, l, ml xc
nh mc nng lng (theo n); phn mc nng lng (theo l) v hng ca orbital trong khng gian
(theo ml).
Cc s lng t ny c quan h ph thuc nhau v chi phi ln nhau. T n ta bit s gi tr
ca l, t bit s gi tr ca ml, suy ra s AO c trong phn lp v c trong lp .
4.3. S lng t t spin ms
Ngoi 3 s lng t trn, khi nghin cu cu trc tinh t ca cc ph nguyn t, ngi ta
thy cn phi b sung mt s lng t na l s lng t t spin ms c th m t mt cch duy
nht chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t.
13
V gi tr: ch nhn mt trong 2 gi tr +1/2 hay -1/2 v khng ph thuc g vo cc s
lng t trn.
V ngha: c trng cho dao ng t do ca electron c trng cho chuyn ng ni ti
ca electron gn vi momen ng lng ring ca electron.
Trong t trng ngoi trng thi ms = +1/2 c nng lng thp hn.
5. Nng lng ca electron
Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger cng vi , ta nhn c cc gi tr nng lng E tng
ng. Vi nguyn t hidr, nng lng ca cc AO nguyn t c tnh theo biu thc:
2 2 me 4
n2h2
y nng lng ca electron l nhng gi tr gin on ph thuc vo s lng t chnh
En =
n.
Khi n cng ln, th electron c nng lng cng cao.
Ngi ta dng cc ch ci K, M, N k hiu cc mc nng lng ng vi cc s lng
t chnh n = 1, 2, 3, 4
III. Orbitan nguyn t - hnh dng cc orbital nguyn t

1. Khi nim v orbital nguyn t (AO)
AO l hm sng m t trng thi chuyn ng ca e trong nguynt , c biu th bng
hm x,l,me.
V d: vi n = 1, l = 0, ml ta c hm 1,0,0 ng vi AO 1s.
vi n = 3, l = 2 ta c hm 3,2 AO 3d
Tm li
- mi gi tr ca ml ng vi 1AO
- mt gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l t l = 0 n l = n - 1.
- mt gi tr ca l c (2l + 1) gi tr ca me v do c (2l + 1) AO khc nhau.
Vy ng vi mt gi tr ca n (lp n) s AO c trong mi lp l:
( n 1)
(2l + 1) = n 2
l= 0
Vy lp thc n c n2 AO
V d: Cho n = 3, hi c bao nhiu lp, phn lp, AO.
- C 1 lp electron l lp th 3 (M) v n = 3
- l = 0, 1,2 nn c 3 phn lp: s, p,d
- Vi mt gi tr ca l th c me c (2l + 1) gi tr nn s AO trong cc phn lp l:
Phn lp 1 (l = 0) c 1AO
Phn lp 2 (l = 1) c 3 AO
Phn lp 3 (l = 3) c 5AO
hay lp th 3 s AO nguyn t l 32 = 9AO
Trn mi AO c th cha ti a 2e - c spin i song (1/2) vy trn lp n c n2AO v cha
ti a 2n2 electron.
14
2. Hnh dng cc electron
Hnh dng cc AO nguyn s ph thuc vo hm n,l,ml v k hiu theo s lng t l: s,
p, d, f, g
Trong h to x, y, z cc orbital s, p, d m hnh nh ca n l cc m my in t c
dng nh sau:
2.1. AO s (xc nh bi l = 0; m l = 0): c dng hnh cu, tm l ht nhn nguyn t, hm s
lun lun dng v mi pha ca trc to .
2.2. AO p (Xc nh bi l = 1; ml = -1, 0, +1 (Py, Pz, Px) l nhng cp hnh cu tip xc vi

nhau im gc tm nm trn cc trc ta .
Cc hm p lun lun dng v pha dng ca trc to v m vi cc gi tr to m.
z
+
y
x
x
Px
(ml =1)
Py
(ml = -1)
Pz
(ml = 0)
15
2.3. AO d: xc nh bi l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
Cc AO d tr dz2 u c biu th bng hnh hoa th 4 cnh.
me
+2
2
AO
-2
dx -y
0
2
dxy
dz
+1
-1
dyz
dxz
x
x
+
+
y
+
2
dx y
(ml = 2)
dxy
(ml = -2)
dxz
(ml =1)
y
+
dyz
(ml = -1)
z
+
dz2
(ml = 0)
IV. Nguyn t nhiu electron - s phn b electron trong nguyn t nhiu

electron
Bi ton v nguyn t nhiu electron phc tp hn nhiu so vi bi ton ca nguyn t
ging hidr khi mi electron khng nhng chu lc ht ca ht nhn m cn chu lc y ca cc
electron khc. V vy vic gii chnh xc bi ton bng phng php gii tch l khng th c nn
ngi ta dng cc phng php gn ng. T xy dng c cc hm sng v phng trnh
sng ny v thu c cc hm c dng tng t cc AO ca nguyn t hydr.
1. Khi nim v lp, phn lp v lng t
- Lp: trong nguyn t cc electron c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh mt lp
electron gi l lp n. Lp n c k hiu bng cc ch ci K, L, M, N ng vi cc gi tr
ca n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
- Phn lp: mi phn lp gm cc electron c cng s lng t l m mi gi tr ca n c n
gi tr ca l nn mi lp c n phn lp.
Lp K c 1 phn lp: 1s
Lp L c 2 phn lp: 2s, 2p
Lp M c 3 phn lp : 3s, 3p, 3d.
V:
Cc electron cng c l = 0 hp thnh phn lp s
Cc electron cng c l = 1 hp thnh phn lp p
16
Cc electron cng c l = 2 hp thnh phn lp d
Cc electron cng c l = 3 hp thnh phn lp f
ch mt phn lp thuc lp no ngi ta dng k hiu ns, np V d: 2s, 2p.
- lng t hay orbital: cc electron c 3 s lng t nh nhau (n, l, m l) c trng thi
chuyn ng orbital ging nhau to thnh mt AO v c xp vo mt lng t - mi lng t
c k hiu bng mt vung nh.
S lng t trong mt phn lp bng s cc tr s ml ng vi gi tr l cho.
V d: -Phn lp s c l = 0, me = 0 c 1 lng t
- Phn lp p c l = 1, me = +1, 0, -1 c 3 lng t
- Phn lp d c l = 2, me = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 c 5 lng t
2. Cc qui lut phn b electron trong nguyn t nhiu electron
2.1. Nguyn l Pauli
Ni dung: "Trong nguyn t khng th c hai hay nhiu electron c cng 4 s lng t".
- Cc electron trong mt lng t c 3 s lng t n, l, me ging nhau nn s lng t ms
phi khc nhau (+1/2 v -1/2) do s electron ti a trn mi AO l 2e-.
Hai electron ny c spin tri du nhau v c k hiu bng hai mi tn ngc chiu nhau:
ng vi ms = +1/2 v ng vi ms = -1/2
- Trong mt phn lp ng vi s lng t ph l c 2(l+1) AO nn cha ti a 2(2l + 1)
electron. vy s electron ti a trong mt phn lp l 2(2l+1) electron.
Ta c: Phn lp
s p d f
S electron ti a
2 6 10 14
- Lp th n c n2AO nn trong mi lp c ti a 2n2 electron.
V d : n = 2 c s electron ti a l: 2.22 = 8e2.2. Nguyn l vng bn
2.2.1. Ni dung: "Trong mt nguyn t trng thi c bn, cc electron s xp vo cc phn
lp c mc nng lng thp trc sau mi xp sang cc phn lp c mc nng lng cao hn.
Nng lng ca cc phn lp c xc nh qua vic gii phng trnh Schrodinger. T ,
Klechkowski sp xp cc phn lp theo th t mc ny lng tng dn.
2.2.2. Qui tc Klechkowski
Trong nguyn t, nng lng ca cc phn lp electron tng dn theo th t sau:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s
Theo quy tc ny th electron c in vo cc AO c gi tr (n + l) nh trc, nu 2 AO
c cng gi tr (n + l) th electron s iu vo cc AO c gi tr n nh trc.
V d: electron c in vo AO 4s trc AO 3d.
C th m t qui tc Klechkowski nh sau:
7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s
7p
6p
5p
4p
3p
2p
7d
6d
5d
4d
3d
7f
6f
5f
4f
17
1s
2.3. Qui tc Hund
2.3.1. Qui tc Hund 1 (qui tc tng spin cc i)
"Trong nguyn t dng trng thi c bn, cc electron thuc cng mt phn lp s c
phn b u vo cc lng t sao cho tng spin S ca chng l cc i (tng s electron c thn
l cc i)".
S = ms
V d: Nguyn t N (z = 7) c cu hnh: 1s2 2s2 sp3
C th phn b electron vo cc lng t theo cc cch sau:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Tng s spin S = +1/2

Tng s spin S = +3/2 (*)
Tng s spin S = -3/2
Vy cch phn b th 2 ph hp vi qui tc Hund 1

2.3.2. Qui tc Hund 2:
"Trong mt phn lp cc electron c khuynh hng in vo cc lng t c s lng t
ml c gi tr ln nht trc".
V d: Trng thi c bn ca nguyn t F (z = 9) l trng thi.
0
0
+1
0 -1
1s
2s
2p
Ch khng phi l trng thi
0
0
-1 0
+1
1s
2s
2p
2.4. Cch biu din cu to v electron. Cu hnh electron ca nguyn t
- Cu hnh eletron ca nguyn t c dng m t cc electron phn b nh th no vo
cc lp, phn lp trong nguyn t.
C 2 cch biu din:
Cch 1: Dng ch v d O (Z = 8): 1s2 2s2 2p4
Trong cc s ng trc 1, 2 ch s th t ca lp n = 1,2, cc ch s s, p ch cc phn
lp, cc s m ch s electron c trong phn lp.
Cch 2: Dng lng t: O (Z = 8)
18
Cch ny cn cho bit s electron c thn trong nguyn t v nguyn t trng thi c bn
hay trng thi kch thch.
Da trn cc qui tc v nguyn l trn d dng vit c cu hnh electron ca nguyn t.
V d:
Cu hnh electron ca mt s nguyn t trng thi c bn.
- i vi 20 nguyn t u (Z = 1 20) cu hnh electron trng vi th t mc nng lng
(qui tc Klechkowski).
- Bt u t nguyn t Z = 21 tr i do c s chn mc nng lng nn cu hnh electron
ca cc nguyn t t phn lp 4s tr i khng cn trng vi th t mc nng lng (do vit
ng cu hnh trc ht vit theo th t mc nng lng sau chuyn thnh cu hnh theo lp
electron).
V d:
Fe (Z = 26).
Theo th t mc nng lng
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Cu hnh electron
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
- Khi mt AO c 2e- ta ni cc electron ghp i, nu ch c mt electron th electron
l c thn.
Cc trng hp ngoi l :
Do cu hnh d10 (bo ho) v d5 (bn bo ho) bn, c nng lng thp nn cc nguyn t c
cu hnh (n-1)d9ns2 s chuyn thnh cu hnh (n-1)d10ns1 hay cu hnh (n-1)d4ns2 s chuyn thnh
(n-1)d5'ns1.
V d:
Nguyn t
Cu hnh electron
Cr (z = 24)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Cu (z = 29)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
V. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t - ng v
Ht nhn nguyn t l thnh phn c bn ca nguyn t, gm cc proton v cc neutron.
Trong cc bin i ho l, nu ht nhn vn nguyn vn th bn cht ca nguyn t c bo ton.
Nu ht nhn b bin i th nguyn t ca nguyn t ny s chuyn thnh nguyn t ca nguyn t
khc.
1. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t
Ht nhn mang in tch dng. S n v in tch ht nhn bng s electron ca
nguyn t.
Ht nhn c khi lng xp x khi lng nguyn t v c th tch rt b so vi th tch ca
nguyn t gm cc proton v cc neutron. Nu gi s proton trong ht nhn l Z v s ntron l N
th khi lng ca ht nhn xp x bng khi lng nguyn t.
A=Z+N
19
2. Hin tng ng v
Nhng nguyn t c cng in tch ht nhn (cng s proton) nhng c s khi khc nhau
(s neutron khc nhau) gi l cc ng v.
V d
16
8
17
8
18
8
3. Hin tng phng x t nhin

L hin tng chuyn ho t pht ng v khng bn ca mt nguyn t thnh ng v ca
nguyn t khc c km theo s pht ra cc ht c bn hay cc ht nhn nguyn t.
C 3 dng phng x c bn:
- S phn hu (ht nhn phng ra cc ht )
226
88
Ra
222
He + 86
Rn
4
2
S phn hu - (phng ra ht e1 )
239
93
Np
0
1
e+
227
90
Rn
0
- S phn hu + (+: ht positon e )

1
55
27
Co
0
1
e + 55
26 Rn
Km theo cc tia hay l cc tia gm cc bc x in t c nng lng ln.

4. Phn ng ht nhn
L phn ng m trong ht nhn ny b bin i thnh ht nhn khc ngha l nguyn t
ny chuyn thnh nguyn t khc.
Ngi ta thc hin phn ng ht nhn nhn to bng cch dng cc ht c bn nh , n, p
bn ph vo cc bia l nhn ca mt nguyn t no .
V d:
Bn ph nit bng ht
4
2
He + 14
7 N
17
8
O + 11 H
5. ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to

Bn cnh tc hi to ln ca s phng x n i sng ca con ngi nh cc tia phng x
ph hu t bo, tch lu trong xng, gan (nht l cc tia , tia ntron) con ngi bit s dng
cc ng v phng x phc v cho vic cha bnh, kch thch s tng trng ca cy trng, x l
ht ging, sn xut nng lng
V d:
61
Co dng tiu dit t bo ung th
131
I dng chn on bnh bu c
30
P dng theo di s hp thu phtpho ca cy
18
O dng nghin cu c ch ca cc phn ng ho hc v sinh hc
20
14
C dng xc nh tui ca cc c vt
U dng trong lnh vc nng lng nguyn t.
238
VI. Cu to nguyn t v h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc

1. nh lut tun hon
"Tnh cht ca cc n cht, thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t ho
hc bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t".
Vy s bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn s l do s bin i tun hon cu trc
e- ca nguyn t ca cc nguyn t .
2. Bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t
(Xt bng h thng tun hon dng di)
Bng h thng tun hon dng di c xy dng trn c s sau:
- Cc nguyn t c xp theo chiu tng dn in tch ht nhn.
- Cc nguyn t c cng s lp electron c xp thnh mt hng ngang gi l chu k.
- Cc nguyn t c cng cc electron ho tr c xp thnh ct dc gi l nhm.
2.2. S th t cc nguyn t
Mi nguyn t c xp vo 1 c s th t ng bng in tch ht nhn Z ca
nguyn t .
V d: Nguyn t S c Z = 16 c 16p nn c 16e- trng thi c bn.
2.3. Cu to bng h thng tun hon
Cc nguyn t ho hc trong bng h thng tun hon c xp theo th t in tch ht
nhn Z tng dn v c phn thnh cc chu k v nhm.
- Chu k:
L dy nguyn t xp theo hng ngang gm cc nguyn t c cng s (tr chu k 1
bt u bng Hydro) v kt thc v mt kh him.
S th t ca chu k bng s lp electron m mi nguyn t trong chu k c. Hin nay bng
h thng tun hon gm 7 chu k, nh s th t t 1 n 7.
Trong :
Chu k 1 gm 2 nguyn t H (Z = 1) v He (Z = 2)
Chu k 2 gm 8 nguyn t t Li (Z = 3) n Ne (Z = 10)
Chu k 3 gm 8 nguyn t t Na (Z = 11) n Ar (Z = 18)
Chu k 4 gm 18 nguyn t t K (Z = 10) n Kr (Z =36)
Chu k 5 gm 18 nguyn t t Rb (Z = 37) n Xe (Z = 54)
Chu k 6 gm 32 nguyn t t Cr (Z = 55) n Rn (Z = 86)
(c bit trong chu k 6 c 14 nguyn t xp sau La (Z = 57) c xp tch ring thnh 1
hng ngang di bng gi l h Lantan).
- Chu k 7 gm cc nguyn t ang xy dng t Fr (Z = 87) tr i.
(Trong chu k 7 c 14 nguyn t xp sau Ac (Z = 89) c tch ring thnh h Actini)
* Nhm:
Gm cc nguyn t c cng s electron ho tr s th t ca nhm bng s electron ho tr m
cc nguyn t c. Mi nhm c chia thnh 2 phn nhm: chnh v ph.
- Phn nhm chnh (nhm A): gm cc nguyn t s hoc p
- Phn nhm ph (nhm B) gm cc nguyn t d hoc f
21
Cc xc nh s electron ho tr ca mt nguyn t
Loi nguyn t
S electron ho tr
s hoc p
- Tng s electron lp ngoi cng

- S electron trn ns (nu (n-1) d bo ho
- Tng s electron trn ns v (n-1)d [nu (n-1)d cha bo ho]
V d:
- Cu (z = 29) c cu hnh [Ar]3d104s1: thuc nhm IB
- Zn (z = 30) c cu hnh [Ar]3d104s2: thuc nhm IIB
- Fe (z = 26) c cu hnh [Ar]3d64s2: thuc nhm VIIIB
- Li, Na, K c cu hnh ns1: thuc nhm IA
* Khi:
Ngy nay ngi ta thng xp cc nguyn t thnh cc khi da vo cu hnh electron ca
chng, c 4 khi l:
- Khi s: gm cc electron c cu hnh electron ngoi cng l ns 1, ns2 l cc nhm IA,
IIA.
- Khi p: gm cc nguyn t c cu hnh cc electron ngoi cng t ns 2np1 n ns2np6 tc l
cc nguyn t thuc nhm IIIA n VIIIA.
- Khi d: gm cc nguyn t c cu hnh (n-1)d1-10ns hoc 2 thuc cc nhm B
- Khi f: gm 2 dy lantanic va actinic xp cui bng.
3. S bin i tun hon tnh cht cc nguyn t
3.1. Bin i tun hon cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t
- i vi cc nguyn t nhm A, cc electron lp ngoi cng tng dn t 1e - nhm IA n
8 electron lp VIIIA, iu ny c lp li tt c cc chu k.
- i vi cc nguyn t nhm B: Cc electron lp ngoi cng ging nhau l ns2 (tr mt
s trng hp ngoi l).
+ Cc nguyn t d th phn lp electron d tng t 1 electron nhm IIIB n 9 electron
nhm IB v 10 electron nhm IIB.
+ Cc nguyn t f: cu hnh electron ngoi cng v h ngoi ging nhau ch khc nhau
phn lp (n-2)f.
3.2. Bn knh nguyn t
Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi, in tch ht nhn tng dn nn lc ht gia ht
nhn v in t ngoi cng tng dn, do bn knh nguyn t gim dn.
Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung bn knh nguyn t tng dn do s lp in t
tng dn.
3.3. Nng lng ion ho (I)
L nng lng ti thiu cn cung cp bc mt electron ra khi nguyn t trng
thi c bn.
- Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi, in tch ht nhn, lc ht gia cc ht nhn v
electron ngoi cng tng dn, electron b ht cht hn nn nng lng ion ho tng dn.
22
- Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung do bn knh nguyn t tng nn khong cch gia
ht nhn v electron ngoi cng tng dn, lc ht gia ht nhn v in t ngoi cng gim dn do
nng lng ion ho gim dn.
3.4. i lc vi electron (E)
L nng lng c gii phng khi nguyn t trng thi kh nhn thm mt electron
tr thnh anion kh.
A + e- = ACho n nay ngi ta ch mi xc nh c i lc i vi electron ca mt s t nguyn t.
Trong cc nguyn t nhm VIIA c i lc vi electron ln nht. Cc nguyn t s 2, s2p6, s2p3 c i
lc vi electron rt km.
3.5. S oxi ho
- S oxi ho dng cao nht ca cc nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha chng (tr cc
nhm VIIIB, IB, Lantanic, Actinic, O, F v kh him).
- S oxi ho m thp nht hu nh ch c cc nguyn t phi kim v s oxi ho m thp nht
ca nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha nguyn t tr i 8.
V d:
Nit c s oxi ho m thp nht l: 5 - 8 = -3
3.6. Hp cht vi hydro v oxi
- Hp cht vi hydro:
Cc kim loi nhm IA, IIA to cc ion H- (NaH, CaH2 )
Cc nguyn t phi kim thng to cc hp cht cng ho tr, trong hydr c xi ho
+1, phi kim c s oxi ho m (CH4, NH3, H2O, HF, HCl )
Hp cht vi oxi:
xi to c oxit vi hu ht cc nguyn t (tr Pt, Au).
Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t to oxit tng dn t
1 n 7.
V d:
Chu k 3:
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Cc baz v axit tng ng cng nh cc oxit c tnh axit tng dn t tri sang phi.
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al2(OH)3 H2SiO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO4 tnh axit tng dn.
Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung tnh kim loi tng nn tnh baz ca mt oxit v
hidroxit cng tng dn.
BeO
MgO
Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2
lng tnh
baz
CaO
Ca(OH)2
SrO
BaO
Sr(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
baz mnh
4. Quan h gia cu hnh electron v v tr ca nguyn t trong bng h thng tun hon
4.1. Bit s in tch ht nhn ca nguyn t (Z) ta c th xc nh c nguyn t thuc
chu k my, nhm my v cu hnh electron ca nguyn t .
V d:
Cho X c Z = 16
23
Ta c th vit cu hnh electron ca X: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 2p4
Vy X thuc chu k 3, nhm VIA l nguyn t lu hunh (S).
4.2. Bit cu hnh electron ca nguyn t, c th xc nh in tch ht nhn Z, s th t ca
nguyn t, chu k, nhm, hp cht vi hydro, hp cht vi oxi
V d 1:
Nguyn t X c cu hnh 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 Z = 17
V n = 3 nn nguyn t ny thuc chu k 3. S electron ho tr 2+5 = 7 thuc nhm VIIA
l nguyn t Clo.
- Hp cht vi hydro l HCl
xit cao nht vi oxi l Cl2O7
V d 2:
Nguyn t Y c cu hnh 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 Z = 25
V lp d cha bo ho nn Y thuc nhm B c e- ho tr l 2+5 = 7 nn Y thuc nhm VIIB
c lp electron ngoi cng l 4 nn thuc chu k 4 l nguyn t Mn.
- Khng c hp cht vi hydro
- xit cao nht ca Mn vi xi l Mn2O7
4.3. Bit v tr ca nguyn t c th suy ra mt s tnh cht ho hc c bn ca mt s cc hp
cht ca nguyn t .
V d:
Bit nguyn t M thuc chu k 4, nhm IIA vy l kim loi kim th, chng c th nhng
2 electron tr thnh cation: M - 2e = M2+ to c cc hp cht c lin kt ion l chnh, hp cht
vi hydr c cng thc l MH2, hp cht vi xi l MO v hidroxit tng ng l M(OH)2.
24
CHNG III
CU TO PHN T V LIN KT HO HC
Phn t l phn t nh b nht ca cht, n c to nn t nhng nguyn t cng loi hoc

khc loi. V vy nghin cu cu to phn t thc cht l nghin cu cc mi lin kt gia cc
nguyn t trong phn t.
I. Mt s khi nim
1. Khi nim v phn t
"Phn t l phn t nh nht ca mt cht c kh nng tn ti c lp m vn gi nguyn
tnh cht ca cht ".
Theo quan im hin i th "phn t bao gm mt s gii hn ca ht nhn v cc electron
tng tc vi nhau v c phn b mt cch xc nh trong khng gian to thnh mt cu trc
khng gian bn vng".
Phn t khng ch l cc phn t trung ho nh H2, Cl2, CO2 m cn bao gm cc ion phn
t nh H2+, NO3-
2. m in
m in ca mt nguyn t l i lng c trng cho kh nng ca nguyn t ca
nguyn t trong phn t ht cp electron dng chung v pha mnh.
m in ca nguyn t cng ln th kh nng ht cp electron cng mnh, tnh phi kim
ca nguyn t cng mnh.
V d:
Trong phn t HCl: gia hydro v Clo c mt cp electron dng chung, chng b lch v pha
nguyn t Clo v Clo c m in ln hn hydro nn trong phn t HCl th hydro mang in
dng v Clo mang in tch m.
H+
Cl-
Ngi ta xy dng c thang m in ca cc nguyn t trong hydro c m

in bng 2,1 v F c m in cao nht l 4.
Trong thang ny th:
- Trong mt chu k, m in ca cc nguyn t tng t tri sang phi.
- Trong mt nhm m in ca nguyn t gim khi i t trn xung.
25
m in ca mt s nguyn t theo Pauling
IA
IIA
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIA
H
2,1
Li
1,0
Be
1,6
B
2,0
C
2,6
N
3,0
O
3,4
F
4,0
Na
0,9
Mg
1,3
Al
1,6
Si
2,0
P
2,2
S
2,6
Cl
3,0
K
0,8
Ca
0,9
Ga
1,8
Ge
2,0
As
2,4
Se
2,1
Br
2,7
Sr
0,9
In
1,8
Sn
2,0
Sb
2,4
Te
2,1
I
2,7
Ba
0,8
Tl
2,0
Pb
2,3
Bi
2,0
Po
2,0
At
2,2
2
Rb
0,8
2
5
Cs
0,7
Ngi ta nhn thy :

- Nu hiu s m in ca 2 nguyn t tham gia lin kt ln ( 2) th m my electron
gn nh b lch v pha nguyn t c m in ln v hnh thnh lin kt ion.
- Nu 2 nguyn t tham gia lin kt c m in bng nhau th my electron lin kt c
phn b u gia 2 nguyn t tham gia lin kt v to thnh lin kt cng ho tr.
- Nu 2 nguyn t c m in khc nhau khng nhiu lm (hiu s m in gia hai
nguyn t <2) th hnh thnh lin kt cng ho tr phn cc.
3. Mt s c trng ca lin kt
3.1. Nng lng lin kt
Nng lng ca mt lin kt ho hc l nng lng cn thit ph v lin kt v thnh
nguyn t th kh.
V d: Nng lng ca lin kt (H-H) trong phn t H 2 chnh l hiu ng nhit ca qu
trnh.
H2 (k) H (k) + H (k)
H = 104,2 kcal/mol
Nng lng lin kt c trng cho bn ca lin kt, nng lng lin kt cng ln th lin
kt cng bn.
3.2. di lin kt
di lin kt c xc nh bi khong cch gia 2 ht nhn ca hai nguyn t tham
gia lin kt, nu cc nguyn t tham gia lin kt nh nhau, th lin kt cng bn khi di lin
kt cng b.
V d: phn t
F2
Cl2
Br2
I2
26
di lin kt X - X (A0) 1,42
1,99
2,28
2,68
3.3. Gc lin kt
Gc lin kt l gc to bi 2 na ng thng xut pht t ht nhn ca mt nguyn t v i
qua ht nhn ca 2 nguyn t khc lin kt trc tip vi nguyn t trn.
V d:
Trong phn t nc, gc lin kt HOH = 104030'.
3.5. Mmen lng cc ca phn t
Trong nguyn t, cc electron bao quanh ht nhn c phn b ton ton i xng khp
mi pha nn trng tm ca cc in tch trng vi tm ca ht nhn (trng tm ca in tch
dng).
Trong phn t, trng tm ca cc in tch m v dng c th trng nhau hoc khng
trng nhau.
- Nu trng tm in tch m v trng tm in tch m trong phn t trng nhau ta c phn
t khng phn cc.
V d: Phn t H2, N2, F2
- Nu trng tm in tch m v dng khng trng nhau th ta c phn t phn cc. Lc
ny phn t c mt mmen lng cc, k hiu l , c n v o l Debye (D).
V d: Phn t H-Cl
l
l: di lng cc
: c tnh theo cng thc = .l
Nu = e = 4.8.10-10 vtd CGS v l = 1A0 (10-8cm).
Th
= 4,8.10-18 vt d.cm
Thng thng c gi tr t 0 n 10.10-18 vtd cm nn ngi ta chn 1.10-18 vtd.cm lm
n v ca , v c gi l Debye. Mmen lng cc ca phn t c xc nh bng thc
nghim, Mmen lng cc ca phn t cng ho tr nm trong khong 0 - 4D v ca cc phn t
ion nm trong khong 4 - 11D.
Mmen lng cc ca mt s phn t:
Phn t:
KCl
KBr
KI
(D):
0,8
8,2
9,2
HCl
1,07
HBr
0,79
HI
0,38
II. Lin kt ion

Nh vt l hc ngi c Kossel nhn thy rng trong nhiu hp cht cc nguyn t c xu
hng mt i hay nhn thm mt vi electron c cu hnh bn ca kh him ngay trc hay sau
chng trong bng h thng tun hon. T ng cho rng c mt loi lin kt ho hc c hnh
thnh trong phn t gi l lin kt ion.
1. nh ngha
27
"Lin kt ion l lin kt c hnh thnh do lc ht tnh in gia cc ion mang in
tch tri du"
V d:
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl- NaCl
Nhng hp cht to nn bng cch ny gi l hp cht ion.
2. iu kin to thnh lin kt ion
m in ca 2 nguyn t tham gia lin kt phi khc nhau nhiu (hiu s m
in 2).
3. c im ca lin kt ion
- Lin kt ion khng c tnh nh hng: mi ion c th ht v pha mnh cc ion tri du
theo mt phng bt k.
- Lin kt ion khng c tnh bo ho: do tng tc tnh in gia cc ion ngc du khng
dn n s trit tiu hon ton in trng ca nhau, do mt ion sau khi lin kit vi mt ion
th 2 ngc du vi n vn cn kh nng lin kt vi cc ion ngc du khc theo cc phng
khc, nn lin kt ion khng c tnh bo ho.
Do hai tnh cht ny m cc phn t hp cht ion c khuynh hng t kt hp li mnh m,
cc phn t ion ring l ch tn ti nhit cao. Cn nhit thng mi hp cht ion u tn
ti trng thi rn, c cu trc tinh th v ton b tinh th c xem nh mt phn t khng l.
V d: mui, oxit kim loi, hidroxit kim loi thng l cc hp cht ion.
4. Ho tr ca nguyn t trong hp cht ion
- Ho tr ca nguyn t trong ion n bng in tch ion
V d:
Na+, Cl- th Na v Cl u c ho tr 1
- i vi ion a nguyn t: ta khng ni n ho tr ca tng nguyn t m ni n ho tr
ca c ion.
V d: NH4+, SO3-, ClO4- c ho tr 1
SO42-, HPO42- c ho tr 2
III. Lin kt cng ho tr

Trong 2 kiu lin kt chnh ca phn t, lin kt ion c gii thch bng thuyt tnh in
ca Kossel cn lin kt cng ho tr l i tng nghin cu ca nhiu nh khoa hc sut t th
k 19 n nay. Trong s cc thuyt ny c th k n 2 quan im ch yu l quan im ca Lewis
v quan im ca c hc lng t.
1. Thuyt Lewis v lin kt cng ho tr
Theo Lewis khi nguyn t ca 2 nguyn t c m in xp x nhau tham gia lin kt,
chng s chung cc electron lm thnh cp electron dng chung cho c 2 nguyn t, khi chng
cng c c cu hnh bn vng ca kh him, lin kt ny gi l lin kt cng ho tr - mi cp
electron dng chung to thnh mt lin kt.
V d: H + H H : H
hay H - H
H + Cl H Cl
hay H - Cl
Mi cp electron dng chung c k hiu bng mt vch ngang gi l vch ho tr.
- Nu m in ca 2 nguyn t to lin kt bng nhau, cp electron dng chung c
phn b u gia 2 nguyn t ta c lin kt cng ho tr khng phn cc (H2, Cl2 )
28
- Nu m in ca hai nguyn t to lin kt hi khc nhau, cp electron dng chung s
b lch v pha nguyn t c m in ln hn ta c lin kt cng ho tr phn cc (HCl).
* Ho tr ca mt nguyn t trong lin kt cng ho tr: l s lin kt hnh thnh gia mt
mt nguyn t ca nguyn t vi cc nguyn t khc trong phn t.
V d: Trong CO2
NH3
HCl
Clo v hydr c ho tr 1, xi c ho tr 2, nit c ho tr 3 v cacbon c ho tr 4.
Thuyt Lewis gii thch kh n gin, d hiu v s to thnh lin kt gia cc nguyn t
trong phn t, gii thch c cc trng thi ho tr ca nguyn t trong cc hp cht. Tuy nhin
thuyt ny cng gp mt s hn ch v khng gii thch c t tnh ca mt s cht.
2. Quan im ca c hc lng t v lin kt cng ho tr
Hai thuyt gn ng ca c hc lng t c s dng rng ri gii thch bn cht ca
lin kt cng ho tr l thuyt lin kt ho tr vit tt l VB (Valence Bond) v thuyt orbital phn t
vit tt l MO (Molecular orbital).
2.1. Thuyt lin kt ho tr (VB)
2.1.1. Lin kt , lin kt , lin kt
Thuyt VB dng s xen ph ca cc orbital nguyn t (AO) m t s to thnh cc lin
kt. Tuy theo tnh i xng ca vng xen ph gia cc AO tham gia lin kt i vi trc lin kt
(trc vi tm 2 ht nhn), ngi ta phn bit lin kt xch ma (), lin kt () v lin kt ().
* Lin kt : nu s xen ph cc AO xy ra trn trc lin kt th lin kt ny gi l lin kt
khi phn xen ph trong lin kt s nhn trc ni gia 2 ht nhn lm trc lin kt.
Cl
Cl
H -H
(s-s)
Cl
(p-p)
(s-p)
Lin kt :
Nu gia 2 nguyn t xut hin lin kt i hoc lin kt 3, th cc lin kt th 2, 3
do cc m my p cn li nh hng theo phng vung gc vi trc ni gia 2 ht nhn nguyn
t, cc m my xen ph 2 bn trc lin kt gi l lin kt .
V d: phn t nit (N2) c mt mi lin kt v 2 mi lin kt .
Vy lin kt c to thnh do s xen ph cc AO ho tr 2 pha trc lin kt.
N
(p-p)
N
(p-p)
29
Gia 2 nguyn t lin kt vi nhau trong phn t bao gi cng ch tn ti mt lin kt v
s lin kt c th c l 0, 1, 2.
Lin kt :
Lin kt ny t gp, l lin kt sut hin do s xen ph ca cc orbital d.
2.1.2. Lun im c bn ca thuyt VB
- Bi ton phn t hydro
Khi p dng c hc lng t gii quyt vn bn cht ca lin kt ho hc, nm 1927
hai nh bc hc W.Heiler v F. London gii bi ton tnh nng lng lin kt trong phn t hydr
H2.
Kt qu vic gii bi ton ny cho thy:
H (1Sa)
H (1Sb)
H2 ( nng lng thp)
Lin kt gia 2 nguyn t hydro c hnh thnh khi 2 electron ca 2 nguyn t hydro c
spin ngc chiu nhau ghp i vi nhau.
Khi nng lng ca phn t hydro thp hn nng lng ca hai nguyn t hydro c lp
v mc nng lng ca hai phn t thp nht khi khong cch gia 2 tm ca hai nguyn t hydro
l 0,74A0.
Khi hnh thnh lin kt mt my electron khu vc khng gian gia hai ht nhn tng
ln ging nh hai m my xen ph ln nhau, do mt in tch m ca khu vc tng ln,
nn ht hai ht nhn li vi nhau v lin kt chng li tc l xut hin lin kt gia 2 nguyn t
hydro to thnh phn t hydro (H2).
T cc kt qu ny rt ra c lun im c bn ca thuyt VB nh sau:
Trong phn t cc electron vn chuyn ng trn cc AO.
Mi lin kt cng ho tr c to thnh do s ghp i 2 electron c thn c spin tri du
ca 2 nguyn t khc nhau tng tc vi nhau, cp electron ny c xem nh chung cho c 2
nguyn t.
Khi xy ra s xen ph gia 2 m my electron lin kt, s xen ph cng mnh th lin
kt cng bn.
Lin kt c phn b theo phng m ti s xen ph ln nhau gia cc AO tham gia
lin kt l ln nht, v nh vy s c nhng phng c u tin trong khng gian ph hp vi cu
hnh khng gian ca phn t v vy lin kt cng ho tr c tnh nh hng.
Lin kt cng ho tr c tnh bo ho ngha l mi lin kt ch m bo bi 2 electron v
mt nguyn t tham gia lin kt ch c mt s gii hn cc lin kt ho tr.
V d:
N kt hp vi H to NH3 , khng to ra cc phn t NH4, NH5
S lin kt vi H to H2S, khng to ra cc phn t H3S, H4S
2.1.3. Cc thuyt trong khun kh thuyt VB
* Ho tr ca cc nguyn t theo VB. Thuyt spin v ho tr
Ni dung:
30
Ho tr cng ho tr ca mt nguyn t c xc nh bng s electron c thn ca nguyn
t ca nguyn t trng thi ang xt.
V d: Na (Z = 11) c cu hnh electron: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
c 1 electron c thn phn lp 3s c ho tr 1.
O (Z = 8) c cu hnh electron:
1s2 2s2 2p4
phn lp 2p c 3AO cha 4 eletron trong c 2 electron c thn nn oxi c ho tr 2.

Trong qu trnh phn ng khi c cung cp nng ln ln mt s electron ghp
i c th b kch thch nhy ra cc AO cn trng cc phn mc nng lng ca n ang tn ti
tr thnh c thn lm cho s electron c thn tng ln nn lm tng ho tr ca nguyn t.
V d: C (Z = 6)
- Trng thi c bn:
1s2 2s2 2p2
ho tr 2
- Trng thi kch thch 1s2 2s2 2p2
ho tr 4
Tuy nhin trong iu kin thng ca cc phn ng ho hc thng khng nng lng
cho cc electron cc lp bn trong nhy ra cc lp c mc nng lng cao hn, do s kch
thch ch c thc hin gia cc phn lp c mc nng lng bng nhau (trong cng mt lp).
Nhn xt:
Thuyt ho tr spin gip ta gii thch c ho tr ca nhiu nguyn t. Tuy vy n cng gp
hn ch nhng khng gii thch c s hnh thnh lin kt trong cc ion phn t v t tnh ca mt
s cht, khng gii thch c bn ca cc phn t
* Thuyt lai ho orbital
Khi nim lai ho c Pauling a ra trong khun kh thuyt VB gii thch s hnh
thnh lin kt trong phn t CH4, BeF2 v cc hp cht tng t.
Theo Pauling khi tham gia lin kt cc AO ho tr ca cc nguyn t khng tham gia ng
thi bng cch trn ln vi nhau trc khi i vo lin kt. Hay ni cch khc l cc AO t hp vi
nhau thnh cc t hp tt nht to lin kt bn nht. Cc t hp l cc hm sng tng ng
nhau, c nng lng v hnh dng ging nhau v c nh hng r rt trong khng gian.
Vy "S lai ho orbital l s t hp cc AO nguyn t trong mt nguyn t to thnh cc
AO lai ho ging nhau v nng lng, hnh dng v nh hng r rt trong khng gian".
iu kin cc AO lai ho bn l:
- Nng lng ca cc AO tham gia lai ho phi xp x nhau
- Nng lng ca cc AO tham gia lai ho thp
- xen ph cc AO lai ho vi cc AO ca cc nguyn t khc tham gia lin kt phi ln.
Cc kiu lai ho gia cc AO ns v np
31
- Lai ho sp: l s t hp gia mt AOs v mt AOp thuc cng mt lp nguyn t, to
thnh 2 orbital lai ho c nng lng tng ng v hnh dng ging nhau, trc i xng ca 2
AO lai ho ny to vi nhau mt gc 1800.
Trng hp lai ho ny thng xy ra trong nguyn t khi to thnh cc hp cht c dng
ng thng nh BeF2, BeH2, BeCl2, CO2, C2H2
V d:
Xt s to thnh lin kt trong phn t BeF2
Be (Z = 4): 1s2 2s2
Trng thi c bn
sp
sp
Trng thi kch thch
Hai AO lai ho sp to thnh ca Be s xen ph vi 2 AO ho tr ca 2 nguyn t F (2py)

to thnh 2 lin kt Be - F vi gc lin kt FBeF = 1800.
F:
2py
(F)
sp
Be
sp
2py
(F)
Lai ho sp2 (Lai ho tam gic):

L s lai ho gia mt AO s vi 2 AO p to ra 3AO lai ho sp 2 nm trong cng mt
mt phng, trc i xng ca chng to vi nhau mt gc l 120 0 hng v 3 nh ca mt
tam gic u.
Lai ho sp2 c dng gii thch cu trc hnh hc ca cc phn t BH 3, BF3, BCl3, SO2,
SO3 v gii thch lin kt i ca cc nguyn t C trong cc hp cht hu c.
V d:
32
Xt s to thnh lin kt trong phn t C2H4
C (Z = 6)
Trng thi c bn
Trng thi kch thch
Mi nguyn t C thc hin lai ho sp2 to 3 AO lai ho sp2. Gia 2 nguyn t C lin kt vi
nhau bng s xen ph ca 2 AO lai ho sp2 to ra lin kt C-C, sau mt AO sp2 ca mi
nguyn t C s to 2 lin kt C-H vi cc AO 1s ca 2 nguyn t hydro dc theo trc lin kt to
ra b khung ca phn t. mi nguyn t C cn li 1 orbital p cha lai ho (c cha 1 electron c
thn). V vy to c mt lin kt vi nhau theo phng vung gc vi trc lin kt c gc ho
tr l 1200.
H
(sp2-s)
(sp2-s)
(p-p)
H
C
H
hay l
C
2
H
H
C
C
H
H
(sp -sp )
(sp2-s)
(sp2-s)
- Lai ho sp3 (lai ho t din)

l s lai ho gia mt AO s v 3 AO p to ra 4 AO lai ho sp3 hon ton ging nhau to
thnh phn t c cu trc t din hoc gn t din nh CH4, CCl4, SiCl4, H2O, NH3 vi gc ho
tr l 109028' hoc gn vi gc .
sp3
sp3
sp3
sp3
1s + 3AOp
V d:
xt s to thnh lin kt trong phn t CH4
C (Z = 6)
Trng thi c bn
(sp3 s)
H
H
33
Trng thi kch thch
Trong phn t CH4, nguyn t C lin kt vi 4 nguyn t H bng s xen ph gia 4 AO lai
ho sp3 ca C vi cc AO 1s ca hydr to ra cc lin kt (C-H), phn t CH4 c dng t din u
vi tm l C v 4 nguyn t H 4 nh, gc lin kt H-C-H = 109028'.
2.2. Thuyt orbital phn t (MO)
Thuyt MO c xy dng hi mun hn thuyt VB bi cc nh bc hc Mucliken, Hund,
Cenard - Jones.
2.2.1. Lun im c bn ca thuyt MO
- Trong phn t cc electron chuyn ng trn cc hm sng chung ca phn t gi l cc
MO.
- Cc MO c thnh lp t s t hp cc AO ca hai nguyn t trong phn t:
n
MO =
i= 1
C i i
Vi
i: cc AO nguyn t
Ci: l hng s ni ln s ng gp ca hm i vo MO
- Cc AO tham gia t hp phi ph hp nhau v mt tnh i xng v c mc nng lng
xp x nhau, khi tham gia t hp chng phi xen ph nhau r rt.
- S MO thu c bng s AO tham gia t hp cc MO thu c sp xp theo th t tng
dn mc nng lng.
- T ta xy dng c gin mc nng lng v vit c cu hnh electron ca
phn t.
Nh vy theo thuyt ny, bi ton phn t qui v vic xc nh cc MO v cc mc nng
lng tng ng ca chng.
2.2.2. Bi ton ion phn t H2+
Ion phn t H2+ l i tng nghin cu c bn v n gin nht ca thuyt MO.
V hai nguyn t trong phn t ging nhau nn cc AO ho tr ca chng u ging nhau,
ngha l chng c cng tnh cht i xng. Trong trng hp ny s t hp n AO s cho ra n/2 MO
lin kt c nng lng thp hn, v n/2 MO phn lin kt c nng lng cao hn ny lng ca cc
AO nguyn t trong t hp.
V d:
MO
H + H+ = H2+
1sA
1sB
= C11sA + C21sB
Gii phng trnh Schrodinger i vi hm ny ngi ta tm c hai nghim l:

1
( 1sA 1sB ) l MO phn lin kt s ng vi nng lng cao hn (c mt

+ MO =
2
electron khong gia 2 ht nhn nh).
34
+
MO
( 1sA 1sB ) l MO lin kt s ng vi nng lng thp hn khi trng thi

2
nguyn t (c s tp trung mt e khong gia 2 ht nhn cao).
S t hp cc AO to thnh cc MO thng c biu din ln gin gi l gin nng
lng cc MO.
s l MO lin kt, s* l MO phn lin kt, ch ngha l lin kt H - H+ l lin kt , ch
s ngha l lin kt c to thnh t cc AOs. Ta c gin mc nng lng theo thuyt MO ca
ion phn t H2+ nh sau:
+
1SA
1SB
s
H
H+2
H+
Ta thy trn gin khi to thnh phn t H2+ nng lng ca h c gim hn nng lng
ca cc nguyn t v ion ring l ngha l h H2+ bn hn h H v H+ ring l.
T ta c th vit c cu hnh ca H2+ l s1.
Bc lin kt theo phng php MO:
Theo phng php ny bc lin kt i vi phn t 2 nguyn t c tnh theo cng thc:
(n n*)
N=
2
Vi
n: tng s cc electron trn cc MO lin kt

n* : tng s cc electron trn cc MO phn lin kt
Nu N = 0 th lin kt khng tn ti ngha l khng c phn ng .
V d: He2 cho He (Z = 2):
Phn t He2 c 4e(2 2)
= 0
N=
2
Do khng tn ti phn t He (nn cc phn t kh him l phn t n nguyn t).
8 4
= 2 (ph hp vi thc nghim)
- Trong phn t O2 c bc lin kt l N =
2
- Trong ion phn t H2+
35
N=
1 0 1
=
(phn t H2+ c tn ti)
2
2
Bc lin kt cng ln th lin kt cng bn

2.2.3. Thuyt MO v phn t hai nguyn t thuc chu k 2 (phn t hai nguyn t ng hch
dng A2). i vi nguyn t chu k 2, c cc AO ho tr l ns v np.
- Lp cc MO:
Cc MO c xy dng bng s t hp cc AO ho tr, cc MO c chia thnh dng v
tu theo tnh i xng ca chng.
Ta ch cn xt cc AO ho tr 2s, 2px, 2py v mi AO u c s nh hng r rt trong
khng gian, nn ta chn mt h to thng nht cho cc phn t loi A2 vi trc z trng vi trc
ca phn t.
x
(a)
y
(b)
T hp 2 AO 2s ca 2 nguyn t to 2 MO s v s*.
T hp 2AO 2pz to 2 MO z v z* (c i xng trc trng vi trc ca phn t).
T hp 2AO 2px v 2px' to cc MO x v x*.
T hp 2AO 2py v 2p'y to cc MO y v y*
(c trc i xng song song vi nhau v vung gc vi trc ni gia 2 ht nhn).
Cc MO x v y, x* v y* tng i mt ch khc nhau v hng trong khng gian nn
tng i mt chng c cng mc nng lng (x = y v x* = y*).
- Gin cc MO:
T 8 AO (2s', 2px', 2py', 2pz') v (2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz) ca 2 nguyn t ngi ta xy
dng c 8 MO gm 4MO lin kt v 4MO phn lin kt. Ta c 2 gin .
Gin 1:
Th t mc nng lng ca phn t A2 cc nguyn t cui chu k 2 (O2, F2, Ne2) nh sau:
s < s* < z < (x = y) < (x* = y*) < z* tng ng vi gin 1:
36
Gin 1:
A2
2p
2p
z
H
s*
2s
2s
Gin 2:
i vi cc nguyn t u chu k (t Li n N) do s chnh lch nng lng ca cc AO 2s
v 2p khng ln lm nn c s xen ph gia AO 2s v 2pz lm cho MO z v z* tr nn km bn
hn do nng lng ca z ln hn nng lng ca MO x, y: do th t mc nng lng
ca cc phn t A2 ca nguyn t ny nh sau:
s < s* < (x = y) < z < (x* = y*) < z*
T ta c gin 2 ca cc phn t ny
37
Gin 2
A2
z*
x
2p
2p
z
x
y
H
s*
2s
2s
* Tnh cht t ca phn t

V mt t tnh ngi ta phn bit cht thun t v cht nghch t.
- Nhng cht c cha electron c thn trong phn t thng b t thng ht gi l cc
cht thun t.
- Nhng cht m trong phn t tt c cc electron ghp i b t trng y gi l cht
nghch t.
T cu hnh electron ca phn t ta c th d on tnh cht t ca chng.
p dng thuyt MO cho cc phn t A2 thuc chu k 2.
V d 1:
Phn t Li2: (vi Li (Z = 3)
Li: 1s22s1 2 nguyn t Li c 6e- 2e- phn lp 2s.
Cu hnh phn t Li2: s2
2 0
=1
N=
2
Khng c electron c thn nn phn t nghch t.
V d 2:
O2 cho O (Z = 8)
Mi nguyn t O c 6e lp th 2, 2 nguyn t c 12e - sp xp vo cc mc nng lng
nh sau:
38
s2 s*2 2z (2x = 2y)(x*1 y*1)
8 4
= 2
N=
2
Phn t c 2e- c thn nn c tnh thun t
V d 3:
Phn t Ne2 cho Ne (Z =10)
Mi nguyn t Ne c 10 electron, 2 nguyn t Ne c 20 electron, vy c 16 electron sp xp
nh sau:
s2 s*2 2z (2x = 2y)(x*2 y*2)
8 8
= 0
N=
2
V vy phn t Ne2 khng tn ti
3. Lin kt phi tr
L lin kt cng ho tr m cp electron dng chung ch do mt nguyn t a ra, nguyn t
ny gi l nguyn t cho. y c s chuyn cp electron t do ca nguyn t cho v orbital trng
ca nguyn t nhn. Lin kt phi tr c k hiu bng mt mi tn hng t nguyn t cho sang
nguyn t nhn.
V d: H3N: + H+ = [H3N : H]+
1s
hay [H3N H]+ hay NH4+
Trong thc t, khng th phn bit lin kt phi tr v lin kt cng ho tr thng thng. V
d: trong NH4+, bn lin kt ca N vi H hon ton ging nhau v di lin kt v nng lng lin
kt. Lin kt phi tr thng gp trong cc phc cht.
IV. Tng tc gia cc phn t

Ngoi cc lin kt chnh xt nh lin kt ion, lin kt cng ho tr cn c cc tng tc
gia cc phn t nh lin kt hydr, lc Vanderwaals.
1. Lin kt hydro
Nguyn t hydro ngoi kh nng tham gia lin kt cng ho tr thng thng, cn c kh
nng to mt mi lin kt th hai vi mt nguyn t khc c m in ln v kch thc nh. Mi
lie kt th hai ny km bn hn nhiu so vi lin kt cng ho tr thng thng v c gi l lin
kt hydro, k hiu bng du ba chm ()
V d:
- Lin kt hydro lin phn t
F
H
F
F
H
F
(HF)n
H
O
Ru v nc
39
Trong phn t HF, nguyn t H sau khi lin kt vi nguyn t F bng mt lin kt cng ho
tr cn hnh thnh mi lin kt th hai (lin kt hydr) vi nguyn t F ca phn t HF khc to nn
phn t lin hp (HF)n.
- Lin kt hydro ni phn t
H
O
H
ortho nitrophenol
andehyt salicilic
* Nguyn nhn xut hin lin kt hydro

Do c im cu to nguyn t ca hydro l ch c mt electron duy nht nn khi nguyn t
hydro lin kt cng ho tr vi mt nguyn t ca nguyn t c m in ln th my electron ca
hydro b ht lch mnh v pha nguyn t v lm nguyn t hydro b bin thnh ht tch in
dng mc khc cn do kch thc ca hydro rt nh nn ion hydro d dng tin gn n cc
nguyn t hay ion khc, thm ch thm nhp vo lp v electron ca cc nguyn t hay ion khc
hnh thnh nn mi lin kt hydro.
Nng lng ca lin kt hydro rt b (khong 2 - 10 kcal/mol) nn lin kt hydro km bn
hn lin kt ho hc thng thng (khong hng trm kcal/mol).
* nh hng ca lin kt hydro n tnh cht ca cc cht
- Lm tng nhit nng chy, nhit si ca cc cht do lin kt hydro to nn lc ht
gia cc phn t, gy nn s trng hp phn t lm phn t lng trung bnh ca cc cht tng nn
nhit nng chy v nhit d si ca cc cht tng.
V d:
Cht
T0nc (0C)
T0s (0C)
HF
20
-83
19,5
HCl
36,5
-112
-84,9
Lm gim in li, gim tnh axit ca cc cht.

V d:
Trong dy HX cc axit HCl, HBr, HI l cc axit mnh nhng do trong cc phn t HF c
lin kt hydro lin phn t nn HF l cht in li yu v c tnh axit trung bnh.
- Lm tng tan ca cc cht: lin kt hydro gia cc phn t cht tan v dung mi lm
tan ca cc cht tng do d hnh thnh solvat.
V d: Gia ru v nc c lin kt hydro nn ru tan v hn trong nc, trong khi te
(ROR) khng tan trong nc do gia te v nc khng c lin kt hidro. S hnh thnh lin kt
hydro lin phn t cho php gii thch tnh d ho tan ca cc hp cht c nhm phn cc trong
nhng dung mi phn cc nh nc, ru
Ngoi ra lin kt hydro lin phn t cn lm gim tnh baz ca cc cht v gy nn s bin
i bt thng v khi lng ring.
40
* Lin kt hydro mi phn t lm thu gn cc phn t li ng thi lm gim kh nng to
lin kt hydro gia cht vi dung mi do lm gim nhit nng chy, nhit si v tan ca
cc cht, lin kt ny cn lm gim tnh axit ca cc cht.
2. Lc Vanderwaals
L lc tng tc gia cc phn t, n c bn cht tnh in. Lc Vanderwaals cng ln th
mmen lng cc ca phn t, kch thc v khi lng ca phn t cng ln. Lc vanderwaals b
hn vi nng lng ca lin kt ion v lin kt cng ho tr nn n ch c nh hng ch yu n
mt s tnh cht l hc ca cc cht.
V d: Theo dy F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 th kch thc v khi lng tng t u n cui dy nn
lc vaderwaals tng dn do nhit si v nhit nng chy ca cc cht ny tng dn.
Lc Vardenwaals bao gm cc thnh phn sau:
* Lc nh hng: khi cc phn t phn cc gn nhau chng tng tc vi nhau bng lc
tnh in lm cho cc phn t xoay hng sp xp mt cch c trt t nhm lm gim nng
lng ca h.
* Lc cm ng: cc phn t phn cc tng tc vi cc phn t khng phn cc lm xut

hin lng cc gia chng.
* Lc khuych tn: cc phn t khng phn cc gn nhau do chuyn ng ca cc

electron lm cho mt electron lun lun bin i nn lm dch chuyn trng tm in tch dng
v m nn lm xut hin cc lng cc tm thi v chng ht nhau bng lc ht tnh in.
Lc Vanderwaals gm E = E1 + E2 + E3
41
Lc Vanderwaals tuy nh nhng cng lm cho cc phn t ny buc nhau nn thng nh
hng n tnh cht vt l ca cc cht nh nhau, nhit nng chy, nhit si
V. S lc v trng thi tp hp ca cc cht

Cc cht tn ti ba trng thi: rn, lng, kh
1. Trng thi kh
c trng bi khong cch gia cc phn t ln, cc phn t xa nhau, chng chuyn ng
t do hn lon theo mi phng v c th nn chng a cc phn t ny li gn nhau. V vy
cc cht kh c th dn n v cng c th b nn nn chng gy ra p sut ln bnh vt cha. Trng
thi v tnh cht vt l ca cc cht kh tun theo cc nh lut ring v cht kh.
2. Trng thi lng
c trng bi khong cch gia cc phn t nh hn, cc phn t c th chuyn ng t do
nhng khng th nn p c hc gim th tch ca chng. Trng thi lng linh ng, khng c
hnh dng ring, di tc dng ca nhit, cc phn t cht lng c th ri khi trng thi lng v
chuyn thnh hi (gi l s bay hi). Ngc li cng bng tc dng c th c nh cc phn t v
chuyn cht lng thnh trng thi rn.
3. Trng thi rn
Ngay iu kin thng nhiu cht tn ti trng thi rn. c trng ca trng thi ny l
cc phn t gn nhau n mc khng th chuyn ng t do, chng ch dao ng quanh mt v tr
cn bng no v vy cht rn c kh nng gi c hnh dng ca n. V mt cu trc cht rn
gm 2 dng l cht rn tinh th v cht rn v nh hnh.
* Cht rn tinh th: trong tinh th cc ht (nguyn t, phn t, ion, nhm nguyn t )
c sp xp theo mt trt t hon ton xc nh, chng hu nh khng chuyn dch tnh tin m
ch dao ng chung quanh v tr cn bng. Cht rn tinh th c nhit nng chy xc nh.
* Cht rn v nh hnh: l cht rn m phn t sp xp hn n gn vi trng thi lng, tuy
vy n cng khc vi trng thi lng l ht ca cht v nh hnh khng c chuyn ng tnh tin v
chuyn ng quay.
Cht v nh hinh khng c nhit nng chy xc nh khi b un nng n mm ra, nho
dn ri ho lng, di tc dng ca cc lc bn ngoi cht v nh hnh c th b bin dng.
V d: Cc cht rn v nh hnh nh thu tinh, cao su
42
CHNG IV
NHIT NG HC HO HC
Nhit ng hc ha hc nghin cu cc quy lut chuyn bin gia ha nng v cc dng nng
lng khc, cc iu kin b vng ca h ha hc v nhng quy lut thay i ca chng h t
c trng thi cn bng, t c th iu kin qu trnh ha hc theo mun.
I. Mt s khi nim c bn
1. H nhit ng
H nhit ng l mt vt th hay mt nhm vt th m ta kho st, cch bit vi mi trng
xung quanh bng b mt thc s hay tng tng.
Trong mt h xc nh, ngi ta thng xt n hai yu t: lng vt cht v cc dng nng
lng d tr trong lng vt cht .
Ngi ta phn bit:
1.1. H h (hay h m)
H m l h c th trao i cht v nng lng vi mi trng xung quanh.
1.2. H kn (hay h ng)
H kn l h khng trao i cht m ch c s trao i nng lng vi mi trng xung
quanh.
1.3. H c lp
H c lp l h khng trao i c cht v nng lng vi mi trng xung quanh.
1.4. H ng nht
H ng nht l h m cc tnh cht cn xem xt u ging nhau vi mi trng xung
quanh.
1.5. H d th
H d th l h trong tn ti b mt phn chia gia cc phn trong h.
1.6. H ng th
H ng th l h trong khng tn ti b mt phn chia gia cc phn t c trong h.
2. Cu t
Mi phn t tn ti trong h ,ng nht v phng din ho hc, c th tch ra khi h v
tn ti ngoi h gi l mt cu t.
V d: dung dch nc mui c hai cu t
3. Pha (tng)
Tp hp tt c nhng phn ng th ca h, ging nhau v thnh phn ho hc v tt c cc
tnh cht nhit ng, ngn cch vi nhng phn khc nhau bng nhng b mt phn chia gi l pha
(hay tng) ca h.
H ng th bao gi cng c mt pha, cn h d th c nhiu pha.
4. Trng thi
Trng thi ca mt h l ton b nhng tnh cht l ho ca h. Trng thi ca h c c
trng bng cc thng s trng thi P, V, T, n. Cc thng s ny lin h vi nhau bng cng thc PV
= nRT.
43
Cc thng s trng thi c chia thnh hai loi
- Thng s trng thi khuch : t l vi lng cht - V d: th tch, khi lng.
- Thng s trng thi cng : khng t l vi lng cht.
V d: nhit , p sut, nng
5. Hm trng thi
Mt i lng c gi l hm trng thi ca h nu bin thin ca i lng ch ph
thuc vo trng thi u v trng thi cui ca h, khng ph thuc vo cch tin hnh.
Ngc li, nu s bin i ca thng s cn ph thuc vo c cch tin hnh qu trnh th
khng c gi l hm trng thi (i khi gi l hm qu trnh).
V d: Nng lng l mt hm trng thi, nhng nhit v cng khng phi l hm trng
thi.
6. Qu trnh
Khi h chuyn t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc, ta ni h thc hin mt qu trnh.
Nu sau mt s bin i, h tr v trng thi u th qu trnh c gi l vng (hay chu
trnh), ngc li l qu trnh m.
- Qu trnh xy ra nhit khng i (T-const) c gi l qu trnh ng nhit
- Qu trnh xy ra p sut khng i (p = const) l qu trnh ng p
- Qu trnh xy ra th tch khng i (V = const) l qu trnh ng tch.
- Nu qu trnh khng trao i nhit vi mi trng, nhng c th trao i cng (khi dn
n) c gi l qu trnh on nhit.
7. Qu trnh t din bin v qu trnh khng t din bin
- Qu trnh t din bin l qu trnh thc hin trong h khng cn c s can thip t bn
ngoi, ngha l khng cn tiu th cng t bn ngoi, tri li khi kt thc c th sinh ra cng.
- Qu trnh khng t din bin l qu trnh khng thc hin c nu nh khng c s can
thip t bn ngoi, ngha l phi tiu tn cng.
8. Qu trnh thun nghch v qu trnh khng thun nghch
- Qu trnh 12 c gi l thun nghch nu nh c th thc hin c qu trnh ngc
21 i qua ng vi mi trng thi trung gian nh ln i thun, sao cho khi h tr v trng thi u
th khng cn tn ti mt bin i no trong chnh h cng nh mi trng.
- Qu trnh xy ra khng c kh nng tr li trng thi ban u gi l qu trnh bt thun
nghch.
Vi qu trnh bt thun nghch, cng v nhit sinh ra nh hn qu trnh thun nghch:
qtn > qbtn
Atn > Abtn
9. Nng lng
Nng lng l thc o vn ng ca cht. C hai cch chuyn nng lng:
- Nu s chuyn nng lng c lin quan n s di chuyn mt h c hc th s chuyn
nng lng c thc hin di dng cng. K hiu A.
- Nu s chuyn nng lng c lin quan n vic tng tc chuyn ng ca phn t
vt nhn nng lng th s chuyn nng lng c thc hin di dng nhit. K hiu q.
q, A l hm qu trnh, c o hm ring l q, A.
44
II. Nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc
1. Ni nng ca h(U)
L tng nng lng d tr ca h bao gm nng lng ca mi dng chuyn ng v
tng tc ca lng vt cht c trong h nh nng lng chuyn ng tnh tin, chuyn ng
quay ca phn t, nng lng dao ng ca nguyn t, phn t, nng lng chuyn ng ca e
trong nguyn t v phn t, nng lng lin kt ho hc, nng lng ht nhn.
Vic tnh gi tr tuyt i ca ni nng trong h rt kh khn nhng bin thin ca n c th
xc nh c v c nhiu ch li hn.
Ni nng l hm trng thi (ph thuc trng thi u v cui), vi phn dU ca n l vi phn
ton phn.
2. Nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc
L tin rt ra t nhng kinh nghim thc tin ca con ngi.
2.1. Ni dung
Nguyn l ny c th pht biu theo nhiu cch
Cch 1: Nng lng khng th t sinh ra cng khng t mt i, n chuyn t dng ny sang
dng khc theo nhng t l tng ng nghim ngt.
Cch 2: Khng th c ng c vnh cu loi mt, l ng c c kh nng lin tc sinh cng
m khng cn cung cp nng lng tng ng.
Cch 3: Ni nng ca mt h c lp c bo ton
2.2. Biu thc ton hc ca nguyn l I
Theo nguyn l I, khi cung cp mt lng nhit Q h chuyn t trng thi mt sang trng
thi hai th lng nhit ny bin i ni nng ca h t U1 sang U2 v hon thnh mt cng A chng
li cc lc bn ngoi.
q = A + U
U = U2 - U1
A = Adn n + A'
Adn n : Cng chng li p sut mi trng
A'
: Cng chng li cc lc khc tc dng ln h
Nu vit di dng vi phn, ta c:

q = dU + A
Sau y ta xt kh nng sinh cng ca h:

- Trong h c lp, h khng nhn nhit (q = 0), khng sinh cng (A = 0) th U = 0.
Vy trong h c lp, ni nng ca h c bo ton
- Trong trng hp h khng nhn nhit (q = 0) li sinh cng (A > 0), khi ta c:
A + U = 0 => A = -U > 0.
Ngha l:
(U2 - U1) > 0 U1 > U2: ni nng ca h phi gim.
- Trong cc phn ng ho hc, thng thng cng A l cng dn n, chng li p sut bn
ngoi.
45
A = P (V2 - V1) = PV
Vy trong qu trnh ng tch:
V = 0 A = 0
Do :
qv = U
- Kt lun: nhit to ra hay thu vo trong qu trnh ng tch ca phn ng ho hc bng
bin thin ni nng ca h.
3. Entanpi (H)
a s cc phn ng ho hc xy ra p sut khng i (v d: p sut kh quyn) th biu
thc v lng nhit m h hp ph qp.
qp = U + PV = (U2 - U1) + P (V2 - V1)
= (U2 + PV2) - (U1 + PV1)
t: H = U + PV qp = H2 - H1 = H
H = U + PV
i lng H c gi l entanpi ca h. Do U, P, V l hm trng thi nn H cng l hm
trng thi, c trng cho trng thi ca h.
- Kt lun: lng nhit to ra hay thu vo trong qu trnh ng p bng bin thin entanpi
ca h.
4. Quan h gia U v H
Ta c:
qv = U v qp = H = U + PV
- i vi nhng qu trnh ho hc ch c cht rn v cht lng tham gia th i lng V c
gi tr khng ng k. Do khi qu trnh c thc hin p sut thp th PV rt nh:
H U
- i vi nhng qu trnh c cht phn ng hay sn phm phn ng th kh th U v H
c th khc nhau. Tht vy, i vi kh gn l tng ta c:
PV = nRT
PV = nRT
H = U + nRT
Khi
n = 0 U = H
n 0 U H
III. Nhit ha hc
Nhit ho hc l mt lnh vc ca ho hc nghin cu v s bin i nhit lin quan n cc
phn ng ho hc.
Trong phn ng ho hc, v tng nng lng ca cc cht tham gia v cc cht to thnh
khng bng nhau, ngha l c s bin i nng lng. S bin i nng lng (to ra hay hp th)
c th hin di dng nhit nng, quang nng hay in nng, trong nhit nng ng vai tr
quan trng nht.
1. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng ho hc l lng nhit to ra hay thu vo khi mt mol
cht tham gia vo phn ng (hay mt mol sn phm c to thnh). Lng nhit to ra hay thu vo
bng s tng hay gim entanpi ca h.
46
- n v o Kcal/mol
KJ/mol
- Qui c
- Phn ng to nhit: Q> 0
- Phn ng thu nhit: Q < 0
Du ca nhit ng hc khc du ca nhit ho hc.
* Ch :
T cc biu thc ca nguyn l I v quy c tri du ca nhit ng hc vi nhit ho hc, ta
c:
Qp = - qp = -H
Qv = - qv = - U
Vy: nhng phn ng to nhit ra mi trng xung quanh ngha l lm nng mi trng
xung quanh gi l phn ng to nhit. Trong trng hp ny h phn ng mt nhit nn: H < 0.
V d: Cc phn ng t chy
- Nhng phn ng ly nhit ca mi trng xung quanh, ngha l lm lnh mi trng xung
quanh gi l phn ng thu nhit H > 0
V d: Phn ng nhit phn CaCO3
* Phng trnh ho hc c km theo hiu ng nhit gi l phng trnh nhit ho hc.
Do hiu ng nhit ph thuc vo nhit nn so snh hiu ng nhit ca cc qu trnh,
ngi ta s dng i lng hiu ng nhit tiu chun H0, l hiu ng nhit c xc nh
iu kin chun 250C v 1atm.
Trong phng trnh nhit ho hc thng ghi c trng thi ca cc cht trong phn ng.
V d:
Cth.ch + O2(k) = CO2 (k)
H0 = - 94,052kcal/mol
2. Sinh nhit (nhit to thnh) (Hs)
Sinh nhit hay nhit to thnh ca mt hp cht l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng to thnh
mt mol hp cht t cc n cht iu kin chun.
V d:
H2(k) + 1/2O2 (k) = H2O (k) H0s(H2O) (k) = -57,8 kcal/mol
* Ch : Sinh nhit ca cc n cht bn iu kin chun bng 0
3. Thiu nhit (nhit t chy) (H0 c)
Thiu nhit ca mt cht l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng t chy mt mol cht bng oxi
va to thnh oxit bn iu kin chun.
i vi cc cht hu c, thiu nhit l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng t chy hon ton 1
mol cht thnh CO2 v hi nc (hay nc lng) v cc sn phm tng ng khc.
V d:
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
H0c (CH4) = - 212,8kcal/mol
* Ch :
i vi cc nguyn t, thiu nhit ca mt nguyn t chnh l sinh nhit ca oxit
bn ca n.
V d:
Cth.chi + O2(k) = CO2(k)
H0 = -94,052 kcal/mol
Ho - Sinh nhit ca CO2
47
- Thiu nhit ca C
4. Nhit phn hu (H0ph)
Nhit phn hu ca mt hp cht l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng phn hu mt mol hp
cht thnh cc n cht bn iu kin chun.
5. nh lut Hess
5.1. nh lut
Nh bc hc Nga G. Hess (1802-1850) a ra c nh lut Hess nh sau:
Hiu ng nhit ca qu trnh ho hc ch ph thuc vo bn cht v trng thi ca cc cht
u v cc sn phm ch khng ph thuc vo cch thc hin phn ng.
V d:
A+B
(trng thi u)
A+B
H1
H2
H3
E+F
E + F (trng thi cui)
C+D
H1 = H2 + H3
5.2. H qu
- Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng ho hc bng tng sinh nhit ca cc sn phm tr tng
sinh nhit ca cc cht tham gia phn ng (cht u), km theo h s trong phng trnh phn ng.
Hp = Hs (sp) - Hs (c)
-Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng ho hc bng tng thiu nhit ca cc cht tham gia
( cht u) tr tng thiu nhit ca cc sn phm, km theo h s trong phng trnh phn ng.
Hp = Hc (c) - Hc (sp)
- Hi ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nng lng lin kt c trong phn t cc cht
tham gia t tng nng lng lin kt c trong phn t cc sn phm (km theo h s trong phng
trnh phn ng).
Hp = Hlk (c) - Hlk (sp)
- Hiu ng nhit ca mt qu trnh vng bng khng.
- Trong phn ng thun nghch: nu phn ng thun c hiu ng nhit l H th phn ng
nghch c hiu ng nhit l - H.
5.3. ng dng ca nh lut Hess
1. Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng theo Hsn, Htn, Hlk v ngc li
2. Tnh hiu ng nhit ca nhiu phn ng khng th o trc tip.
3. Tnh nng lng ca thc n a vo c th.
V d:
Glucoza khi vo c th, qua rt nhiu phn ng nhng sn phm cui cng l CO 2 v H2O,
do lng nhit do glucose cung cp cho c th bng lng nhit do cht ny to ra khi t n vi
O2 bn ngoi c th, lng ny c th xc nh c do tnh c nng lng do glucose sinh
ra.
5.4. nh lut Lavoisier - Laplace
Nhit to thnh v nhit phn hu ca mt hp cht bng nhau v gi tr v ngc du.
48
IV. Nguyn l II ca nhit ng hc
Nguyn l th nht nhit ng hc i n kt lun: gia cc dng nng lng trong mt h
nhit ng c th chuyn ho tng h theo mt t l nh lng nghim ngt. Tuy nhin nguyn l
khng cho php xc nh chiu hng v gii hn ca qu trnh.
Chnh nguyn l th hai xc nh nhng qu trnh no trong nhng iu kin cho c th
t din bin v din bin ti gii hn no.
1. Ni dung
C th pht biu nhiu cch:
Cch 1: Nhit khng th t truyn t vt lnh sang vt nng hn.
Cch 2: cng c th chuyn hon ton thnh nhit, cn nhit khng chuyn hon ton thnh
cng.
Cch 3: Khng th c ng c vnh cu loi 2, l loi ng c bin nhit hon ton thnh
cng.
2. Entropi
Xt 2 kh l tng A v B khng tng tc nhau, hai ngn ca bnh kn. Khi ct mng
ngn, A v B s khuch tn t nhin vo nhau cho n khi trn u nhau, qu trnh ny khng
km theo hiu ng nng lng no v y l kh l tng.
(trng thi ban u)
AB BA
A thi cui)
(trng
Ta thy s phn b cc phn t trng thi ban u c trt t cao hn trng thi cui hay
trng thi cui c hn n cao hn. Nh vy, trong iu kin nng lng khng i, h c
khuynh hng chuyn t trng thi c hn n thp sang trng thi c hn n cao hn.
V mt ton hc, trng thi c hn n cao c xc sut tn ti ln hn, c gi l xc
sut nhit ng ca trng thi hay xc sut trng thi, k hiu W.
V xc sut trng thi ca mt trng thi v m c tr s rt ln, kh tnh ton nn ngi ta
dng i lng entropi, k hiu S.
S = RlnW
R: hng s kh l tng.
Trong iu kin nng lng ca h khng i, s xy ra qu trnh chuyn h t trng thi c
xc sut nh (W1) sang trng thi c xc sut ln hn (W2):
S1 = RlnW1
W2
S = S2 - S1 = Rln
W1
S2 = RlnW2
W 2 > W 1 S2 > S1
Do h c khuynh hng chuyn cht t trng thi c entropi nh sang trng thi c
entropi ln hn.
S = S2 - S1 > 0
Vy entropi l mt hm trng thi, c trng cho mc hn n ca h. H s t trng
thi bn nht khi entropi cc i.
49
3. Biu thc ton hc ca nguyn l II
Q
S
T
Q
Biu thc vi phn: dS
T
Q: o hm ring nhit lng trao i
T: nhit tuyt i
S: entropi
2
Du = ng vi qu trnh thun nghch S = S2 - S1 =
Q
T
1
Du > ng vi qu trnh bt thun nghch S >
Q
T
1
Nh vy entropi l thc o thun nghch hay khng thun nghch ca qu trnh.

* Ch
- Entropi c tnh cht cng tnh:
n
Sh =
i= 1
S i = S1 + S 2 + ... + S n
S1, S2 ... l entropi ca cc thnh phn

- Entropi l mt hm trng thi nn i vi mt phn ng ho hc: Sp=Ssp - Sc (km
theo h s trong phng trnh phn ng).
- Khi nghin cu entropi ca cc cht, ngi ta thy Skh > Slng > Srn
- Trong h c lp, Q = 0 => S 0
S = 0 qu trnh thun nghch
S > 0: qu trnh khng thun nghch, S tng. Nh vy trong h c lp, nhng qu
trnh t din bin l nhng qu trnh c km theo s tng S.
4. Cch tnh entropi ca mt s qu trnh thun nghch
4.1. Qu trnh thun nghch ng nhit (chuyn pha)
Q
S =
T TN
V d: Qu trnh nng chy: S =
Qnc
Tnc
Qu trnh ho hi : S =
Qhh
Thh
4.2. Qu trnh thun nghch ng tch

T2
S = Cvln
T1
Cv: nhit dung ng tch
50
4.3. Qu trnh thun nghch ng p
T2
S = Cpln
T1
Cp: nhit lng ng p
V. Th ng p v chiu t din bin ca qu trnh ha hc

1. Tc ng ca yu t entanpi v entropi ln chiu hng ca qu trnh
- Qu trnh d xy ra khi H < 0, ngha l khi nng lng ca h gim, cc tiu phn sp
xp trt t hn, h tr nn bn hn.
- Qu trnh xy ra khi S > 0, ngha l h c khuynh hng chuyn t trng thi c hn
n thp sang trng thi c hn n cao.
l hai qu trnh t nhin tc ng ng thi ln qu trnh ho hc nhng ngc nhau
v trong mi qu trnh lun lun c s tranh ginh gia hai yu t , yu t no mnh hn s
quyt nh chiu ca qu trnh. V vy, cn phi tm mt hm phn nh ng thi hai yu t ,
du v tr s ca hm ny c th dng lm tiu chun xc nh chiu hng v mc din
bin ca qu trnh..
2. Th ng p - ng nhit (Nng lng t do Gibbs)
Gibbs (nh vt l ngi M (1839-1903) kt hp c hai yu t trong mt hm trng
thi gi l th ng p - ng nhit G (gi tt l th ng p) hay cn gi l nng lng t do Gibbs:
G = H - TS
Tng t ni nng, entanpi v entropi, th ng p G cng l mt hm trng thi.
- Khi S = 0, ngha l i vi qu trnh trong khng c s thay i mc hn n,
hay s thay i l khng ng k => qu trnh ch chu nh hng ca yu t entanpi.
=> qu trnh s t din bin khi H < 0 => G = H => G < 0.
- Khi H = 0 ngha l i vi nhng qu trnh khng c s hp th hay gii phng nng
lng (v d qu trnh khuch tn cc kh), ch c yu t entropi nh hng n chiu hng din
bin ca qu trnh.
=> qu trnh s t din bin khi S > 0, v H = 0 => G = -TS => G < 0.
- Khi H < 0, S > 0: c hai yu t entropi v entanpi u thun li cho s din bin ca
qu trnh: G = H - TS => G < 0.
- Khi H > 0, S < 0: c hai yu t entropi v entanpi u khng thun li cho s din bin
ca qu trnh. Qu trnh khng th t xy ra c. Do G = H - TS => G > 0.
- Khi H < 0, S < 0: qu trnh c thc y bi yu t entanpi nhng b cn tr bi yu
t entropi.
Trong trng hp ny, qu trnh ch c th t din bin khi yu t entropi mnh hn yu t
entanpi, hay |H| > |TS|, ngha l G = H - TS => G < 0.
- Khi H > 0, S > 0: qu trnh s t din bin nu yu t entropi mnh hn yu t entanpi
hay |TS| > || => G = H - TS => G < 0.
Tm li, tiu chun xt qu trnh c th t din bin hay khng l:
G < 0 hay H - TS < 0 => H < TS: qu trnh t din bin
G > 0 hay H - TS > 0 => H > TS: qu trnh khng th t xy ra
51
G = 0 => G = TS = 0 => H = TS: qu trnh t cn bng
3. Cch tnh bin thin th ng p ca qu trnh
3.1. Tnh H v S ca qu trnh, sau tnh G = H - TS
3.2 Da vo th ng p hnh thnh chun G0 ca cc cht.
Th ng p hnh thnh chun G0 ca mt cht l bin thin th ng p ca qu trnh to
thnh mt mol cht t cc n cht bn iu kin chun.
V G l hm trng thi nn G0 ca phn ng ho hc bng tng bin thin th ng p ca
cc sn phm tr i tng bin thin th ng p ca cc cht u (km theo h s t lng).
G0p = G0sp - G0c
G0:
* Ch :
G0 ca n cht trng thi bn vng bng 0
3.3. C th tnh G0p nh sau:
Tnh hng s cn bng Kc hay Kp ca phn ng ri tnh G0
Gp = G0 + RTlnKc
Gp = G0 + RTlnKp
Ti trng thi cn bng:
G = 0 => G0 = -RTlnKc hoc
G0 = -RTlnKp
- o sc in ng ca nguyn t ganvanic trong xy ra v phn ng ha hc v tnh
G0 = -nE0F
n: s e m mt phn t cht oxi ho nhn hy mt phn t kh nhng.
F: s Faraday, F = 96.500Coulomb
E0: sc in ng ca pin
52
CHNG V
NG HO HC
ng ho hc nghin cu tc ca cc phn ng ho hc v cc yu t nh hng
n tc nh: nng , nhit , cht xc tc T cho php tm hiu v c ch ca cc
phn ng ho hc.
I. Mt s khi nim
1. Tc phn ng
biu th mc nhanh hay chm ca mt phn ng ngi ta dng khi nim tc
phn ng.
Tc ca mt phn ng ho hc c biu th bng bin thin nng ca cht
tham gia phn ng hay sn phm ca phn ng trong mt n v thi gian.
V d:
Xt phn ng A + B C + D
Nu phn ng thc hin nhit v th tch khng i, ti cc im t1 v t2, ta ly
nng cht A tng ng l C1 v C2 th tc trung bnh ca cc phn ng trn trong
khong thi gian (t2 -t1) l:
v=
C 2 C1
C
=
t 2 t1
t
V nng ca cc cht bin i lin tc, nn chnh xc hn ngi ta s dng tc

tc thi ca phn ng (ngha l tc ti thi im t xc nh).
Lc tc tc thi ca phn ng c tnh bng o hm bc nht ca nng
theo thi gian.
dC
v=
dt
y nu C l nng cht tham gia phn ng ta phi t thm du tr, nu C l nng
sn phm th ly du (+) m bo tc phn ng l mt i lng lun lun dng.
2. Phn ng n gin v phn ng phc tp
- Phn ng n gin: l phn ng ch din ra qua mt giai on.
V d:
H2 + I2 2HINO + O3 NO2 + O2
- Phn ng phc tp: l phn ng xy ra qua nhiu giai on
V d:
2N2O5 4NO2 + O2
l phn ng phc tp v gm 2 giai on ni tip nhau:
N2O5 N2O3 + O2 (giai on 1)
53
N2O3 + N2O5 4NO2 (giai on 2)
3. Phn t s v bc phn ng
tm ra cc qui lut chung v tc phn ng, ngi ta phn loi phn ng da theo
bc v phn t s.
* Phn t s
L s tiu phn (phn t, nguyn t hay ion) ng thi tng tc vi nhau trong mt
giai on ca phn ng. V vy phn t s l mt s nguyn.
V d:
CH3 - N = N - CH3 CH3 - CH3 + N2
tham gia vo tng tc ch c mt phn t. V vy phn t s l mt v c gi l
phn ng n phn t.
Nu s tng tc xy ra khi c s tham gia ca 2,3 phn t th c gi l phn ng
lng phn t, tam phn t.
V d:
H 2 + I2
= 2HI (phn ng lng phn t)
2NO + H2 = N2O + H2O (phn ng tam phn t)
Phn ng 4 phn t tr ln thng khng gp trong thc t v mun c xc phn ng
cc phn t phi va chm nhau v xc sut va chm ca 4 phn t tr ln thng rt him nn
i a s phn ng ho hc l n hoc lng phn t.
* Bc phn ng
Bc phn ng l tng cc s m ca nng vit trong biu thc ca nh lut tc
dng khi lng ca mt phng trnh ng hc thc nghim (yu t nng thc s quyt
nh tc ca mt phn ng).
V d:
O2 + 2H2 2H2O
l phn ng bc 3 nh vy bc phn ng c th l s nguyn nhng cng c th l phn
s.
* Ch :
i vi phn ng n gin, bc phn ng trng vi phn t s, i vi phn ng phc
tp bc phn ng c xc nh da trn giai on no xy ra chm nht, lc c th bc
phn ng khng trng vi phn t s ca phn ng.
V d:
2N2O5 4NO2 + O2
l phn ng bc 1 mc d c phn t s l 2 v bc phn ng ny c xc nh a vo
giai on 1 l giai on xy ra chm hn.
N2O5 N2O3 + O2
Ngoi ra khi nng ca cc cht rt khc nhau th bc ca chng cng khng trng
vi h s t lng ca cc cht phn ng.
V d: phn ng thu phn ng saccoza
C12H22O11 + H2O
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(gluc)
(Fructo)
54
l phn ng bc 1 v lng nc thu phn rt ln, nn nh hng ca nc n qu
trnh hu nh khng i nn khng cn ch n.
4. Phn ng ng th v phn ng d th
* Phn ng ng th: l phn ng xy ra trong h ng th.
V d:
N2 (k) + 3H2 (k) 2NH3 (k)
* Phn ng d th: l phn ng xy ra trong h d th.
C (r) + H2O (h) CO (k) + H2 (k)
Phn ng d th xy ra phc tp lun phn ng ng th v ngoi qu trnh chuyn ho
hc cn phi tnh n qu trnh chuyn vt th n bin gii tip xc gia hai pha v ngc li.
II. Cc yu t nh hng n tc phn ng

1. nh hng ca nng n tc phn ng
1.1. nh lut tc dng khi lng
Mt phn ng ho hc mun xy ra, cc cht tham gia phn ng va chm nhau, nhng
va chm dn n xy ra phn ng gi l cc va chm c hiu qu. Khi nng cc cht tng,
s va chm c hiu qu cng tng dn nn phn ng xy ra nhanh hn.
1867 Gulberg v Waager a nh lut tc dng khi lng nn nh hng ca
nng n tc ca phn ng c ni dung sau:
" nhit xc nh, tc phn ng t l thun vi tch s nng ca cc cht
tham gia phn ng, mi nng c s m l h s t lng ca cc cht trong phng
trnh phn ng".
V d:
Vi phn ng tng qut: aA + bB cC + dD
Theo nh lut ny ta c: v = kC Aa C Bb hay v = [A]a [B]b
(Biu thc ny l phng trnh ng hc ca phn ng trn).
Trong :
- k: hng s tc , n ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht phn ng v nhit .
- CA, Cb: nng ca cc cht tham gia phn ng tnh theo n v mol/l
- Nu CA = CB = 1 th lc v = k lc ny k c gi l vn tc ring ca phn ng.
* Ch :
- i vi phn ng phc tp, bc ca phn ng c xc nh da vo giai on no
xy ra chm nht do v ca phn ng s c xc nh bng v ca giai on chm nht.
Ngha l:
v = k[A]m[B]n
Cc lu tha m, n s c xc nh bng con ng thc nghim cho giai on chm
nht, cn trong trng hp phn ng n gin th n trng vi h s v b ca [A] v [B] trong
phng trnh phn ng.
i vi phn ng thun nghch: aA + bB
cC + dD
Tc phn ng ti 1 thi im nht nh bng hiu s cc tc ca phn ng thun
nghch.
55
v = v t - vn
Ti thi im cn bng th
vt = vn vphn ng = 0
2. nh hng ca nhit n vn tc phn ng
Ni chung tc ca cc phn ng ho hc thng tng ln khi nhit tng.
2.1. Qui tc Van't Hoff
"Khi nhit ca phn ng tng ln 100 th hng s tc ca phn ng (hay l tc
phn ng) tng ln t 2 n 4 ln.
k + 10
= t
= 2 4
kt
kt = 10: hng s tc nhit t + 100
kt : hng s tc nhit t
: h s nhit ca phn ng
Trong trnghp tng qut, biu thc ca nh lut Van't Hoff c dng
k + n.10
n = t
kt
vi
V d: mt phn ng c h s nhit l = 3. Hi khi tng nhit ln 400 th tc

ca phn ng tng ln bao nhiu ln.
Gii: theo qui tc Van't Hoff ta c:
k t + 4.10
= 34 = 81
kt
Vy v phn ng tng ln 81 ln
2.2. Biu thc Arrhnius
nh hng ca nhit n tc phn ng c biu th chnh xc hn v p dng
c trong mt khong nhit rng hn qua biu thc Arrhnius:
k = A.e-E*/RT
R: hng s kh l tng (R = 1,98 cal/mol.k)
A: hng s
E*: hng s i vi mt phn ng xc nh cn c gi l nng lng hot ho ca
phn ng, n ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht phn ng.
e: c s logarit t nhin (e = 2,71)
T biu thc ny ta thy khi nhit tng, tc phn ng tng v phn ng c nng
lng hot ho cng b th phn ng cng d dng xy ra.
2.3. Thuyt hot ho (thuyt va chm hot ng) v nng lng hot ho
Theo thuyt ny th khng phi tt c mi va chm u xy ra phn ng m ch c
nhng va chm ca cc nguyn t hay phn t hot ng mi dn n phn ng.
Cc nguyn t hay phn t hot ng l cc nguyn t hay phn t c mt nng lng
d ln so vi nng lng trung bnh ca chng.
Vy "nng lng hot ho ca mt phn ng l nng lng ti thiu m mt mol cht phn
ng phi c chuyn phn t ca chng t trng thi bnh thng sang trng thi hot ng".
56
Nh vy, c th phn ng c vi nhau, phn t cc cht phn ng phi vt qua
mt hng ro nng lng , chnh l nng lng hot ho ca phn ng. Nu nng lng
hot ho cng nh th tc phn ng s cng ln. V vy khi xt kh nng phn ng ngi ta
thng dng i lng ny so snh.
n v nng lng hot ho l kcal/mol hoc kJ/mol.
3. nh hng ca cc cht xc tc n v phn ng
3.1. Mt s khi nim v xc tc
3.1.1. Xc tc l hin tng lm thay i tc ca cc phn ng ho hc c thc
hin bi mt s cht c bit gi l cht xc tc, cc cht ny sau khi phn ng xy ra n
c hon tr li v lng v cht.
Thng thng "cht xc tc" c dng ch cc cht lm tng tc phn ng (gi
l cht xc tc dng).
V d:
H2 + 1/2O2 bt Pt
H2O
MnO2, nhit
2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
Cht xc tc lm gim tc phn ng gi l cht xc tc m (hay cht c ch).
V d:
Na2SO3 lu trong khng kh d b xi ho theo phn ng.
2Na2SO3 + O2 = 2Na2SO4
Nhng nu cho ng hoc SnCl4 th s lm gim vn tc ca phn ng ny rt nhiu.
Tuy nhin khi ni n s xc tc, ch yu ng ta vn quan tm n cc cht xc tc dng.
3.1.2. Xc tc ng th v xc tc d th
* Xc tc ng th:
Cht xc tc v cht phn ng cng mt pha (lng hoc kh) phn ng xy ra trong
ton b th tch ca h phn ng ngha l trong khng gian ba chiu.
V d:
SO2 + O2
NO
SO3
ng pha kh
* Xc tc d th:
Cht xc tc v cht phn ng cc pha khc nhau.
Thng th cht xc tc pha rn cn cc cht phn ng
pha lng hoc kh. Phn ng ch xy ra trong khng gian hai chiu, trn b mt ca
cht xc tc. Tc phn ng t l thun vi b mt cht xc tc.
V d: 2H2O2 (l) MnO2 2H2O(l) + O2 (k) d th lng - rn
3.2. c im ca cht xc tc
- Lng cht xc tc s dng rt b so vi lng cht phn ng.
- Cht xc tc khng gy ra c phn ng ho hc - Ngha l i vi nhng phn
ng khng c kh nng xy ra v mt nhit ng hc th khng th dng cht xc tc no
lm cho phn ng xy ra c.
- Trong phn ng thun nghch, cht xc tc lm bin i tc phn ng thun v phn
ng nghch mt s ln nh nhau nn n ch lm cho qu trnh mau t n trng thi cn bng.
57
- Cht xc tc c tnh chn lc. mt cht xc tc thng ch c th xc tc cho mt
phn ng hoc mt loi phn ng nht nh. .
V d:
T C2H5-OH c th iu ch C2H4 hoc CH3CHO tu theo cht xc tc em s dng.
C2H4 + H2O (xt Al2O3; 3500C)
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + H2 (xt Cu, 2500C)
* Ch :
Khi s dng cht xc tc ta cn gp cc cht sau:
- Cht tng hot: cht lm tng hot tnh ca xc tc.
V d:
Khi thm mt t Na2SO4 vo V2O5 th hot tnh xc tc ca V2O5 tng mnh.
- Cht c xc tc: l cht m khi trn n vo cht xc tc th hot tnh ca cht xc
tc mt i.
V d:
HCN l cht c ca xc tc As2S5.
3.3. C ch xc tc
3.3.1. C ch xc tc ng th
Vai tr ca cht xc tc l lm gim nng lng hot ho ca phn ng ho hc, khi cc
phn ng xc tc xy ra, cc cht xc tc tham gia to cc hp cht trung gian vi cc cht
phn ng, sau cc hp cht trung gian s phn ng tip vi cc cht cn li hoc t phn
hu to nn sn phm. Mc d phn ng c xc tc ng th xy ra theo nhiu giai on
hn, nhng mi giai on li c nng lng hot ho b nn vn tc chung ca phn ng
tng.
V d:
Xt phn ng A + B AB
* Khi cha c xc tc
A + B [A B] AB
E1* (ng 1)
* Khi c mt xc tc K, qu trnh xy ra qua nhiu giai on

A + K [A ... K] AK
E2*
AK + B [AK ... B] AB + K ,E3* (ng 2)
Cc i lng E2*, E3* u rt nh so vi E1* nn cc phn ng ny xy ra nhanh hn
do tc phn ng tng (sn phm cui cng vn l AB, cn cht xc tc K c khi
phc nh c).
58
E
[ A...B]
E*1
E*3
[A...K]
E*2
[ AK...B]
A +B
A +B+K
AB
AB+K
ng phn ng
iu ny c m t qua gin nng lng nh trn

3.3.2. C ch xc tc d th
C ch xc tc d th phc tp hn v c nhiu thuyt gii thch, trong thuyt
hp ph l d dng nhn hn c. Ta bit b mt cht xc tc c kh nng hp ph cc cht
phn ng, lm cho cc cht phn ng tin li gn nhau v di trng lc cc tiu phn b
mt xc tc, hot tnh ho hc ca cc phn t tng ln, lm cho nng lng hot ho ca
phn ng gim xung. Kt qu l phn ng xy ra trn b mt cht xc tc vi vn tc ln
hn rt nhiu so vi khi khng c xc tc.
Khng phi tt c cc phn trn b mt cht xc tc u c kh nng lm cho cc phn
t cht phn ng tr nn hot ng m ch c mt s trung tm hot ng b mt xc tc to
c hp cht trung gian hot ng gia cht xc tc v cht phn ng, cc hp cht ny s
phn ng vi cc cht cn li to nn sn phm. tng thm s trung tm hot ng,
ngi ta tng din tch b mt ca cht xc tc bng cch nghin nh xc tc, hoc cho xc
tc dng xp hoc ko si rt mnh.
C ch xc tc d th gm cc giai on sau:
- Cc cht phn ng khuych tn n b mt cht xc tc s hp ph mt trong cc
cht phn ng tng hot tnh ca cht phn ng.
59
- Phn ng xy ra trn b mt cht xc tc.
- Cc sn phm phn ng to thnh v tch khi b mt cht xc tc v i vo trong
h.
3.4. Xc tc enzim (xc tc men)
Cc phn ng ho hc xy ra trong c th sng thng c s tham gia ca cc cht
xc tc, l cc men hay enzim gi l xc tc men.
Enzim l cht xc tc sinh hc, c bn cht protein. Trong xc tc enzim cc cht
phn ng c gi l c cht. Phn ng gia enzim v c cht c thc hin cc trung tm
hot ng ca cht xc tc.
Xc tc enzim c mt s c im sau:
- Kh nng xc tc ca enzim khng xy ra trn ton b phn t m xy ra cc trung
tm hot ng c bit. Nhng trung tm c tnh xc tc thng cha cc hot ng nh:
-SH, -OH, -NH2, -NH- ... hoc cc nguyn t chuyn tip nh Co, Mn, Mo, Fe ... s trung tm
hot ng cng tng th kh nng xc tc ca enzim cng ln.
- S tn ti v kh nng hot ng ca men ph thuc vo nhit , pH ca mi
trng, s c mt ca cc cht x ... 1000C hu ht cc men u b phn hu.
- Mt phn ng xy ra trong sinh hc thng c mt xc tc men ring nn vic tm ra
cc enzim c hiu thc y cc qu trnh sinh hc theo hng c li l mt trong nhng mc
tiu ca cng ngh sinh hc v vy xc tc men c tnh chn lc cao.
V d:
Men ureaza xc tc cho phn ng thu phn ure
Co(NH2)2 + H2O CO2 + 2NH3
- Xc tc enzim xy ra nhit v p sut bnh thng vi hiu sut phn ng rt
cao. Nu s dng chng trong sn xut th hiu qu kinh t s rt ln.
III. Phng trnh ng hc ca phn ng

Phng trnh ng hc m t quan h nh lng gia nng ca cc cht phn ng
v thi gian - Da vo phng trnh ny ta c th xc nh c mt s thng s quan trng
ca phn ng nh hng s tc , bc phn ng, chu k bn hu ca phn ng
1. Phn ng bc mt
Phn ng bc mt c dng tng qut:
A sn phm
Theo nh khi lng ta c:
d [ A]
v=
= k t [ A]
dt
d [ A]
= kd
T ta c:
[ A] t t
ln[A]
ln[A0]
Gii phng trnh vi phn ny ta c

- ln [A] + ln[Ao] = kt hay ln[A] = kt + ln[Ao]
hay c th vit di dng:
1 [ Ao]
k t = ln
[ A]
T
tg = -kt
Trong
t
60
[A]: nng cht A ti thi im t
[Ao]: nng cht A khi t = 0
th ln[A] = f(t) l mt ng thng m h s gc s cho bit gi tr ca hng s tc
k ca phn ng. Hng s tc ca phn ng tc c th nguyn l 1/t. Phn ng bc 1
thng l phn ng phn hu cc cht.
V d:
C2H6 C2H4 + H2
232
90
Th
228
88
Ra + 42 He
Khi nghin cu cc phn ng bc 1 ngi ta thng ch n i lng chu k bn

hy ca phn ng l thi gian m mt na lng ban u ca cht phn ng b tiu th.
Gi t1/2 l thi gian nng ban u cn li mt na.
[A] = 1/2[Ao] thay vo phng trnh (III.1)
ta c:
[ Ao] = kt = ln
ln =
1/ 2
2
1 / 2[ Ao]
hay
ln 2 0,693
=
k
k
Ngha l thi gian bn hu ca phn ng bc 1 khng ph thuc vo nng ban u
m ph thuc vo bn cht phn ng.
2. Phn ng bc 2
Phn ng bc 2 c cc dng:
2A sn phm
A + B sn phm
t1 / 2 =
* Dng 2A
v=
k2
sn phm
d [ A]
d [ A]
2
= k 2 [ A]
= k dt
dt
[ A] 2 2
Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c:

1
1
= k 2t +
[ A]
[ Ao]
(III.2)
1 1
1
(III.3)
k2 =
t [ A] [ Ao]
hng s tc ca phn ng bc 2 c th nguyn lt/mol -1/t-1
khi t = t1/2 ta c:
1
t1/2 =
(III.4)
k 2 [ Ao]
hay
Vy thi gian bn hu ca phn ng bc 2 ph thuc vo nng u ca cht phn ng.

V d v phn ng bc 2:
61
2O3 3O2
2C4H6 C8H12
k2
* Dng A + B
sn phm
Nu [Ao] = [Bo] th ti mi thi im [A] = [B] v vy
d [ A]
2
= k 2 [ A][ B ] = k 2 [ A]
dt
Do c th p dng cc phng trnh (III.2), (III.3); (III.4)
Nu [A] = [B] th
d [ A]
d [ A]
v=
= k 2 [ A][ B ]
= k dt
dt
[ A][ B] 2
v=
Gii phng trnh vi phn ny ta c

1
[ Bo][ A]
k 2t =
ln
[ Ao] [ Bo] [ Ao][ B]
3. Phn ng bc 3
k3
Cc phn ng bc 3 c dng 3A
2A + B
A+B+ C
Xt trng hp n gin nht: 3A
v=
sn phm
sn phm
sn phm
sn phm
d [ A]
d [ A]
3
= k 3 [ A]
= k 3 dt
3
dt
A
[ ]
Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c

1
1
= 2k 3t +
2
[ A]
[ Ao] 2
4. Phn ng bc 0
k0
sn phm
Tc phn ng khng ph thuc vo nng ca cht phn ng

d [ A]
v=
= k 0 A 0 = k 0 dt
dt
Gii phng trnh trn ta c
[A] = -k0t + [Ao]
[ ]
IV. Mt s phn ng khc

1. Phn ng quang ho
1.1. nh ngha
Phn ng quang ho l phn ng ho hc xy ra di tc dng ca nh sng.
62
nh sng y c th l nh sng trng thy, bc x hng ngoi v bc x t ngoi.
Bc x c bc sng cng ngn c nng lng cng ln th s c tc dng mnh n cc cht
phn ng.
Trong vng quang ph nhn thy, bc x c tc dng yu nht, bc x tm c tc
dng mnh nht, bc x t ngoi c tc dng mnh hn nhiu.
V d:
AgBr
Ag + 1/2Br2
H2 + Cl2
2HCl
1.2. nh lut ng lng quang ho
Quan h gia nng lng nh sng c hp ph v lng cht phn ng c m t
theo nh lut ng lng quang ho ca Einstein a ra vo nm 1912:
"Mt phn t cht phn ng c th c hot ho v tr nn c kh nng phn ng do
hp ph mt lng t nng lng ca nh sng".
e = h
T y ta tnh c nng lng E cn thit m mt mol cht phn ng hp ph t
mt bc x no .
C
=
E = N0h
10
C
0
C
=
3,10
cm/s
E=Nh
h = 6,625.10-34 J/s
Thay gi tr cc hng s vo, ta c:
hay h = 1,58.10-34 cal/s
2,859
cal / mol
E=
N0 = 6,023.1023 phn t
T y ta thy:
- Da vo bc x hp th ta tnh c nng lng cn thit mt phn t gam
cht tham gia phn ng.
- Mi phn ng xy ra cn c mt nng lng xc nh nn phn ng quang ho c
tnh chn lc.
- Khi lng cht phn ng t l thun vi nng lng bc x b hp th.
1.3. Phn ng cm quang, s tng nhy
Mt s phn ng quang ho ch xy ra khi trong h c mt mt cht khc, cht ny c
vai tr gip cho cht tham gia phn ng hp th nng lng ca bc x.
Cht ny c gi l cht tng nhy.
Phn ng quang ho c cht tng nhy gi l phn ng cm quang.
V d:
Phn ng quang hp cy xanh, tng hp ng Glucza t CO2 v H2O vi cht tng
nhy l clorophin (dip lc).
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
y l phn ng quan trng nht xy ra trn tri t v nh n m to ra oxi, tng hp
c cc hydrocacbon l cc cht hu c, ngun nng lng cho tt c cc qu trnh sng ca
sinh vt.
2. Phn ng dy chuyn
Phn ng dy chuyn c lin quan n s xut hin cc gc t do. V vy ngi ta cn
gi l phn ng gc t do.
V d:
63
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Cl + H2 HCl + H
H + Cl2 HCl + Cl
y l phn ng dy chuyn dng khng phn nhnh
V d 2:
Phn ng dy chuyn phn nhnh
Phn ng H2 + O2 H2O
Phn ng
OH
H2 + O2
OH
+H2
+H2
H2O
H
H2O
+O2
+O2
OH
O
+H2
+H2
OH +H2
H2O
OH
+H2
O2
O2
Giai on khi mo
Giai on pht trin mch
Mt phn ng gc t do thng c 3 giai on: khi mo, pht trin mnh v ngt mch.
Giai on ngt mch l kt qu phn ng gia cc gc t do
V d:
OH + H H2O
H + H H2
O + O O2
3. Phn ng ni tip
L phn ng din ra theo nhiu giai on ni tip nhau:
V d:
Phn ng thu phn trisaccarit C18H32O16
C18H32O16 + H2O C12H22O11 + C6H12O6
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucoza
Fructoza
Tc ca phn ng ni tip l tc ca giai on no chm nht trong cc phn
ng thnh phn.
4. Phn ng song song
T nhng cht ban u phn ng din ra theo mt s hng to ra cc sn phm
khc nhau.
V d: Khi nitro ho phenol ta thu c ng thi ba sn phm khc nhau: orto, meta
v para nitro phenol. Trong loi phn ng ny nng ca cc sn phm t l vi tc ca
cc phn ng thnh phn.
64
CHNG VI
CN BNG HO HC
I. Phn ng thun nghch v phn ng mt chiu
1. Phn ng mt chiu
L phn ng xy ra n cng cho n khi tiu th ht hon ton mt trong cc cht
tham gia phn ng.
V d:
Zn + 4HNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
Khi lng aixt HNO3 c th phn ng s kt thc khi lng km tan ht, ngc li
nu sc kh NO2 vo dung dch th cng khng thu c kim loi v axit.
2. Phn ng thun nghch
C nhng phn ng m sau mt thi gian phn ng ta cn tm thy c cht u v sn
phm, ngha l phn ng khng xy ra n cng.
V d:
N2 + 3H2 t0,p,xt
2NH3
Fe3O4 + 4H2 3Fe + 4H2O
Nhng phn ng ny gi l phn ng thun nghch. Trong loi phn ng ny ngi ta
dng du hai mi tn ngc chiu nhau (
) thng chiu t tri sang phi l chiu thun,
chiu ngc li l chiu nghch.
c im ca phn ng thun nghch l khng bao gi ht cc cht ban u v vy ni
phn ng thun nghch l phn ng khng hon ton.
II. Cn bng ho hc - hng s cn bng

1. Khi nim v cn bng ho hc
Xt phn ng thun nghch
aA + bB
cC + dD
Ti thi im ban u: CA, CB 0 cn CC, CD = 0
a
b
a b
Ta c: vt = k t C A C B hay vt = k t [ A] [ B ]
Ti thi im t 0, xut hin sn phm ngha l c phn ng nghch xy ra.

v n = k n C Cc C Dd hay vt = k n [ C ] c [ D ] d
Ngi ta gi trng thi ca phn ng thun nghch khi c vt = vn l trng thi cn bng
ho hc.
Khi h t trng thi cn bng ho hc th cc phn ng thun nghch vn xy ra vi
vn tc bng nhau nn trng thi cn bng ho hc l trng thi cn bng ng.
65
2. Hng s cn bng
2.1. Hng s cn bng
Khi h t trng thi cn bng ta c vt = vn
kt = [A]a [B]b = kn [C]c [D]d
kt [ C ] [ D]
=
k n [ A] a [ B ] b
c
KC =
T ta c:
(II.1)
Vy K l t s gia tch s nng cc cht sn phm phn ng v tch nng ca
cc cht tham gia phn ng.
mt nhit xc nh kt, kn l hng s nn KC cng l mt hng s v c gi l
hng s cn bng ca phn ng.
[II.1] l biu thc ca nh lut tc dng khi lng p dng cho cn bng ho hc.
"Khi h t trng thi cn bng, tch s nng ca sn phm phn ng vi s m l
h s t lng ca chng chia cho tch s nng ca cc cht tham gia phn ng vi s m
l h s t lng tng ng lun lun l mt hng s mt nhit xc nh gi l hng s
cn bng".
K l i lng c trng cho mt cn bng, K cng ln cn bng cng chuyn theo
chiu thun.
K hiu:
KC: khi hng s cn bng c biu th qua nng cc cht
Kp: Khi hng s cn bng c biu th qua p sut
PCc PDd
Kp = a b
PA PB
Khi :
Trong : PA, PB, PC, PD l p sut lc cn bng ca A, B, C, D trong h.

2.2. Quan h gia KC v KP
T phng trnh:
PV = nRT
vi pi: p sut ring phn ca kh i
ni
RT
Ta c: PiV = niRT
pi =
V
pi = ciRT
Thay cc gi tr ca pi vo biu thc tnh Kp ta c:
PCc PDd [ (C ) RT ] c [ ( D) RT ] d
KP = a b =
PA PB [ ( A) RT ] a [ ( B ) RT ] b
KP =
[ C ] c [ D ] d .( RT ) (c+ d ) ( a+ b)
[ A] a [ B] b
Vy KP = KC.(RT)n
Vi n = (c + d) - (a + b)
66
Khi n = 0 tc l s phn t kh 2 v bng nhau th KP = KC
Khi n 0 th KP KC
* Nu cht phn ng hoc sn phm l cht rn th nng hoc p sut ring phn
xem nh khng i nn cc cht ny khng c mt trong biu thc hng s cn bng.
V d: Fe3O4 (2) + 4H2 (k)
KC =
[ H 2 O]
[H2 ]4
4H2O
(h)
+ 3Fe
KP =
(2)
4
H 2O
PH42
* Ch :
i vi cc loi cn bng khc nhau th hng s cn bng c tn gi khc nhau.
- i vi cn bng axit baz, ta c Ka, Kb
- i vi cn bng kt ta ta c tch s tan T
- i vi cht in li ta c hng s in li : Kl
- i vi phc cht ta c hng s khng bn: Kkhng bn
2.3. Hng s cn bng v cc i lng nhit ng
Xt phn ng tng qut: aA + bB
cC + dD
* Nu A, B, C, D l cc cht tan trong dung dch lon ca chng ngi ta chng
minh c:
G = G
[ C ] c [ D] d
+ RTln
[ A] a [ B] b
hay
G = G0 + RTlnKp
Chuyn sang logarit thp phn ta c:
G = G0 + 2,3 RTlgKp
Khi t h trng thi cn bng G phn ng = 0 th
G0 = -2,3 RTlgKp
Thay R = 1,98 vo ta c: G0 = -4,56 TlgKp
y l biu thc quan h gia hng s cn bng v cc i lng nhit ng nh sau:
G0
lgKp = _
4,56 T
hay
KP = 10
G 0 / 4 , 56T
III. S chuyn dch cn bng v nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng

1. Khi nim v s chuyn dch cn bng. Nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng
Ta thy mt h cn bng c c trng bng cc gi tr xc nh ca cc i lng
nhit ng nh: nhit , p sut, s mol Nu ta thay i cc yu t ny th cn bng ca
h s thay i v h s chuyn sang trng thi cn bng mi.
67
Mi s chuyn dch cn bng u tun theo nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng
lechaterlier nh sau: "Khi mt h ang trng thi cn bng nu ta thay i mt trong cc yu
t nh hng n cn bng nh nhit , p sut, s mol cn bng s chuyn v pha chng
li s thay i ".
Ta c th c th ho s chuyn dch cn bng nh sau:
Yu t tc dng
Cn bng chuyn v pha
- Tng nhit
- H nhit
- Tng nng cht tham gia
- Tng nng sn phm
- Tng p sut
- H p sut
- Chiu phn ng thu nhit

- Chiu phn ng pht nhit
- Chiu thun
- Chiu nghch
- Chiu gim s ph t kh (gim P)
- Chiu tng s phn t kh (tng P)
2. Xt mt s v d v chuyn dch cn bng

2.1. nh hng ca nng
Xt phn ng: FeCl3 + KSCN
Fe(SCN)3 + 3KCl
mu
ang trng thi cn bng.
Nu tng nng FeCl3 hoc KSCN th tc phn ng thun tng cn tc phn
ng nghch cha tng do to thnh nhiu Fe(SCN)3 hn nn ta thy mu ca dung dch
tng ln, cn bng chuyn theo chiu gim nng ca FeCl3 v KSCN.
Khi cho KCl vo, tc ca phn ng nghch tng nn mu ca dung dch gim
hn so vi ban u v vy cn bng chuyn theo chiu nghch, chiu gim nng KCl.
2.2. nh hng ca p sut
Xt phn ng thun nghch
Xt phn ng thun nghch: 2NO (k) + O2 (k)
2NO2 (k)
ang trng thi cn bng.
Cn bng s chuyn theo chiu no nu ta tng p sut ca h ln 2 ln v gim p
sut ca h xung 2 ln?
Gi s h ang trng thi cn bng no ng vi nng cc cht l:
[NO] = a;
[O2] = b;
[NO2] = c
khi ta c:
vt = kt [NO]2 [O2]
vn = kn [NO2]2
ti trng thi cn bng: vt = vn
nn
kta2b = knc2
* Khi tng p sut ca h ln 2 ln th nng cc cht tng ln gp i ngha l:
[NO] = 2a
[O2] = 2b
[NO2] = 2c
2
2
khi
vt = kn (2a) (2b) = 8kta b
(Tc phn ng thun tng ln 8 ln)
68
vn = kn (2c)2 = 4knc2
(Tc phn ng nghch tng ln 4 ln)
Vy vt tng nhanh hn vn v cn bng chuyn theo chiu thun.
Ngc li nu gim p sut ca h xung 2 ln, nng ca cc cht gim cn 1/2 so
vi ban u, khi :
[NO] = a/2
[O2] = b/2
[NO2] = c/2
2
2
Nn
vt = kt (a/2) (b/2) = 1/8kta b
(Tc phn ng thun gim 8 ln)
vn = kn (c/2)2 = 1/4knc2
(Tc phn ng gim 4 ln)
Vy vn ln hn vt do phn ng chuyn theo chiu nghch, chiu tng p sut ca
h.
* Ch :
Trong trng hp tng s phn t kh 2 v ca phng trnh bng nhau. Vic tng
hoc gim p sut ca h khng nh hng n trng thi cn bng.
2.3. nh hng ca nhit
Khi tng nhit ngha l ta cung cp thm nng lng cho h, phn ng thu nhit
(cn nng lng) c tng cng, khi vn tc ca phn ng thu nhit tng hn tc ca
phn ng pht nhit, kt qu phn ng chy theo chiu phn ng thu nhit.
V d: Khi tng nhit ca phn ng
2NO2 (k)
N2O4 (k) H < 0
(nu)
(khng mu)
th phn ng s chuyn theo chiu chng li s tng nhit tc l chiu nghch
(chiu phn ng thu nhit) ta thy kh NO2 c to nn nhiu hn, mu nu m dn.
Ngc li khi h nhit , cn bng chuyn theo chiu thun, chiu tng nhit
(phn ng pht nhit) mu nu nht dn, cn bng chuyn v pha to N2O4 nhiu hn.
69
CHNG VII
DUNG DCH
Dung dch l mt h ng nht gm cht tan v dung mi m thnh phn c th bin i
trong mt gii hn rng
Cc phn ng ha hc thng xy ra trong dung dch lng vi dung mi l nc. V vy vic
tm hiu cc quy lut chi phi cc phn ng xy ra trong dung dch nc l iu rt cn thit.
I. Nng v tan ca dung dch

1. Nng
biu th thnh phn ca mt dung dch, ngi ta dng nng dung dch. Vy nng
dung dch l lng cht tan c trong mt lng xc nh dung dch hoc dung mi, lng cht tan
ln to dung dch c, ngc li l dung dch long.
1.1.Nng %
1.1.1. Nng % theo khi lng
Biu th s gam cht tan c trong 100g dung dch.
mct: khi lng cht tan(g)
mct
C% =
.100
mdd: khi lng dung dch (g)
mdd
V d: dung dch saccaroza 5% ngha l trong 100g dung dch c 5g saccaroza v 95g H2O.
1.1.2. Nng % theo th tch
Biu th s ml cht tan c trong 100ml dung dch.
V d: ancol etylic 700 ngha l trong 100ml dung dch ru ny cn c 70ml
C2H5OH nguyn cht v 30ml H2O.
1.2. Nng mol / l(M).
Biu th s mol cht tan c trong mt lt dung dch.
n
C M = ct
V: th tch (l)
Vdd
n: s mol
1.3. Nng molan
Biu th s mol cht tan c trong 1000g dung mi.
V d: dung dch NaCl 0,2 molan: dung dch cha 2 mol (=11,7g) NaCl trong 1000
gam nc.
1.4. Nng phn mol (hoc phn s mol)
Nng phn mol ca mt cht l t s gia s mol ca cht v tng s mol cc cht
c trong dung dch.
n
nA
A= A =
n n A + nB
70
* Ch :
Tng nng phn mol ca cc cht c trong dung dch bng 1.
1.5. Nng ng lng gam ( N )
Biu th s ng lng gam cht tan c trong mt lng dung dch.
n
N=
V
n': s ng lng gam cht tan c trong dung dch.
V: th tch (l)
V d: dung dch HCl 2N: l dung dch c cha 2 ng lng gam hoc 2x36,5g HCl
nguyn cht.
* p dng nh lut ng lng cho cc phn ng trong dung dch
Gi s phn ng :
A + B C
Gi:
NA, NB : Nng ng lng gam ca 2 dung dch A v B
VA VB: Th tch ca 2 dung dch A v B phn ng va vi nhau
Theo nh lut ng lng ta c:
NA .VA = NB .VB
y l biu thc ton hc p dng nh lut ng lng cho dung dch.
1.6. Mi quan h gia cc nng
1.6.1. Gia nng phn t gam v nng %
CM =
10dC%
M
M : khi lng phn t cht tan

CM : nng mol ca dung dch
D : khi lng ring ca dung dch
C% : nng % ca dung dch
1.6.2. Gia nng ng lng v nng % ca dung dch
CN
10dC
= %
C% : nng % ca dung dch

: ng lng gam
71
6.3. Gia CM v CN
CN = n.CM
n = S in tch m 1 ptg cht trao i
hoc n = S e m 1 ptg cht trao i
2. tan v cc yu t nh hng n tan

2.1. Khi nim v tan
mt nhit nht nh tan ca mt cht trong mt dung mi xc nh bng nng ca
dung dch bo ha cht .
Thng thng tan ca cht rn trong mt cht lng c biu th bng s mol cht tan c
trong mt lt dung dch.
i vi cht kh tan trong cht lng th tan c biu din bng th tch cht kh bo ha
trong mt th tch xc nh ca dung mi.
tan thng c k hiu l S
- Khi dung dch c nng nh hn tan ta c dung dch cha bo ha, cht tan c th tan
thm.
- Khi dung dch c nng ln hn tan cng nhit th ta c dung dch qu bo ha.
Cc dung dch qu bo ha khng bn, nu khuy, lc hoc thm vo dung dch mt vi tinh
th cht rn s c s kt tinh cht tan t dung dch v dung dch s tr v trng thi bo ha.
2.2. Cc yu t nh hng n tan
- Bn cht cht tan v bn cht dung mi:
Cng mt cht tan nhng c th tan nhiu hay t khc nhau trong nhng dung mi khc nhau.
Thng cc cht phn cc hoc hp cht ion tan trong cc dung mi phn cc, cn dung mi
khng phn cc ha tan cc cht khng phn cc.
- Nhit :
tan ca mt cht tng khi nhit tng, nu qu trnh ha tan thu nhit.
V d : NH4Cl, KNO3 tan nhiu khi un nng
tan ca cht kh gim khi nhit tng v qu trnh ha tan ca cc cht kh pht nhit.
tan ca cc cht kh t l vi p sut ring phn ca cht kh .
S = K.Pi
K : hng s t l
Pi : p sut ring phn ca cht kh
S : tan ca cht kh trong cht lng ( g/100g dung mi)
y l ni dung ca nh lut Henry v tan ca cht kh trong cht lng .
72
II. p sut hi bo ha ca dung dch cha cht tan khng in li v khng bay
hi. nh lut Raoult I
Dung dch khng in li l dung dch m trong cha cht tan tn ti di dng phn
t. y l cc dung dch thc c dung mi lng, cht tan c th l cht rn, lng hoc kh.
1. Khi nim v p sut hi bo ha
Do chuyn ng nhit, cc phn t cht lng tinh khit ng trong bnh kn s tch khi
b mt cht lng v bin thnh hi. Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh bay hi. Mt khc, cc phn t
cht lng tinh khit A trng thi hi cng chuyn ng hn lon, va vo b mt cht lng v mt
s phn t c th ngng t tr li, qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh ngng t. Khi vn tc hai qu trnh
ny bng nhau th tn ti cn bng:
Lng
Hi; H > 0
Hi nm cn bng vi trng thi lng gi l hi bo ho, n gy ra p sut hi bo ho
ca cht nguyn cht.
Ti mt nhit xc nh, mi cht c mt gi tr p sut hi bo ho khc nhau, ph
thuc bn cht ca cht.
Qu trnh bay hi l qu trnh thu nhit, khi tng nhit th p sut hi bo ho ca cc
cht tng.
2. p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch cha cht tan khng bay hi, khng in li
Khi ho tan mt cht tan khng in li v khng bay hi vo mt dung mi th cc phn
t cht tan s phn b ng u trong ton b th tch ca dung mi. Mt s phn t dung mi c
trn mt thong c thay th bi cc phn t cht tan khng bay hi, mt s phn t dung mi bay
hi gim v do p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi trong dung dch b hn so vi p sut hi bo
ho ca dung mi nguyn cht. S phn t cht tan cng tng th s phn t dung mi thot ra cng
t, do p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch (P 1) lun lun nh hn p sut hi bo ho ca dung
mi nguyn cht (P0).
S gim p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch tun theo nh lut Raoult I.
"p sut hi bo ha ca dung dch bng p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi nguyn cht
nhn vi phn mol ca dung mi trong dung dch".
P1 = P0 N dm = P0
n dm
n dm + n ct
P1 : p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch

P0 : p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi nguyn cht
Ndm : phn mol ca dung mi trong dung dch
Nu gi N cht tan l nng phn mol ca cht tan trong dung dch th:
Ndm + Nct = 1
P : gim p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch
P/Po : gim tng i p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch
N ct =
P0 P1 P
=
P0
P0
73
Do , nh lut Raoult I c th pht biu cch khc:
" Ti mt nhit xc nh, gim tng i p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch cha cht
tan khng bay hi v khng in li bng nng phn mol ca cht tan trong dung dch ".
III. Nhit si v nhit ng c ca dung dch nh lut Raoult II

Nhit ca cht lng l nhit m ti p sut hi bo ho ca cht lng bng p
sut hi bo ho ca kh quyn .
- Nhit ng c (kt tinh) ca cht lng l nhit m ti p sut hi bo ho ca pha
lng bng p sut hi bo ho ca pha rn.
- Do dung dch c p sut hi bo ho nh hn p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi nguyn
cht nn mun cho p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch bng p sut kh quyn cn phi tng nhit
ca dung dch ln nn nhit si ca dung dch ln hn nhit si ca dung mi nguyn cht .
- Do p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch nh hn p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi nguyn
cht nn cho p sut hi bo ho trn pha rn bng p sut hi bo ho trn pha lng (ca dung
dch) cn phi h nhit ng ca dung dch xung, ngha l: nhit ng ca dung dch nh
hn nhit ng ca dung mi nguyn cht.
V d:
- Nc si 1000C, dung dch si t0s > 1000C
- Nc ng 00C, dung dch ng t0 < 00C
Gin v p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch v dung mi H2O nh sau:
OA: p sut hi bo ha ca dung mi
nguyn cht( H2O)
O/A/: p sut hi bo ha ca dung dch
ts = t0s dd - t0s dm ( tng im si)
t = t0 dm - t0 dd ( h im
ng)
/
760mm
Hg
4,6mm
Hg
O'
ts
00
C
100 t 0 t
s
o
0
si v nhit
C
Raoult a ra nh lut II nh sau:
Khi kho st nhit

ng
ca dung mi v dung dch,
" tng im si v h im ng ca dung dch t l vi nng molan ca cht tan
trong dung dch".
nh lut ny c h thc ho nh sau:
ts = Ks .Cm
t = Kd .Cm
Trong
74
ts , td ( tng im si, h im ng ca dung dch so vi dung mi nguyn cht
Cm
: nng molan ca cht tan trong dung dch
Ks, K : hng s nghim si v hng s nghim ng ca dung mi nguyn cht
Gi tr Ks, K ch ph thuc vo bn cht ca dung mi.
y l mt trong nhng phng php xc nh phn t lng ca cht tan bng thc nghim.
Bng gi tr Ks, K ca mt s cht:
Cht
K ( / mol)
Ks ( / mol)
H2O
1,86
0,516
C6H6
5,12
2,67
Dietylete
1,79
2,11
Phenol
7,27
3,04
Anilin
5,78
3,22
V d:
Tnh t0s, t0 ca dung dch cha 9g glucoza trong 100g H2O. Cho Ks(H2O) = 0,516 ;
K(H2O) = 1,86
Gii:
9 1000
9 1000
=
= 0,5
Cm =
100 M glucoza 100 180
ts = 0,516 0,5 = 0,26
t = 1,86 . 0,5 = 0,930
Vy t0 si ca dung dch l: ts = 100+0,26 = 100,260C
t0 ng ca dung dch l: t = 0 - 0,93 = - 0,930C
IV. p sut thm thu ca dung dch

1. Hin tng thm thu
Hin tng thm thu xut hin khi cho dung dch tip xc vi dung mi qua mt mng bn
thm - l mng ch cho cc phn t dung mi i qua m khng cho cc phn t cht tan i qua (do
kch thc l ca mng nh). a s cc mng t bo u c tnh cht bn thm.
- Th nghim:
Dng mt phu c cung di, ming phu c bt kn bng mt mng bn thm. Cho
nc ng bo ho vo trong phu, sau nhng phu vo trong chu nc, mc nc ca phu
v chu ngang nhau. Sau vi gi, dung dch dng ln trong cun phu v mng bn thm cho cc
phn t dung mi di qua. Khi t n cao h no th nc khng dng ln c na, v lng
nc i qua mng bn thm t hai pha l nh nhau trong cng mt n v thi gian, lc ny hin
tng thm thu dng li.
75
- Vy :
Lc cn tc dng ln mt n v din tch ca mng bn thm lm trit tiu hin tng
thm thu gi l p sut thm thu (k hiu ). p sut ny bng p sut thu tnh ca ct cht lng
c chiu cao h gy ra.
2. nh lut Vant Hoff v p sut thm thu
Nm 1887 Van't Hoff xc nh p sut thm thu ca dung dch tho mn phng trnh
V = nRT
V C= n/V
nn ta c
= CRT
C: nng mol/l
V: th tch dung dch
R: hng s kh
T: nhit tuyt i
" p sut thm thu ca cht tan trong dung dch long c ln bng p sut gy bi cht
nu nh cng nhit n trng thi kh v chim th tch bng th tch dung dch ''.
nh lut ny ch p dng cho dung dch long cha cht tan khng bay hi v khi khng
c s tng tc gia cc cht. p sut thm thu ch ph thuc vo nhit v nng cht tan.
ng dng: Vic o p sut thm thu cng c s dng xc nh khi lng phn t
cht tan.
m
mRT
RT M =
= CRT =
MV
V
V d: Cho p sut thm thu ca mt dung dch cha 0,66g ur (NH 2)2CO trong 250ml
dung dch 330C bng 836mmHg. Tnh phn t lng ca ur.
Gii:
V =
m
mRT 0.66 62400 306
RT M =
=
= 60,3 vC
M
T
836 250
3. ng dng hin tng thm thu v p sut thm thu

Hin tng thm thu v p sut thm thu c ngha ln trong mt s qu trnh sinh hc.
Thm thu l nguyn nhn trc tip ca qu trnh ht nc t mi trng v qu trnh vn chuyn
nc trong c th sinh vt.
Dch t bo ca mi c th sng c nng cc cht dinh dng xc nh nn c p sut
thm thu xc dnh. Khi p sut thm thu ca dch t bo ln hn ca mi trng s gy ra s thm
thu nc mi trng vo t bo v lm cho nc di chuyn t t bo n sang t bo kia.
V d:
i vi cy trng, s thot hi nc t l lm cho qu trnh thm thu nc t mi trng
n ngn v l cy tng. Ngc li, khi mi trng c nng cht cao hn dung dch t bo, gy
ra s thm thu nc t t bo ra mi trng, t bo co li v c th cht. Mi sinh vt ch pht trin
76
bnh thng trong mi trng c p sut thm thu thch hp. Do nu bn phn vi nng qu
ln c th lm cy cht v mt nc.
i vi con ngi mt s thay i nh v p sut thm thu ca mu c th gy nh hng
nghim trng n qu trnh trao i cht trong c th.
V d:
Khi tim cc dung dch vo mu ngi bnh thng th dung dch phi c p sut thm
thu bng p sut thm thu mu ( dung dch gi l dung dch ng trng). Nu ln hn hay nh
hn p sut thm thu mu u gy ra hin tng ph v hng cu.
- Nu dung dch u trng: dung dch c p sut thm thu ln hn p sut thm thu mu
th hng cu teo li do nng mui ln nn nc i ra khi hng cu.
- Nu dung dch nhc trng: dung dch c p sut thm thu nh hn p sut thm thu
mu th nc i vo hng cu ( do nng mui b) nn hng cu phnh ra v v.
77
CHNG VIII
DUNG DCH IN LI
I. Thuyt in li
1. Tnh cht ca dung dch in li
i vi dung dch long ca cc axit, baz, mui c p sut thm thu, tng im si,
h im ng o bng thc nghim lun lun ln hn so vi tnh theo cng thc ca Raoult v
Van't Hoff. ph hp vi thc nghim, Van't Hoff a ra h s i gi l h s Van't Hoff ( hay h
s ng trng ).
' = iCRT = i
t's = its
= iKsCm
t' = it
= iKdCm
hay
i=
t d
t s
=
=
ts td
H s i cho bit tng im si, h im ng ca dung dch o bng thc nghim ln

hn tr s tnh theo l thuyt bao nhiu ln. H s ny xc nh bng thc nghim.
2. Thuyt in li
Cc hin tng trn gii thch c nu gi thit khi ho tan vo nc, cc phn t cht tan
phn li thnh cc phn t nh hn.
1877, Arrhenius a ra thuyt in li gii thch cc hin tng trn. Ni dung thuyt
in li:
- Nhng cht trng thi ho tan hoc nng chy c kh nng dn in gi l cht in li
(khi ho tan cht in li vo H2O th chng phn li ra thnh cc ion, di tc dng ca in trng,
chng chy v cc in cc).
- Cc cht khc nhau c mc phn li khc nhau nn ta c cht in li mnh v cht in
li yu.
Do c s in li nn s phn t c trong dung dch tng ln; m , ts, t ca dung dch
ph thuc nng tiu phn (ch khng ph thuc bn cht tiu phn) do trong thc t ,ts ,
t ln hn so vi tnh ton.
Vy i =
t
=
H s i cho bit s tiu phn ho tan ln hn s phn t cht tan bao nhiu ln.
78
3. in li
c trng cho mc phn li ca mt cht in li. in li l t s gia s phn t gam
in li v tng s phn t cht ho tan (hoc t s C).
S phn t in li
S
= phn t ha tan
n
C
=
n
C0
C : nng (s phn t gam) cht in li

C0 : nng (s phn t gam) cht ho tan
- Dung dch cht khng in li: = 0
- Dung dch cht in li hon ton: = 1
- Cht in li yu:
0 < < 1
4. Quan h gia in li v h s Van' t Hoff i
Gi s ho tan n phn t cht in li vo dung dch. Mi phn t phn li ra m ion. in li
ca dung dch l th:
- S phn t in li l n
- S ion c trong dung dch l n.m
- S phn t khng in li l n -n
- Tng s phn t cht tan trong dung dch l: m + n - n
.n.m + n n
i 1
= m + 1 (i ) = (m 1) =
Ta c : i =
n
m 1
m: s ion m mi phn t in li
i: h s Van't Hoff
: in li
II. Cn bng trong dung dch cht in li yu

1. Hng s in li
S in li ca cht in li yu l mt qu trnh thun nghch nn ta c th p dng nh lut
tc dng khi lng.
Gi s c cn bng:
HA = H+ + ATa c:
H+, A- : nng mol
Hng s cn bng K gi l hng s in li hoc hng s ion ho, c trng cho kh nng
in li ca mt cht K; cng ln th s in li cng mnh, cht in li phn li ra cc ion cng nhiu
v ngc li. K ph thuc bn cht ca cht in li, dung mi v nhit .
79
2. Mi lin h gia hng s in li v in li
- nh lut pha long Otswald
Gi C l nng mol ca cht in li HA:
HA H+ + ABan u
C
0
0
Khi c in li
C
C C
Cn bng
C - C
C C
: in li
C : s phn t gam HA in li
K cb =
K cb =
[ H ][ A ]
+
[ HA]
C. C
2C 2
=
C C C (1 )
2C
K cb =
1 2
Khi << 1 th c th xem 1- 1
Khi ta c biu thc n gin hn l
k /c
T , nu bit in ly mt nng xc nh ta c th tnh c K bng ngc li.

Biu thc ny cho thy: in li t l nghch vi cn bc 2 ca nng cht in li. l
ni dng ca nh lut pha long Ostwald. Khi nng gim ngha l khi pha long th in li
ca dung dch tng ln.
III. c im in li ca axit v baz

1. Quan im ca Arrhenius
1.1. Cht in li mnh v cht in li yu
- Cht in li mnh: l cht c kh nng cht in li hon ton thnh cc ion ngha l trong
dung dch khng cn phn t cha in li; gm: axit mnh, baz mnh v mui ca chng.
- Cht in li yu: l cht ch in li mt phn thnh ion ( hoc ch c mt s phn t in li ra
ion ); gm: axit yu, baz yu, mui ca baz yu v axit yu.
1.2. Axit v s in li
Axit l cht trong dung dch in li ra ion H+ (H3O+ ) v anion gc axit :
V d:
HnA nH+ + AnHNO3 = H+ + NO3-
80
Tnh axit ca dung dch l do tnh cht ca ion H+ quyt nh, cht no in li cho cng nhiu
ion H+ th tnh axit cng mnh.
- Axit in li hon ton l axit mnh, axit yu in li khng hon ton.
- i vi axit yu:
HAc H+ + AcKA =
[ H ][ Ac ]
+
[ HAc]
KA gi l hng s cn bng axit, cc axit a chc yu s in li thnh nhiu nc, mi

nc c mt hng s axit ring. Hng s axit chung ca ton b phn t bng tch cc hng s axit
ring.
V d:
[ H ][ H
+
H3PO4 H++ H2PO4-
K1=
PO4
[ H 3 PO4 ]
2
H2PO4- H+ + HPO42K2= .......

HPO42- H+ + PO43K3= .......
Kax= K1 . K2 . K3 ca phn ng H3PO4 3H+ + PO43K1 >> K2 >> K3
tng qut: Kax= K1 . K2 Kn
1.3. Baz v s in li ca baz
- Baz l cht trong dung dch in li ra anion OH- v cation kim loi.
M(OH)n = Mn+ + nOHTnh baz do ion OH- quyt nh, cht in li cng nhiu ion OH- th tnh baz cng
mnh.
- Baz mnh l baz in li hon ton, baz yu in li khng hon ton.
- i vi baz yu : qu trnh in li thun nghch; hng s cn bng in li ca baz gi l
hng s baz.
NH4OH NH4+ + OH-
[ NH ][OH ]
K=
+
[ NH 4 OH ]
Cc baz a chc yu s in li thnh nhiu nc, mi nc c mt hng s baz ring. Hng

s baz chung ca ton b phn t bng tch cc hng s baz ring.
[ MgOH ][OH ]
K=
+
Mg(OH)2 Mg(OH) + OH
+
[ Mg (OH ) 2 ]
MgOH Mg + OH
K2= ...........
2+
Mg(OH)2 Mg + 2OH
K= K1K2 K1>>K2
Kb= K1K2 .........Kn
K1>> K2>>.......>> Kn
+
Tng qut:
2+
81
1.4. S in li ca cc hydroxit lng tnh

- Cht lng tnh l cht nhng cht th hin c tnh axit ln tnh baz tc c kh nng in li
cho c ion H+ v ion OH-.
Cc cht c cng thc M(-O-H)n phn cc ca lin kt M-O v O-H tng ng nhau
nn c th lin kt M-O b phn ct do n th hin tnh baz, nu lin kt O-H b phn ct n th
hin tnh axit.
V d:
Al(OH)3 HAlO2.H2O
Al(OH)3 Al3+ + 3OHHAlO2H2O H+ + AlO2- + H2O
Cc hydroxit lng tnh:
Zn(OH)2, Sn(OH)2, Sn(OH)4, Pb(OH)2, Sb(OH)4 v Be(OH)2, Al(OH)3,...........
1.5. Mui v s in li
- Mui l sn phm ca s tc dng mt axit vi mt baz. Trong phn t c cha cation kim
loi v cation gc axit..
- Mui trung tnh in li cho cation kim loi v anion gc axit khng cha H c th thay th
c cation kim loi.
Na2CO3 = 2Na+ + CO 32_
- Mui axit in li cho cation kim loi v anion gc axit c cha H c th thay th c bi
cc cation kim loi.
NaHCO3 = Na+ + HCO3HCO3- H+ + CO32_
- Mui baz khi in li cho anion gc axit v gc baz ( c cha OH) .
Cu2(OH)2CO3 2CuOH+ + CO32CuOH+ Cu2+ + OH- Mui n: Trong phn t c kh nng in li hai loi ion n.
Na2SO4 = 2Na+ + SO42- Mui kp: in li cho ba loi ion tr ln.
NH4Fe(SO4)2 = NH4+ + Fe3+ + 2SO4- Mui phc: in li cho ion phc.
K4[Fe(CN)6] = 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4- ion phc
ion phc
2. Quan im axit - baz ca Bronsted

Quan im ca Arrhenius khng gii quyt c c nhng cht trong phn t khng cha
nhm OH- nhng vn th hin c tnh cht ca mt baz hoc i vi h dung mi khng phi l
nc, hoc i vi dung dch mui trong nc (do qu trnh thu phn).
Bronsted m rng quan nim axit - baz nh sau:
Axit l nhng cht trong dung dch c kh nng nhng proton H+ v baz l nhng
cht c kh nng nhn H+.
A = H+ + B-
82
V d:
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COOCc axit, baz c th l phn t trung ho hoc ion. Axit no d cho proton H+ l axit
mnh, baz no d nhn proton H+ l baz mnh.
Phng tnh tng qut:
A1 + B2 = A2 + B1
Mt cht c th ng vai tr l axit, cng c th l baz.
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COOAxit
Baz
CO32+ H2O HCO3- + OHBaz
Axit
Mi axit s c mt baz lin hp tng ng v ngc li chng c gi l axit- baz
lin hp. Axit cng mnh th baz lin hp cng yu v ngc li:
Axit
H2O
NH4+
HCl
H3PO4
H2PO4HPO42HCO3-
Baz
OHNH3
ClH2PO4HPO42PO43CO32-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Proton
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
IV. Dung dch phc cht

1. nh ngha
Phc cht l nhng cht phc tp to ra t hai mui n, khi ho tan trong dung dich th
phn ly thnh ion n v ion phc.
V d:
K3[Fe(CN)6]: to ra t hai mui n.
3KCN + Fe(CN)3 = K3[Fe(CN)6]
2. Cu to phc cht
Mi phn t gm mt ion trung tm hay cht to phc (thng l cation kim loi chuyn
tip) lin kt vi cc nhm phi tr, thng l anion hoc phn t trung ho hoc nhng nhm chc
trong cc hp cht hu c (gi l phi t) bng lin kt cng ho tr hoc lin kt phi tr to ion
phc (cu ni), ion phc s lin kt vi cc ion tri du (cu ngoi) to phn t trung ho.
- Phc anion: K3[Fe(CN)6]
- Phc cation: [Cu(NH3)4]Cl2
Cc phi t ph bin:
H2O,
aqu
NH3,
amin
NO,
CO,
OHnitrozil cacbolxyl hydroxo
83
3. Hng s khng bn ca phc cht
Xt phc K3[Fe(CN)6] trong dung dch, chng phn li ra ion n K+ v ion phc
[Fe(CN)6]3K3[Fe(CN)6] 3K+ + [Fe(CN)6]3v [Fe(CN)6]3- Fe3+ + 6CN-
[ Fe ][CN ]
=
3+
Kcb
[ Fe(CN ) 6 ] 3
Kcb gi l hng s khng bn ca phc (hng s phn li ca phc).

Kcb cng nh th phc cng bn; cng ln th phc cng km bn ion phc phn li
ra cc ion n cng nhiu.
V. Cht in li t tan - tch s tan

1. nh ngha tch s tan
Xt s ho tan ca cht in li t tan AgCl:
Cc ion Ag + v Cl- di tc dng ca cc phn t nc s tch khi tinh th v i vo
dung dch, v ngc li chng c th va chm v kt hp nhau to thnh phn t AgCl. Khi vn tc
ho tan bng vn tc kt ta th cht tan khng tan c na v xut hin cn bng:
AgCl(r) Ag+ + ClHng s cn bng ca h d th ny l:
K = [Ag+][Cl-] = TAgCl
K trong trng hp ny l tch s tan v k hiu T. T khng ph thuc vo nng ca
Ag+ v nng ca Cl- m ch ph thuc vo nhit .
Vy trong dung dch bo ho ca cht in li t tan, tch s nng cc ion l mt hng
s.
nh ngha:
"Tch s tan ca mt cht l tch s nng cc ion trong dung dch bo ho ca cht
nhit nht nh, mi nng c s m bng s ion trong phn t cht . ''
V d:
Ag2CrO4 2Ag+ + CrO42TAg2CrO4 = [Ag+]2[CrO42-]
Tch s tan cng ln th cht cng d tan.
2. iu kin ho tan mt cht in li t tan
V d: Xt qu trnh ho tan FeS bng HCl.
Trong dung dch FeS tn ti cn bng:
FeS(r) Fe2+ + S 2 - (1)
Lc ny TFeS = [Fe2+][S2-] tc l FeS khng tan.
Khi thm HCl vo:
HCl = H+ + ClH+ + S2- = HSH+ + HS-= H2S
84
Nn lm nng S2- gim, do theo nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng th cn bng (1)
chuyn dch theo chiu thun. FeS tip tc tan thm cho n khi TFeS = [Fe2+][S2-] th cn bng mi
c thit lp.
Nu tip tc thm HCl vo th FeS tip tc tan cho n ht.
Vy mun ho tan mt cht in li t tan th phi thm vo dung dch mt cht no c
kh nng kt hp vi mt trong cc ion ca cht in li t tan to thnh cht in li yu, sao cho
tch s nng cc ion ca cht in li t tan (km theo s m ) phi lun lun nh hn tch s tan.
3. iu kin kt ta ca mt cht in li t tan
Tng t , theo nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng, mun kt ta mt cht in li t tan th
tch s nng cc ion phi ln hn tch s tan tc l phi tng nng ca mt trong hai ion to
thnh kt ta.
VI. Tch s ion ca nc - pH ca mt s dung dch

1. Tch s ion ca nc
Nc nguyn cht tuy vi mc rt nh, cng c kh nng dn in, trong nc tn
ti cn bng.
H2O H+ + OHp dng nh lut tc dng khi lng ta c:
Do nc l cht in li yu nn c th xem K[H2O] = const = [H+][OH-] = Kn
Kn gi l tch s ion ca nc
Kn ph thuc vo nhit , 220C, Kn = 10-14
[H+] = [OH-] =
10 14 = 10 7 mol/l
Ta c:
- Dung dch trung tnh: [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7
- Dung dch axit:
[H+] > 10-7 > [OH-]
- Dung dch baz :
[H+] < 10-7 < [OH-]
2. pH
Do vic biu th tnh axit, baz ca dung dch bng nng ion H+ rt phc tp v c s
m m nn trong thc t, ngi ta dng i lng pH = - lg[H+].
PH c gi l ch s hydr hay pH.
pOH = - lg[OH-] pH + pOH = 14

Nh vy pH biu th tnh axit - baz ca dung dch.
- Dung dch trung tnh: pH=7
- Dung dch axit:
pH<7
- Dung dch baz:
pH>7
3. Cht ch th v pH
Nhiu phn ng ch xy ra mt pH xc nh. bit pH s b ca dung dch
nghin cu, ngi ta thng dng cc cht ch th mu hay cht ch th v pH.
3.1. nh ngha
Cht ch th v pH l nhng cht c mu sc ph thuc vo pH ca mi trng. l
axit yu hay baz yu hu c m dng axit v dng baz lin hp ca chng c mu khc nhau.
85
V d:
HInd l cht ch th pH, trong dung dch tn ti cn bng
HInd H+ + IndDng axit
Dng baz
- Nu mi trng axit th cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu nghch, cho n khi
th dung dch c mu dng axit.
[ HInd ] 10
[ Ind ]
[ Ind ] 10
- Nu mi trng baz th cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu thun, cho n khi
[ HInd ]
th dung dch c mu dng baz.

3.2. Khong i mu ca cht ch th
L khong pH t khi ch th bt u chuyn mu n chuyn mu hon ton.
Khong i mu ca mt s cht ch th
Cht ch th
Khong
Mu dng axit
Mu dng baz
mu
Metyl da cam
3,1 - 4,4
cam
Vng
Metyl
4,4 - 6,2
Vng
Qu
5-8
Xanh
Phenolftalein
8 - 10
Khng mu
Hng
Timolftalein
9,4 - 10,6
Khng mu
Xanh
Ngoi ra ngi ta cn dng cht ch th vn nng l hn hp gm nhiu cht ch th khc

nhau (phenolftalein, metyl , metyl vng, timolftalein,...)
4. pH ca mt s dung dch
HnA nH+ + An4.1. Dung dch axit
- Axit mnh:
= 1 [H+] = n Ca
pH = - lg[H+] PH = - lg(nCa)
Ca: nng ban u ca axit (vi Ca>> 10-7 ( b qua s in li ca nc)
n: s mol ion H+ m mt phn t axit phn li
- Axit yu n chc:
HA H+ + Anng ban u
Ca
nng axit phn li Ca
Ca
Ca
nng axit cn li
Ca(1- ) Ca
Ca
<< 1 1- 1 [HA] Ca
Ka =
[ H ][ A ] = [ H ] [ H ] =
(1 )C
C
+
K aCa
86
pH = ( pKa + lgCa )
i vi axit phn li nhiu nc th cc nc sau c th b qua v thay K a = K1 vo cng thc
trn.
4.2. Dung dch baz
M(OH)m Mm+ + mOH- Baz mnh: (Cb >> 10-7: Do b qua s in li ca nc.)
[OH-] = Cb. m
Cb: Nng ban u ca baz
pOH = - lgmCb
m: s ion OH- do mt phn t phn li
pH = 14 - pOH
-Dung dch baz yu n chc: tng t axit yu, ta c:
pH = 14 - ( pKb lgCb )
Kb: hng s baz
Cb: nng ban u ca baz
VII. S thu phn ca mui

1. nh ngha phn ng thu phn
Phn ng thu phn l phn ng trao i cc ion ca mui vi cc ion ca nc to axit v
baz.
2. iu kin xy ra phn ng thu phn
Phn ng thu phn xy ra khi c s to thnh axit yu hoc baz yu, do pH ca
mui s ph thuc vo tnh cht ca axit hoc baz to thnh.
3. Cc loi mui thu phn (tho mn iu kin thu phn)
- Mui ca baz yu vi axit mnh: thu phn to baz yu v pH<7
pH = 7 ( pKb + lgCm )
Vi Cm: nng ban u ca mui
V d:
NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + HCl
Thc cht:
NH4+ + H2O NH4OH + H+
pH ca dung dch c quyt nh bi H+ t do pH < 7
Mui ca baz mnh v axit yu : thu phn to axit yu, bn cht phn ng l s kt hp
ion gc axit ca mui vi H+ ca nc v gii phng OH- nn pH >7.
pH ca dung dch mui ny c tnh theo cng thc:
pH = 7 + ( pKa + lgCm )
V d:
CH3COONa, NaHCO3, ........

CH3COONa
+ H2O CH3COOH + NaOH
CH3COO- + H2O
CH3COOH + OH-
Mui ca baz yu v axit yu : phn ng thu phn xy ra to axit yu v baz yu.
87
-
Dung dch c pH < 7 nu axit to thnh c tnh cht axit mnh hn v c pH > 7 nu baz
to thnh c tnh cht baz mnh hn.
V d:
NH4CH3COO + H2O NH4OH + CH3COOH
VII. Dung dch m

1. nh ngha
Dung dch m l dung dch c kh nng gi pH thay i khng ng k khi ta thm vo mt
t axit mnh hay baz mnh hoc pha long.
Nh vy dung dch m c kh nng lm n nh hoc duy tr pH ca mi trng.
2. Phn loi
C hai loi h m:
- H m baz : gm mt baz yu v mui ca n vi axit mnh.
V d: h m amoni NH4OH/NH4Cl
- H m axit : gm mt axit yu v mui ca n vi baz mnh.
V d: h m axetat
CH3COOH/CH3COONa
Ngoi ra c h m gm hn hp hai mui c kh nng trao i H+ nh:
NaHCO3/Na2CO3; NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4; Na2HPO4/Na3PO4, hn hp cc axit amin.
3. C ch tc dng m
Xt h m axit: CH3COOH/CH3COONa
CH3COONa Na+ + CH3COOCH3COOH H+ + CH3COO- (1)
Khi thm mt t H+, tc l nng H+ tng. Cn bng (1) s chuyn dch theo chiu
nghch to axit yu nn pH ca h hu nh khng i. H m cng bn khi nng CH 3COONa
cng ln .
Khi thm mt t OH-: th nng H+ gim do H+ kt hp vi OH- to thnh H2O nn
cn bng (1) s dch chuyn theo chiu thun to H+ b vo lng H+ mt, do pH ca dung
dch xem nh khng thay i. H m cng bn khi nng H+ cng ln.
Khi pha long, nng axit v mui gim tng ng nn pH ca h hu nh khng thay
i.
Tm li mt h m axit gm hai thnh phn chnh: mt thnh phn ng vai tr axit
phn ly ra H+, cn thnh phn kia c kh nng nhn H+.
4. pH ca h m
- H m axit:
pH = pKa + lgCm /Ca
- H m baz:
pH = 14 (pKb + lgCm /Cb )
5. ngha v vai tr ca dung dch m i vi i sng sinh vt
Mi sinh vt ch tn ti v pht trin trong mt mi trng c pH xc nh m dung
dch m n nh pH ca mi trng phn ng. V vy, khi nui cy cc vi sinh vt, ngi ta phi
chun b cc dung dch dinh dng c pH thch hp, cc men cng ch hot ng trong mt khong
pH ph hp.
88
i vi cy trng, mi loi cy pht trin bnh thng trong mt mi trng (t) c
chua (pH) xc nh. Phn ln cc cy ch pht trin trong khong pH 4- 10. Ngoi gii hn ny
chng s b cht.
Trong t, do cha nhiu cht hu c nn tn ti nhiu qu trnh ho hc khc nhau c
kh nng t iu ho nng H+ lm cho pH n nh nn mi loi t c th trng c nhiu loi
cy khc nhau. Nh vy, t l mt h m axit - baz tt. Vic ci to t phi ph hp v khoa
hc.
Trong c th sinh vt cng vy, cc axit amin u c tc dng m.
Trong mu ngi c rt nhiu h m, chng n nh pH ca mu m bo cho s cn
bng axit- baz ca c th. Hng ngy cc phn ng chuyn ho trong c th xy ra to ra lng
axit, nhng pH ca mu ch dao ng trong khong 7,3 - 7,4. Nu pH nh hn gi tr ny th b
nhim axit ( toan mu), nu pH ln hn th b nhim kim.
Mt s h m c trong mu:
NaH2PO4
Na2HPO4
Hemoglobin
oxi hemoglobin
cc axit amin
IX. Phn ng trao i v phng php phn tch th tch

1. iu kin xy ra phn ng trao i
Phn ng trao i ch xy ra khi c s to thnh cht in li yu, cht d bay hi, hoc cht t
tan.
V d:
AgNO3 + HCl = AgCl + HNO3
NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
2. Phn ng trao i v phng php phn tch th tch
Phng php phn tch th tch da trn phn ng:
aA + bB = cC + dD
Trong A l cht cn nh lng, B l cht c nng bit, gi l dung dch chun.
Theo nh lut ng lng, khi cht B phn ng va vi cht A th s ng lng
gam ca cc cht phi bng nhau, hay:
NA . VA = NB . VB
N: nng ng lng
V: th tch (ml, l)
Ban u ta bit th tch ca dung dch A; sau phn ng ta xc nh c th tch dung dch
B phn ng va vi cht A s suy ra c nng cht A cn nh lng.
89
Qu trnh thc hin xc nh th tch dung dch B phn ng gi l qu trnh chun .
Thi im m ti hai cht phn ng va vi nhau gi l im tng ng.
pht hin im tng ng, trong qu trnh chun ta dng cc cht ch th mu. C
nhiu loi phn ng dng trong phn tch th tch, mi loi c c im ring ng vi cc cht ch
th ring.
90
CHNG IX
HO KEO
Ho keo l mt ngnh hc khoa hc nghin cu cc h phn tn trong kch thc ca

ht phn tn nm trong khong 10-7 - 10-5cm gi l h phn tn keo.
Ho keo c ngha ln trong th nhng, canh tc hc - t l mt h thng keo phc tp kch thc, hnh dng cng nh bn cht ca cc ht keo t quyt nh kh nng thm t, kh
nng hp ph ca t.
Trong cng nghip, ho keo c s dng rt nhiu:
- K ngh gm s dng nguyn liu t st, cao lnh l mt loi huyn ph cc
Aluminosilicat hidrat ho.
- Cc ngnh sn xut giy, nhum, thuc da.
- Ngnh cao su tng hp v cht do
- Ngnh bo ch thuc
- Ngnh ch bin thc n
I. Phn loi
1. Phn loi theo trng thi tp hp
1.1. Nu mi trng phn tn l kh, cn cc cht phn tn c th l rn, lng, kh, ngi ta
gi l AEROSOL.
V d: h bi (R/K), h sng m (L/K), h khi (K/K)
1.2. Nu mi trng phn tn l lng, cn cht tan l rn, lng, kh, ngi ta gi l
LYOSOL.
V d: dung dch bn (R/L), C6H6 trong nc (L/L), kh trong nc (K/L).
1.3. Nu mi trng phn tn l rn, cht phn tn l rn, lng, kh, ngi ta gi l
XEROSOL.
V d: Bt kh trong thy tinh (K/R), thu ngn trong phosphor (L/R), hp kim (R/R).
2. Phn loi da trn s tng tc gia cc cht phn tn v mi trng phn tn
2.1. Nu gia ht phn tn v mi trng phn tn c s tng tc, h keo c gi l h keo
a lu, khi lm ng t thu c mt khi c gi l gel.
V d: Keo protit
2.2. Nu gia ht phn tn v cc phn t dung mi khng c s tng tc, ngi ta gi l
h keo ght lu
V d: h keo v c
2.3. Nu mt h phn tn, trong iu kin ny l h phn tn tht, trong iu kin khc li l
h phn tn keo, ngi ta gi l h bn keo.
V d: dung dch x phng
91
II. Cc phng php iu ch v tinh ch keo
Cc h keo cha nhng ht c kch thc trung gian gia cc phn t v cc ht th. t
c phn tn keo, ngi ta c th s dng nhng phng php sau:
- Phng php phn tn: chia nh vt cht
- Phng php ngng t: lin kt cc ion, nguyn t hay phn t thnh nhng tp hp.
1. Phng php phn tn
Phn tn l qu trnh dng nng lng (c nng, in nng, nng lng ca sng siu m ...)
chia nh vt cht ri phn b vo mt mi trng ng nht no . Nng lng ny ch yu
dng thng lc lin kt gia cc phn t ca tng b phn tn.
Nhng phng php phn tn thng gp:
1.1. Phn tn c hc: nghin, xay cc ht rn bng ci xay keo cho n khi c kch thc ht
keo.
1.2. Phn tn bng siu m: dao ng siu m c tn s cao hn dao ng m thng, di
tc dng ca dao ng siu m, tiu phn th b dn v nn lin tc, do b gy thnh cc tiu
phn c kch thc bng ht keo.
1.3. Phng php keo tn (s pepti ho) lm tan kt ta do s keo t gy ra - Phng php
keo tn c thc hin bng cch lm gim lc lin kt gia cc ht ln bng cht in li no ,
kt qu nhng ht ln phn tn thnh nhng ht nh c kch thc ht keo.
V d: Cho FeCl3 vo ng nghim ng keo th Fe(OH)3 v lc, mt lc sau dung dch c
mu thm v kt ta bin mt.
Trong thin nhin, s to thnh cc dung dch keo ch yu xy ra di tc dng ca cc yu
t c hc nh s ra tri, s bo mn ...
2. Phng php ngng t
Ht keo c hnh thnh do s ngng t cc phn t, nguyn t, ion thnh nhng ht c
kch thc ht keo (khong 1m (10-7cm)). Qu trnh ngng t c 2 giai on:
- Giai on to mm trong dung dch qu bo ho vi vn tc v 1: cho cc phn t tp trung
vi nhau to mm.
- Giai on pht trin mm vi tc v2.
Cc phng php ngng t thng dng:
2.1. Phng php ho hc
Ngng t bng phn ng ho hc
V d: dung dch keo st (III) c iu ch bng phn ng thy phn FeCl3 khi un nng.
FeCl3 + 3H2O
Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
Fe(OH)3 thu c khng tan trong nc, nhng khng b lng xung thnh kt ta, trong
dung dch di dng keo trong sut c dng mu nu .
2.3. Phng php thay th dung mi
Nu cht tan A ho tan trong dung mi B, dung mi B li tan trong dung mi C nhng
cht A li khng tan trong C. Ta iu ch h keo A trong C nh sau:
Cho A ho tan trong B, sau dung dch tht ny ho tan trong C, ch c B tan trong C, cn
A khng tan trong C, n ngng t li thnh ht keo.
92
V d: iu ch keo lu hunh trong nc
S tan trong ru nhng khng tan trong nc. Ly mt t S ho tan trong ru sau cho
dung dch ny vo bnh ng nc, lc u, do ru t, nc nhiu nn nc l dung mi, cc phn
t S khng tan trong nc, kt hp li thnh keo S.
3. Tinh ch dung dch keo
Trong dung dch keo mi iu ch cn ln tiu phn dung dch tht hay tiu phn th lm
cho dung dch km bn, nn phi tin hnh tinh ch, tc loi b cc tiu phn ni trn.
3.1. Loi tiu phn th
Do kch thc tiu phn th ln hn tiu phn keo nn loi tiu phn th, phi dng giy
lc hoc phu lc xp c kch thc khong 10-5cm, khi ht keo v dung dch tht i qua, cn
tiu phn th b gi li.
Ngoi ra ngi ta dng phng php sng loi b nhng tiu phn th.
3.2. Loi tiu phn dung dch tht (phn t hay ion) Dng phng php thm tch
Cho dung dch keo vo ti thm tch (thng l ti bng giy bng knh), nhng vo cc
nc ct, cc tiu phn dung dch tht s i ra khi ti (do ti c kch thc l nh), cc ht keo b
gi li. C nh vy, thay nc ct trong cc cho n khi dung dch trong ti tinh khit.
Ngoi ra ngi ta cn dng phng php siu lc, lc di p sut rt thp, dng phu c l
rt nh, nh hn kch thc ht keo.
III. Tnh cht ng hc ca h keo

1. Chuyn ng Brown
Chuyn ng Brown l kt qu cc va chm gia tiu phn keo v tiu phn dung mi ang
chuyn ng nhit.
Vi knh hin vi c phng i cao, ng Brown quan st c ng i ca cc ht
keo trong dung dch, l ng gp khc v khng c qui lut r rt, gi l chuyn ng Brown.
Mi ht keo trong dung dch, ngoi chuyn ng v dao ng rt yu (do khi lng ln),
n cn chu tc dng ca cc phn t dung mi theo nhng lc khng ng nht v mi pha nn
hng ca ht keo thay i lin tc (106 ln/giy)
c trng cho kh nng di chuyn ca ht keo, ngi ta dng khi nim dch chuyn
bnh phng trung bnh.
2 = 2 Dt
(do Einstein tm ra)
2 : dch chuyn bnh phng trung bnh ca ht

D: h s khuch tn
t: thi gian ht dch chuyn t im A n im B
B(t1)
(t1)A
1
2
2 =
21 + 22 + ... + 2n
n
93
* H s khuch tan D l lng cht khuch tn trong mt giy qua mt tit din thng 1cm2
khi gradient nng (bin thin nng ) bng n v.
Do t nh lut Fich:
dC
Sdt
dm = - D
dx
dC
dC
St
nu
khng ph thuc thi gian m = - D
dx
dx
dC
dC
St
nu
=1 , S = 1, t = 1
m=-D
dx
dx
=> D = -m
kT
N
= const )
D=
(k =
6 r
R
: nht mi trng
R: hng s kh
r: bn knh ht keo
N: s Avogadro
T: nhit
Bn knh tng th h s khuch tn gim, ht cng ln th khuch tn chuyn ng cng kh.
A
i vi ht keo trn D = 3
M
A: hng s ph thuc nhit v dung mi
M: khi lng phn t cht tan
Khi lng phn t cht tan tng -> h s khuch tn gim
M
D(200)
Ure
60
0,81
Saccharose
342
0,31
Hemoglobin
63000
0,059
2. p sut thm thu
Theo nh lut Van't Hoff: = CRT
Nu trong mt lt dung dch c n' tiu phn
n'
n' RT
R
=
= kn' RT
(k =
)
C=
N
N
N
Vy ph thuc s tiu phn cht tan c trong mt n v th tch v nhit T.
Khi dung dch tht v dung dch keo c nng khi lng cht tan nh nhau th trong
cng mt n v th tch, s phn t tht ln hn s phn t keo rt nhiu => dung dch tht >
dung dch keo. Tng t, ts v t ca dung dch keo u nh hn dung dch tht cng iu kin
rt nhiu.
3. ng dng ca hin tng khuch tn v p sut thm thu
Hin tng khuch tn v p sut thm thu c ngha ln trong s trao i cht in li
qua mng sinh vt Donan.
94
Gi thit mng sinh vt l mng thm tch ngn i bnh, mt bn l dung dch nc ca
keo protein RNa, bn kia l dung dch in li NaCl. Mng ny cho php dung mi v nhng ion
cht in gii i qua, khng cho ht keo i qua.
I. dung dch RNa(C1)
RNa+
Bu C1
C1
CBng C1
C1+x
Mng sinh vt
II. dung dch NaCl (C2)

Na+
C2
C2-x
ClO
x
ClC2
C2-x
(x: lng ion chy t II->I)

Theo Donan, ti cn bng ta c:
[Na+]I [Cl-]I = [Na+]II [Cl-]II
(C1 + x)x = (C2 - x)2
2
C1x + x2 = C22 + x - 2C2 x

=> x(C1 + 2C2) = C22
C 22
C2
x
hay
=
x=
C1 + 2C 2
C 2 C1 + 2C 2
x
: s phn cht in li di chuyn t II n I
C2
C hai trng hp xy ra:
* Khi C2 <<C1 (nng cht in li << nng cht keo)
x
=>
0: Hu nh khng c cht in li i qua mng. Vy khi yu cu v dinh dng
C2
ca sinh vt cao, s cung cp dinh dng ca mi trng qu km th sinh vt kh tn ti hoc
khng c nng sut cao.
* Khi C2 >> C1 (nng cht in li >> nng cht keo)
x
=>
1/2: cht in li hu nh khng c cht in li i qua mng. Nh vy trong iu
C2
kin mi trng cung cp dinh dng mc ti a, lng cht dinh dng sinh vt c th hp th
c khng qu 1/2. Vy mun tng nng sut cy trng hay vt nui, cn chm sc chng mt
cch hp l chng pht trin tt v trnh lng ph.
IV. Tnh cht quang hc ca h keo

1. S phn tn nh sng
1.1. Hin tng
- Khi chiu mt chm tia sng qua mt dung dch tht, mt phn b dung dch hp th, mt
phn i qua hon ton v ta hng c nh ca ngun sng pha sau dung dch.
- Khi chiu mt chm sng qua dung dch keo, ta lun c mt gii sng hnh nn ct
trong dung dch keo, gi l hnh nn Tyndahl. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng Tyndahl.
95
- Khi chiu mt chm sng qua dung dch th, mt phn b hp th, phn cn li b phn x
tr li.
S
D
S
D
dd tht
D
dd keo
dd th
1.2. Gii thch hin tng

- dung dch tht, kch thc ht phn t tn nh hn bc sng ca nh sng, nn snh
sng truyn qua d dng.
- dung dch th, kch thc ht phn tn ln hn bc sng ca nh sng chiu vo nn
nh sng khng i qua c, tr phn b hp th, phn cn li b phn x hon ton.
- Vi dung dch keo, kch thc ht phn tn bng kch thc ca bc sng nh sng chiu
vo nn khi cc ht keo nhn c nng lng ca bc x, chng tr thnh cc ngun sng th cp
pht sng theo mi phng, gi l nh sng phn tn, v th hnh thnh hnh nn ct Tyndahl trong
dung dch keo.
Rayleigh a ra cng thc tnh cng nh sng phn tn i vi ht keo trn:
V2
4
Ipt: cng nh sng phn tn
I0: cng nh sng ti
K: hng s
: nng ht
V: Th tch ca ht phn tn
: bc sng ca nh sng ti
i vi dung dch keo, nu ta dng ngun sng nht nh (I0 v khng i) chiu vo
dung dch keo c tiu phn nh nhau (V khng i) th cng nh sng khuch tn ch ph thuc
vo nng ht, y l c s xc nh nng dung dch keo bng phng php o c.
Da vo hin tng Tyndahl, ngi ta dng knh hin vi quan st tiu phn keo m mt
thng khng nhn thy c. Trn nn ti cc im sng chuyn ng hn lon. Dng knh ny ta
m c s ht trong mt th tch nht nh, tc l xc nh c nng keo. Bit nng khi
lng ca dung dch keo, ta bit c khi lng ht keo v th tch ht keo. Nu ht keo hnh cu,
ta tnh c bn knh.
2. S hp th nh sng
Trn y ta ni n s phn tn nh sng bi cc ht keo khng dn in. i vi ht keo
dn in, ngoi hin tng phn tn nh sng trn b mt ht, tun theo phng trnh Rayleigh m
hiu ng ny thng nh, cn c hin tng hp th nh sng. Thng th hiu ng ny th hin
mnh hn hiu ng trn. Xt ton b, do c hai hiu ng ny chng ln nhau, do i vi h cha
cc ht dn in, vic dng phng trnh Rayleigh khng cn nghim ng na.
Ipt = KI 0
96
Khi c s hp th c bit mt tia sng no , s ph thuc gia I pt vo 4 v V2 b ph v,
mc phn cc ca nh sng phn tn cng thay i. Trong ht dn in, t trng bin thin ca
sng nh sng lm xut hin mt sc in ng cm ng, do trong ht xut hin dng in xoay
chiu vi tn s ca sng in t - V c dng in , in nng bin thnh nhit nng - l s
hp th nh sng.
3. Mu sc ca h keo
Cc h keo thng c mu sc. Nhng qu c mu v trong c mt lng rt nh kim
loi nng, hoc oxit ca chng phn tn di dng keo. V d trong ngc ta c hp cht st,
trong ngc bch c hp cht crom.
Nguyn nhn mu sc ca h keo rt phc tp - Bn cht ca tng phn tn, mi trng
phn tn, phn tn ca ht, hnh dng v cu to ca chng u nh hng n mu sc ca h
keo v nhng yu t u nh hng n s phn tn v hp th nh sng - mu sc ca cc h
cn ph thuc vo iu kin quan st v cch iu ch chng.
V. Tnh cht in ca h keo

1. Cc hin tng in ng hc
1808, gio s Rit, nh vt l Nga, pht hin cc ht trong h keo c mang in tch.
ng lm th nghim nh sau:
S th nghim ca Rit
Cm hai ng thu tinh trn mt tng t st nho, nc u v cm hai in

cc vo hai ng ri cho dng in mt chiu chy qua. Mt lt sau, ng thy ng cm dng cc
c, cn ng cm cc m vn trong nhng mc nc c cao hn trong ng cm cc dng mt t Qu trnh vn chuyn cc ht keo t chng t n tch in m.
- Qu trnh vn chuyn ht keo gi l s in li
- Song song vi qu trnh vn chuyn ht keo cn c s chuyn mi trng, qu trnh gi
l s in thm.
2. Cu to ca ht keo - Tnh bn ca cc dung dch keo
Cc ht keo c b mt ln nn v mt nhit ng hc l khng bn. Trong thc t, trong
nhng iu kin nht nh, dung dch keo c th tn ti trong thi gian di do cu trc ht keo c
nhng c im ca n.
V d: khi cho AgNO3 tc dng vi dung dch KI d, ta c dung dch keo AgI. Qu trnh
hnh thnh c m t nh sau:
u tin c s hnh thnh phn t AgI, cc phn t ny tp hp vi nhau thnh ht c kch
thc ln no lm xut hin b mt d th gia ht AgI v mi trng phn tn.
97
Cc ht ny ng vai tr l nhn keo. Trng hp ny dung dch d KI, nhn keo s hp
ph mt lng ln ion I- ln b mt (ion I- c trong thnh phn nhn keo, b mt nhn keo s hp
ph u tin nhng ion no trong thnh phn ca n) v lm nhn keo tch in m, v ta c keo
m (Ion I- c gi l ion quyt nh th hiu). trung ho in, b mt nhn keo ht mt lng
ln ion tri du (K+) n gn b mt v cc ion ny gn b tng i cht ch vi b mt nhn keo,
hnh thnh lp in kp trn b mt nhn keo, cng l qu trnh hnh thnh ion keo.
Ton b ion keo s c trung ho in bng mt lng tng ng cc ion K+ nm ri
rc trong dung dch, lp ion K+ ny lm thnh tng khuch tn, ton b ion keo (ht keo) v ion
tng khuch tn to thnh mixen keo trong dung dch.
+
+
+
+
mAgI
+
+
+
+
+
S cu to mixen keo AgI

Cng thc cu to keo AgI m
[(mAgI)
nI(n-x)K+]x-.
Nhn keo
xK+
ion quyt nh tng ion i

tng khuch tn
th hiu
b hp ph
mixen keo AgI
Cc ht keo tch in cng du s y nhau. l nguyn nhn ti sao dung dch

keo li bn vng.
Nh vy, tnh bn vng ca keo ght lu l do s tch in cng du ca cc ion keo quyt
nh. i vi keo a lu, tnh bn vng ch yu do lp v sonvat quyt nh. Lp v ny ngn cn
khng cho cc ht keo dnh li.
Ngoi cc nguyn nhn trn, tnh bn vng ca cc dung dch keo cn do s chuyn ng
nhit ca ion keo, nhng nguyn nhn ny l th yu.
3. Cc loi th xut hin trn b mt mixen keo
3.1. Th nhit ng
Khi kho st s hnh thnh mixen keo, ta thy gia b mt tch in ca nhn keo vi cc
ion i c trong dung dch (theo mt lng tng ng) to nn mt lp in kp v do xut
98
hin mt bc nhy th gia b mt nhn keo (pha rn) vi dung dch. Th c gi l th nhit
ng .
ln ca th ny ch ph thuc vo cc c trng nhit ng ca mixen keo v dung dch,
c bit ph thuc vo mt ion quyt nh th trn b mt nhn keo.
Th nhit ng khng nh hng nhiu n tnh bn ca h keo, gi tr ca n tng i
n nh v c quyt nh ch yu tng hp ph.
3.2. Th in ng
Trong cu to ca mixen keo, gia ht keo v ion tng khuch tn gn b khng tht
cht ch vi nhau. Di tc dng ca nhng yu t nhit ng ca h, cc ht keo v ion tng
khuch tn lun chuyn ng tng i vi nhau, ta c th xem ht keo l phn tnh, cc ion
tng khuch tn l phn ng. Gia phn tnh v phn ng tng i, xut hin mt lp in
kp v mt th tng ng. Th ny thay i theo s chuyn ng tng i so vi nhau gia
ht keo v tng khuch tn, gi l th in ng .
Vy th in ng l th xut hin gia tng hp ph v tng khuch tn khi chng
chuyn ng tng i so vi nhau.
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
tng khuch tn
ln ca th in ng ph thuc vo b dy ca tng khuch tn, vo s c mt ca cc

cht in li trong mi trng phn tn.
=k.
K'
=
2
K'
C1 Z i2
: b dy tng khuch tn
: lc ion ca dng dung dch
1
2
= ci Z i
2
99
Th in ng t l thun vi b dy tng khuch tn, t l nghch vi lc ion ca dung
dch. V th, mun lm gim b dy tng khuch tn, ta tng lc ion ca dung dch bng cch thm
cht in gii vo h keo.
VI. c tnh b mt v s hp ph ca dung dch keo

1. Sc cng b mt
Cc phn t trong lng pha ngng t (rn, lng) chu tc dng trung bnh v mi pha cc
lc nh nhau nn lc tng hp tc dng ln mt phn t bng khng, trong khi , vi cc phn t
trn b mt hay st b mt, tng hp lc tc dng vo n khc khng v hng trong lng cht
lng theo phng vung gc vi b mt ca pha ngng t.
Vy nng lng "d" ca cc phn t trn b mt so vi cc phn t nm su trong lng
cht gi l nng lng b mt.
Gi s mt cht c b mt S, nng lng b mt ca n l ES th:
ES = k.S
Trong k l mt hng s ph thuc vo nhit v bn cht cht ca cht , gi l sc
cng b mt, k hiu l .
F 0
Vy, sc cng b mt l nng lng b mt ca mt n v din tch.
F= 0
ES = .S
E
Hay = S
S
Nu nng lng b mt o bng erg, din tch o bng cm2.
=
erg dyn.cm dyn

=
=
cm 2
cm 2
cm
Vy sc cng b mt c th nguyn bng lc tc dng trn mt n v chiu di ca b mt.

chnh l lc cn thit (erg) tch cc phn t nm trn 1cm chiu di trn b mt khi lc ht
ca cc phn t trong lng cht .
Thc nghim cho thy rng: sc cng b mt ca cht rn l ln nht, sau n cc cht
khc theo th t:
rn > lng > kh
V lc gia cc phn t l nh nn sc cng b mt ca cc hp cht phn t nh v gim
theo chiu: phn cc + lin kt hidro > phn cc > khng phn cc.
100
V l do ny m sc cng b mt ca nc rt ln v cc hidrocarbon c sc cng b mt
nh. Cc cht in li nng chy v cc kim loi c sc cng b mt ln v lin kt gia cc phn t
bn.
2. S hp ph
2.1. Khi nim v s hp ph
Nhng cht m s tn ti ca n c hnh thnh b mt s c nng lng d tr cao hn
nhng cht khng tn ti b mt. Theo nguyn l II, cc h c tn ti b mt khng bn, khi gp cc
iu kin c th, chng s t din bin tr v trng thi c nng lng thp hn.
Theo biu thc: ES = .S, mun lm gim nng lng b mt c th t lm gim b mt S
hay lm gim sc cng b mt .
S t lm gim b mt S gii thch ti sao trong qu trnh ri t do, cc cht lng t kin
ton khi cu v khi cu c b mt nh nht, ng vi cng mt khi lng vt cht.
Khi khng c kh nng lm gim b mt S, h c th t din gim sc cng b mt bng
cch hp ph cc cht khc c sc cng b mt nh hn.
Vy s hp ph l s tp trung (t din bin) mt cht ny ln b mt cht khc thng lm
gim nng lng b mt.
- Nu qu trnh hp ph dn n s gim nng lng b mt ca vt hp gi l s hp ph
dng (v d nc hp ph ru).
- Nu s hp ph dn n s tng nng lng b mt ca vt hp gi l s hp ph m (v
d: du hp ph ru).
2.2. hp ph
hp ph l lng cht c hp ph trn mt n v din tch hay mt n v khi lng
vt hp trng thi cn bng hp ph.
Cht b hp ph ch to mt lp trn b mt cht hp ph gi l s hp ph n lp.
Nu lc hp ph gia cht hp ph v cht b hp ph qu ln khin cho s hp ph to nn
nhiu lp cht b hp ph trn b mt cht hp ph gi l s hp ph a lp.
Tu thuc vo bn cht ca lc tng tc gia cht hp ph v cht b hp ph ngi ta chia
ra s hp ph l hc v s hp ph ho hc.
2.3. S hp ph l hc
Thc cht ca s hp ph l hc l s hp ph phn t. S hp ph xy ra do lc ht phn
t (lc Vander Waals) quyt nh.
V d: than hot tnh hp ph kh Clo trong cc mt n phng c.
S hp ph l hc c nhng c im sau:
- Lc hp ph nh nn s hp ph mang tnh thun nghch.
- S hp ph to nhit nn khi nhit tng, hp ph gim v qu trnh phn hp ph
c tng cng. l nguyn tc phc hi li cc mt n phng c.
2.4. S hp ph ho hc
Thc cht ca s hp ph ho hc l s hp ph ion. Cc ion b hp ph to nn cc hp
cht ho hc kh tan trn b mt cht hp ph.
S hp ph ho hc c cc c im sau:
- B mt cht hp ph b hp ph nhng ion c in tch tri du vi in tch ca b mt
cht hp ph.
101
- Lc hp ph rt ln, nn s hp ph ho hc c tnh cht bt thun nghch, nhit hp ph
tng ng vi nhit ca phn ng ho hc. Ni chung khi nhit tng, hp ph tng.
- S hp ph ho hc mang tnh cht ho hc, s chn lc tun theo nhng quy tc sau y:
- Vi nhng ion c cng in tch, cht hp ph u tin hp ph cc ion c trong thnh phn
ca cht hp ph - Vic hp ph nhng ion c trong thnh phn cht hp ph to iu kin thun li
cho vic xy dng mng li tinh th.
- Vi nhng ion c in tch khc nhau, b mt u tin hp ph c ion in tch tri du vi
in tch b mt.
Cn lu l gia hp ph l hc v hp ph ho hc khng c ranh gii r rt m s phn
chia ch c tnh tng i.
2.5. S hp ph trn ranh gii phn chia dung dch - kh. Cht hot ng b mt
Tu theo kh nng b hp ph trn ranh gii phn chia dung dch - kh m ngi ta chia ra
lm cht hot dng b mt (vit tt l HBM) v cht khng hot ng b mt (KHBM).
- Cht HBM l cht c kh nng b hp ph trn b mt phn chia hai pha.
S hp ph cht HBM l hin tng b mt nn n ch xy ra khi cht HBM lm gim
sc cng b mt ca dung mi. Do c th nh ngha cht HBM l cht lm gim sc cng b
mt ca dung mi. Vy cht HBM phi c sc cng b mt nh hn so vi dung mi v t ho tan,
v nu khng, n c xu hng ri khi b mt m tan su vo trong cht lng.
Cc cht HBM i vi nc thng l cc hp cht hu c m phn t ca chng c
nhm phn cc -COOH, -NH2, -NO2, -SO3H ... v nhm khng phn cc CnHm (vi n kh ln).
Nhm phn cc a nc nn quay vo b mt ca nc, trong khi nhm khng phn cc k
nc nn b y ra ngoi. T ta hiu v sao cc cht HBM rt t tan trong nc.
Cc cht HBM c ng dng rng ri khng nhng lm bn cc h nh tng, huen
ph m cn c dng lm cht ty ra, lm cht n mn (pha thm mt lng nh ca mt s
cht HBM vo trong du, m s lm gim tc n mn ca thp nhiu ln).
Nu cc phn t ca cht tan khng tp trung trn b mt m i su vo trong lng dung
mi v lm tng sc cng b mt ca dung mi th gi l cht khng hot ng b mt. l cc
cht c sc cng b mt ln hn dung mi v tan nhiu trong dung mi . Nu dung mi l nc
th l cc axit, baz v mui v c tan. Trong phn t cc cht ny khng c phn k nc (m
bo cho chng i su vo trong lng ca nc v lm tng sc cng b mt ca nc), t suy ra
rng:
Ion b hidrat ho cng mnh th kh nng lm tng sc cng b mt dung mi ca n cng
ln.
Cl- > Br- > I;
Li+ > Na+ > K+ ; Ca2+ > Na+
Ngoi ra cn c nhng cht tan khng lm bin i sc cng b mt, v c sc cng b mt
gn bng sc cng b mt ca dung mi. V d ng saccharose hu nh khng lm bin i sc
cng b mt ca nc.
2.6. S hp ph trao i
Cc ion tng khuch tn cng nh cc ion b vt rn hp ph rt c th tham gia trao i
vi cc ion c trong mi trng - ngi ta gi l s hp ph trao i.
S hp ph trao i c nhng c im sau:
a. S hp ph trao i ch xy ra i vi mt s ion xc nh.
Ngi ta phn bit cht hp ph axit v cht hp ph baz
- Cht hp ph axit, v d SiO2, SnO2 x s nh axit, c kh nng trao i vi cation.
- Cht hp ph baz, v d Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3, x s nh baz, c kh nng trao i vi
anion.
102
i vi cht hp ph lng tnh, tu theo pH ca mi trng m n c kh nng hp ph
trao i vi cation v anion- v d Aluminosilicat.
b. S hp ph trao i khng phi lun lun thun nghch
c. Xy ra chm hn nhiu so vi hp ph phn t, nht l i vi cc ion nm su trong cht
hp ph.
d. C th lm thay i pH ca mi trng khi ion trao i l H+ hay OH-.
[CHP-]H+ + Na+ + Cl[CHP-]Na+ + H+ + Cl[CHP+]OH- + Na+ + Cl[CHP+]Cl- + Na+ + OHS hp ph trao i c ngha rt ln trong vic nghin cu t trong sinh vt hc cng nh
trong k thut. Trong t c keo lng tnh, do s hp ph trao i, t c kh nng gip cy trng
gi c phn bn v gii phng dn cung cp cho cy trong iu kin cn thit, do phn bn
khng b ra tri - Vi t bc mu, keo t dng hu c c t nn kh nng gi phn bn km,
phn d b ra tri.
Trong k thut, s hp ph trao i c ngha rt ln. V d trong qu trnh nhum nhng
si bng thc vt hp ph t mi trng cc cation mu v y vo dung dch cc ion Ca2+. Nhng
cht c kh nng hp ph trao i vi cation gi l Cationit, nhng cht c kh nng hp ph trao
i vi anion gi l Anionit - Vic s dng cc cationit v anionit ang c p dng rng ri
lm sch nc, thu hi cc kim loi qu t dng dch v cng long cc kim loi .
VII. S ng t keo
V nguyn tc, nu ta loi b cc yu t duy tr tnh bn ca h keo s dn n s keo t,
cc ht keo dnh li vi nhau v to thnh kt ta.
Cc kt ta keo c kin trc khc nhau. Loi keo ght lu khi lng xung khng ko
theo dung mi v kt ta di dng bt rt nh hoc di dng nh bng. Ngc li, cc keo a
lu, khi lng xung ko theo mt lng dung mi tng i ln nn kt ta c tnh nhy. Mt
s keo a lu khi ng t, tt c tr thnh mt khi nhy. Nu dung mi l nc th gi l
hidrogel. Tht ng l mt v d in hnh v hidrogel.
Sau y ta xt mt s phng php lm ng t keo.
1. S lm ng t keo bng cht in li
1.1 i vi keo ght lu
Khi cho mt cht in li vo dung dch keo ght lu, do nng ion trong dung dch tng
ln, cc ht keo s hp ph thm cc ion tri du do in tch ca chng gim nhanh, kt qu l
keo s ng t.
Th d: S to thnh cc chu th ca sng ra bin l kt qu ca s ng t keo bng
cht in li ko di trong nhiu nm.
1.2. i vi keo a lu, s lm ng t keo kh hn nhiu v lp v solvat rt bn vng.
Mun lm ng t keo a lu phi thm mt lng ln cht in li ly mt lp v solvat.
Th d: Trong nh my x phng, ngi ta ph keo x phng bng cch cho mt lng ln
tinh th mui n vo.
Tc dng lm ng t keo ca cc cht in li ph thuc nhiu vo in tch ca ion ngc
du vi ht keo. in tch ca ion ny cng cao th tc dng lm ng t keo cng mnh, do
lng cht in li dng lm ng t keo cng nh.
Th d: tc dng lm ng t keo m As2S3 ca cc cation nh sau:
K+ : Ba2+ : Al3+ = 1 : 20 : 1000
2. S lm ng t keo bng keo tch in tri du
103
Khi trn hai dung dch keo tch in tri du th cc keo tch in tri du s trung ho
ln nhau v kt ta lng xung. Trong trng hp ny cn ch rng mun ng t keo hon
ton phi dng mt t l nht nh cc dung dch keo.
Th d: Ngi ta dng phn nhm (K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O) lm trong nc. Cc ht
t st, ct ... trong nc sng tch in m khi gp cc ht keo nhm hidroxit (do s thy phn ca
ion Al3+) tch in dng s lng xung thnh kt ta.
3. S lm ng t keo bng cch un nng
Khi nhit tng lm tng tc chuyn ng nhit ca cc ht keo, do lm gim kh
nng hp ph ca lp hp ph v lm ht keo tch in km. V vy khi va chm chng d kt hp
v ng t.
Tuy nhin, tnh bn ca cc dung dch keo i vi nhit l khc nhau.
Th d: keo As2S3 d b ng t khi un nng nhng keo Fe(OH)3 khng bin i khi un
nng.
VIII. S pepti ha
Cc kt ta keo khi tip xc vi nc t chuyn thnh dung dch keo gi l cc keo thun
nghch. Ngc li, cc kt ta keo khi tip xc vi nc khng th chuyn li thnh dng dch keo
gi l keo bt thun nghch (th d: keo Fe(OH)3).
Tuy nhin, i khi thm vo mt lng nh cc cht in li, kt ta keo bt thun nghch c
th chuyn thnh dung dch keo.
S to thnh dung dch keo bng cch cho mt lng nh cht in li tc dng vi kt ta
keo bt thun nghch c gi l s peptit ho.
Hin tng ny c gii thch nh sau:
Khi cho mt cht in li vo th cc ht ca kt ta keo s hp ph cng mt loi ion, do
chng tch in cng du. Cc ht in tch cng du ny s y nhau v i vo dung dch.
S pepti ho l mt trong nhng phng php phn tn quan trng nht iu ch cc
dung dch keo.
104
CHNG X
IN HA HC
Nng lng ha hc c th chuyn thnh in nng trong cc pin.Ngc li,

di tc dng ca dng in (s in phn),mt phn ng ha hc c th oc thc
hin. l hai mt tng quan gia ha nng v in nng.
I. Phn ng oxi ha kh
1. Phn ng oxi ha kh
L cc phn ng ha hc trong c s thay i s oxi ha ca cc
nguyn t trc v sau phn ng.
V d:
2Mg + O2 = 2MgO
2Al + Fe2O3 = Al2O3 + 2Fe
2HgO = 2Hg + O2
2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2MnCl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
3Cl2 + 6KOH = 5KCl + KClO3 + 3H2O
Trong mt phn ng oxi ha kh c hai qu trnh xy ra ng thi
- S oxi ha l s nhng electron ca cc cht
- S kh l s nhn eletron ca cc cht
V tng ng ta c
- Cht kh l cht nhng electron (tng s oxi ha )
- Cht oxi ha l cht nhn electron (gim s oxi ha)
Trong cc v d trn cc cht oxi ha l: O2, Fe2O3, KMnO4 v cht kh l Mg,
Al, HCl...
Nhng cht oxi ha in hnh nh: HNO3, K2Cr2O7, KMnO4, PbO2 v.v...
Nhng cht kh in hnh nh cc ion: SO 32_-,NO2-, nhng cation c s
oxi ha thp nh Sn2+, Fe2+ v mt s cht nhit cao nh C, H2, CO, Al.
2. Cp oxi ha kh
Hai dng trc v sau phn ng to thnh mt cp oxi ho kh lin hp.
Dng oxi ha (c s oxi ha cao hn) c vit trn v dng kh (c s oxi
ha thp) c vit di.
Sau phn ng dng oxi ha chuyn thnh dng kh tng ng v ngc li
KhI + OxII
OxI + KhII
OxI v KhI, OxII v KhII c gi l cp oxi ha kh ca cc cht I v II v

c vit l OxI/KhI v OxII/KhII
105
V d:
Zn +CuSO4=Cu +ZnSO4
Trong phn ng ny ta c: Zn2+/Zn v Cu2+/Cu c gi l cp oxi ha kh
ca km v ng.
Vy trong mt phn ng oxi ha kh dng oxi ha ca cp oxi ha kh ny
phn ng vi dng kh ca cp oxi ha kh kia.
3. Cn bng phng trnh oxi ha kh
Nguyn tc: tng s electron m m cc cht kh mt i bng tng s electron
m cc cht oxi ha thu vo
Ta thc hin cc bc sau:
- Xt s thay i s oxi ha ca cc nguyn t.
- Vit phng trnh thu, nhn electron t xc nh h s ca phng
trnh
- Cn bng phng trnh phn t.
V d: cn bng phng trnh phn ng
KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2SO4
2
Mn+7
5
MnSO4 + K2SO4 +Na2SO4 + H2O

Mn+2
+ 5e
S+4
-
2e
2 Mn+7 +
5S+4
S+6
2 Mn+2 + 5S+6
Phng trnh phn t:

2 KMnO4 + 5 Na2SO3 + 3H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 5Na2SO4 + 3H2O
4.ng lng gam ca phn ng oxi ha kh
ng lng gam ca cht oxi ha hoc cht kh c tnh phn t gam
ca cht chia cho s electron m mt phn t cht cho hoc nhn.
Trong v d trn:
MKMnO4
KMnO4
2
MNa2SO3
Na2S03
106
II. Phn ng ha hc v dng in. Nguyn t Galvani
nh ngha:
Nguyn t Galvani l thit b bin i ha nng thnh in nng. Dng in
sinh ra trong pin l do nhng phn ng oxi ha kh xy ra trn b mt tip xc gia
kim loi v dung dch cht in li.
1. S xut hin th in cc
Khi nhng mt thanh kim loi vo nc, di tc dng ca cc phn t nc
lng cc, cc ion s tch khi b mt kim loi v i vo dung dch di dng cc
ion b hydrat ha, khi cc electron cn li trn b mt lm bn kim loi tch in
m. Cc ion Mn+ ca kim loi s b bn in m ny ht v ta c cn bng ng sau
y:
M
Mn+ + ne
S ion ny khng lan truyn ra xa v chng to thnh mt lp in kp trn
ranh gii tip xc gia nc v bn kim loi.
Lp in kp cng xut hin khi nhng thanh kim loi vo dung dch mui ca
n. Vy khi nhng mt thanh kim loi vo nc hay vo dung dch mui ca n th
trn ranh gii tip xc gia kim loi v dung dch s hnh thnh mt lp in kp, ti
y xut hin mt hiu in th gi l th in cc.
2. Nguyn t Daniel Jacobi ( pin Cu-Zn )
Xt nguyn t Galvani n gin l pin (Cu-Zn).
Gm mt in cc Zn v mt in cc Cu nhng vo dung dch mui sulfat
ca chng. Hai dung dch ny c ni vi nhau bi cu mui dn in KCl. Khi ni
hai in cc bng mt dy dn c mc Vn k, ta thy c mt dng in chy t cc
Cu sang cc Zn.
Khi , trn in cc Zn xy ra phn ng oxi ha:
Zn
Zn2+ + 2e
Zn tan vo dung dch di dng ion li cc electron trn in cc, cc
electron ny theo dy dn chuyn sang in cc Cu.
Trn in cc Cu xy ra phn ng kh:
Cu2+ + 2e
Cu
2+
Nh vy, cc ion Cu i t dung dch vo in cc, nhn electron
chuyn thnh Cu kim loi bm trn in cc.
Ta c phng trnh phn ng tng cng:
Zn + Cu2+ = Zn2+ + Cu
Do phn ng ny m xut hin dng in trong pin. Nguyn nhn sinh ra
dng in trong pin l do s chnh lch v th in cc ca kim loi. S chnh lch
ny cng ln ngha l hot ng ca cc kim loi cng khc nhau th phn ng
oxi ha kh xy ra trong pin cng mnh.
in cc m xy ra qu trnh oxi ha ( mt electron) l cc m.
Trong phn ng trn, in cc Zn l cc m.
in cc m xy ra qu trnh kh l ( nhn electron) l cc dng.
107
Trong phn ng trn, in cc Cu l cc dng.
Nguyn t Galvani c k hiu nh sau:
(-) Kim loi 1 dd mui kim loi 1 dd mui kim loi 2 Kim loi 2(+)
V d:
Pin (Cu-Zn)
(-) Zn dd ZnSO4 dd ZnSO4 Cu (+)
3.Sc in ng ca nguyn t Galvani
Nu ta ghp 2 bn phn ng xy ra trong pin to thnh mt nguyn t
Galvani th sc in ng E ca mt nguyn t Galvani bt k bng hiu s th in
cc ca hai in cc trong pin.
- (-)
Vi E: l sc in ng ca pin
E=
(+)
(+)
: th in cc ca in cc dng (in cc xy ra qu trnh kh)
: th in cc ca in cc m (in cc xy ra qu trnh oxi ha)

Sc in ng tiu chun ca pin l sc in ng ca pin o iu
kin tiu chun (P= 1atm, t= 25oC, C= 1 M)
V d: Pin (Cu Zn)
(-)
E0 =
(+)
(-)
= 0,34V (-0,76) = 1,1V
4. Lin h gia sc in ng ca nguyn t Galvani v nng lng t do (

G)
G ca phn ng cho bit phn ng c th xy ra hay khng.

Gia G ca phn ng v sc in ng ca pin c mi lin h sau:
G0= -nE0F
Nh vy da vo gi tr sc in ng ca pin ta c th bit phn ng

oxi ha kh c th xy ra hay khng.
iu kin tiu chun ta c th c:
G0= -nE0F
Vi n: s e m 1 phn t trao i trong phn ng trao i in cc
F: l s Faraday = 96500 Coulomb
E0: l sc in ng tiu chun ca pin
V vy c th ni E0 ca nguyn t Galvani l thc o chiu xy ra ca phn
ng oxi ha kh iu kin tiu chun.
Nu E0 > 0 th G0 v phn ng xy ra theo chiu thun.
5. Chiu ca phn ng oxi ha kh
108
Nguyn tc: Khi cho 2 cp oxi ha kh tip xc vi nhau th dng oxi ha ca
cp c th in cc cao phn ng vi dng kh ca cp c th in cc thp.
6. Hng s cn bng ca phn ng oxi ha kh
OxI + KhII
KhI + OxII
Trong OxI/ KhI c th in cc l

cc l
v OxII/KhII c th in
0
2
Ta c:
Vy:
G0 = -nE F = - RTlnK
-lnK = - nE0F/RT
lnK = nE0F/RT
250C v chuyn sang logarit thp phn:

lgK = nE0/0.059
K = 10 nE0 / 0,059
K = 10
Vi:
(+)
(-)
n ( 0(+) -
) / 0.059
0(-)
: th in cc tiu chun ca in cc dng
: th in cc tiu chun ca in cc m
7. Xc nh th in cc, th oxi ha kh, sc in ng ca pin iu kin

khc chun. Phng trnh Nersnt
Khi xt iu kin khc chun, Nersnt a ra phng trnh nu ln mi lin
h gia th in cc kim loi v cp oxi ha kh vi nng ca cc in c trong
dung dch nh sau:
7.1 Th in cc ca in cc kim loi 250C v nng ca ion kim loi
1M.
Mn+/M
Mn+ / M
0.059
n+
n lg[M ]
V d :
Zn2+ + 2e
Zn
2+
/ Zn
Zn
0
Zn
2+
/ Zn
0.059
2+
n lg[Zn ]
7.2 Th oxi kh ca mt cp oxi ho kh .

Trong mt cp oxi ho kh c phng trnh lin h nh sau
109
aOx +
ne
b Kh
Ta c:
Ox/Kh
0.059 [Ox]a
+
n [ Kh]b
Ox/ Kh
V d :
Fe3+ + 1e
Fe
3+
2+
/Fe
Fe2+
0
3+
2+
Fe / Fe
[ Fe + 3 ]
+ 0,059 lg [ Fe 2+ ]
7.3 Th oxi ha kh ca mt cp oxi ho kh c mi trng tham gia.

Phng trnh lin h c dng:
aOx + ne + CH+
bKh + c/2H2O
Ox/Kh
Ox/ Kh
[Ox]a [ H + ]
b
lg [ Kh]
0.059
n
V d:
MnO4- + 5e + 8H+
MnO4-/Mn2+
[ MnO4 ] [ H + ]8
0.059
[ Mn 2+ ]
+ 5 lg
Mn2+ + 4H2O
MnO4-/ Mn2+
7.4 Sut in ng ca nguyn t galvani iu kin chun.

i vi mt phn ng oxi ha kh tng qut ta c:
E pin = E0 pin +
0.059
n
lg
[Ox]a
[ Kh]b
V d : pin (Cu-Zn) 250C c sut in ng l

0.059 [Cu 2+ ]
Epin =E pin + lg
2 [ Zn 2+ ]
0
Vi [Cu2+] v [Zn2+] 1M
Hoc tnh theo cng thc.
E pin =
Vi
:
(+)
(+)
(-)
th ca in cc xy ra qu trnh kh
: th ca in cc xy ra qu trnh oxi ha
(-)
110
Mt s v d:
V d 1:
Xt xem thic kim loi c th tan trong dung dch axit mnh c nng =1
mol/l) hay khng?
Qua bng cc th in cc chun, ta thy nhit thng:
0
Na phn ng: Sn++ + 2e = Sn c th in cc chun = -0,14 V

0
V na phn ng: H+ + e = H2 c th in cc chun = 0,00V

Nh vy, trong pin thic - hiro, in cc hiro l in cc dng v in cc
thic l in cc m, ngha l Sn chuyn electron sang in cc Hiro v pin c sc
in ng:
E0 = 0,00 - (-0,14) = 0,14 V
Sc in ng ca pin c gi tr dng ( E>0 hayG <0) cho thy phn ng:
Sn + 2H+ = Sn2+ + H2
Xy ra mt cch t pht, ngha l thic kim loi c th tan trong axit c nng
1N.
Khi ghp hai in cc vi nhau, in cc c th ln, na phn ng xy ra
theo chiu thun v in cc c th b, na phn ng xy ra theo chiu nghch.
Trong trng hp pin thic - hiro ta c:
2H+ + 2e = H2
V:
Sn = Sn2+ + 2e
Qua v d ny rt ra mt kt lun chung: Nhng kim loi c th in cc chun
0<0 c th tan trong dung dch axit gii phng hiro.

V d 2:
Crom kim loi c th y c st ra khi dung dch ca mui st (III) hay
khng?
Qua bng cc th in cc chun ta thy:
0
Na phn ng: Cr3+ + 3e = Cr c th in cc chun = -0,74 V

0
V na phn ng: Fe3+ + 3e = Fe c th in cc = 0,04 V

V
-0,04 V > -0,74
Nn na phn ng th hai xy ra theo chiu thun v na phn ng th nht
xy ra theo chiu nghch:
Cr = Cr3+ + 3e
Fe3++ 3e = Fe
Hay phn ng:
Cr + Fe3+ = Fe + Cr3+
Xy ra, ngha l crm kim loi tan v st kim loi c kt ta v phn ng
0
c: E = -0,04 + (-0,74)= 0,70 V
Vy: Kim loi c th in cc chun b y c kim loi c th in cc
chun ln hn ra khi dung dch mui ca n.
V d 3:
Trong cc mui kali halogenua ( k hiu KX), mui no s tc dng vi FeCl3?
Qua bng cc th in cc chun, ta thy:
111
Fe3+ + e = Fe2+ ,
0 = + 0,77 V
F2 + 2e = F- , 0 = + 2,86 V
Cl2 + 2e = 2Cl-,0 = + 1,36 V
Br2 + 2e = 2Br-,
0 = + 1,07 V
I2 + 2e = 2I-, 0 = + 0,54 V
Phn ng gi KX v FeCl3 nu c xy ra th theo phng trnh ion sau y:
2X- + 2Fe3+= X2 + 2Fe2+
Trong trng hp KX l KF, th 0 = 0,77 - 2,86 = - 2,09 V
Trong trng hp KX l KCl, th 0= 0,77 - 1,36 = -0,59 V
Trong trng hp KX l KBr, th 0= 0,77 - 1,07 = - 0,30 V
Trong trng hp KX l KI, th 0= 0,77 - 0,54 = 0,23 V
Vy ch c KI c th kh c FeCl3 = 2FeCl2 + I2 + 2KCl
V phn ng c E0 > 0 ngha l G 0<0
V d 4:
Tnh nng cn bng ca ion Fe2+ khi nhng mt thanh st vo dung dung
dch ZnSO4 1M
Phn ng c th xy ra l
Fe + Zn2+ = Fe2+ + Zn
Sut in ng chun gi thit ca pin l:
E0 =
2+
Zn / Zn
2+
Fe / Fe
= - 0,76 - (- 0,4 4) = - 0,32 V
Hng s cn bng ca phn ng l:

KC = CFe2+ = 1,4.10-11M
KC = 1,4 . 10-11
Ngha l khi:
CZn2+ = 1M th
CFe2+ = 1,4.10-11M
Nh th phn ng thun hu nh khng xy ra.Trn thc t,Zn y
c Fe ra khi dung dch cha ion Fe2+, ngha l xy ra phn ng ngc li vi
phn ng gi thit trn.
III. Cc loi in cc
in cc l h gm mt thanh dn in tip xc vi mt cp oxi ha
kh
Thng gp cc loi in cc sau:
1. in cc kim loi - ion kim loi
Gm mt thanh kim loi tip xc vi dung dch cha ion ca n.
Trn din cc xy ra phn ng:
Mn+ + ne = M
112
Th in cc c tnh theo phng trnh sau:
n+
M /M
n+
M /M
0.059
n
lg [M n+]
V d:
Thanh km tip xc vi dung dch ZnSO4.
Phn ng in cc l:
Zn -2e = Zn2+
K hiu: Zn2+ Zn
0.059
Zn2+ / Zn = 0Zn2+/ Zn + 2 lg[Zn2+]
Nu nng dung dch Zn2+ = 1M th ta c in cc Zn tiu chun.
2. in cc oxi ha kh
Gm mt dy kim loi tr (Pt) tip xc vi dung dch cha ng thi 2 dng oxi
ha v kh ca mt cp oxi ha kh .
Kim loi tr ng vai tr tip nhn v chuyn electron gia 2 dng oxi ha v
dng kh.
Ox/Kh
Ox/ Kh
0.059
n
lg
[Ox]a
[ Kh]b
V d: in cc Fe3+/ Fe2+
Gia tm Pt v dung dch xut hin mt hiu s in th do cn bng:
Fe2+ - 1e =
Fe3+
Fe3+/ Fe2+
Fe3+/ Fe2+
[ Fe + 3 ]
+ 0,059 lg
[ Fe 2+ ]
Nu CFe3+= CFe2+= 1M, t0=250C, ta c in cc oxi ha kh tiu chun ca cp

Fe3+/ Fe2+
3. in cc kh - ion
L in cc gm cht kh tip xc vi cation ca n trong dung dch.
V d:
in cc hydro: Gm 1 bn Pt ph mui Pt c phun kh H2 tip xc vi dung
dch cha ion H+. Nh vy c th xem in cc hydro nh mt tm hydro nhng vo
dung dch cha ion H+.
Phn ng in cc:
H2
2H+ + 2e
+
2H / H2
+
2H / H2
0.059
+ 2
2 lg[H ]
Nu CH+ = 1 mol/l ta c in cc hydro tiu chun:
0 ( H /2H
2
= 0,00V)
113
Ngi ta dng in cc hydro tiu chun xc nh th in cc ca cc in
cc khc bng cch ghp in cc hydro tiu chun vi in cc cn xc nh th
in cc tiu chun ri o hiu in th gia hai in cc.
4. i n c c calomen: Hg/Hg2Cl2,Clin cc calomen c th c hnh dng khc nhau nhng lun lun gm thy
ngn nm cn bng vi ion Cl- gin tip qua mui kh tan Hg2Cl2 (calomen)
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
Hg22+ +2e = 2Hg
Th ca in cc Hg c tnh theo cng thc:
0.059
Hg2+ = 0 + 2 lg [Hg22+ ]
Nhng trong lp calomen c cn bng:
Hg2Cl2 = Hg22+ + 2ClTa li c:
[Hg22+] =THg2Cl2 / [Cl-]2.
Thay nng ny vo cng thc trn, sau khi rt gn ta c cng thc th
in cc ca in cc calomen l:
cal
cal
- 0,059 lg[Cl-]
V vy mun gi cho nng Cl- c nh th th ca in cc calomen khng

i.
Khi [Cl- ] bo ha th
cal
= 0,25V
in cc calomen thng c dng lm in cc so snh trong cc phng

php chun o th hay xc nh pH bng phng php in ha. N cng c
dng thay cho in cc hydro tiu chun.
5. in cc thy tinh
Gm mt ng thy tinh u c thi thnh mt bu hnh cu rt mng, bn
trong cha dung dch c nng H+ xc nh v mt in cc Ag ph AgCl. Khi
nhng in cc ny vo mt dung dch th mt phn cch thy tinh - dung dch
pht sinh mt in th m tr s ca n ph thuc vo nng ion H + theo ph ng
trnh:
= 0
tt
tt
+ 0,059 lg[ H+ ]
Trong 0tt l mt hng s i vi mi in cc . V vy trc khi dng cn

phi xc nh li th ca chng bng nhng dung dch m bit pH
IV. ng dng ca nguyn t Galvani

1. Xc nh th in cc tiu chun ca in cc kim loi v in cc oxi ha
kh tiu chun
Cho n nay cha c cch no xc nh chnh xc th in cc m ngi
ta ch xc nh th in cc tng i ca mt in cc khi so snh n vi mt in
cc khc m in cc ny qui c c 0 = 0. l in cc hydro tiu chun.
1.1. Xc nh th in cc tiu chun cu in cc kim loi
114
Ghp in cc kim loi tiu chun vi in cc hydro tiu chun thnh mt
nguyn t Galvani, o sut in ng ca nguyn t v xc nh chiu ca dng
in.
V d: o th incc tiu chun ca in cc Zn

Lp pin gm in cc km tiu chun v in cc hyro tiu chun ([H +]
= [Zn2+] = 1M)
(-) Zn Zn2+ H+ H2(Pt) (+)
Thc nghim cho thy phi kim hot ng th in cc hyro tiu chun l cc
dng v in cc km tiu chun l cc m. o sut in ng ca pin ny ta c
E0 = 0,736V
0
E0 pin =
2H+/ H2
- 0 Zn2+/ Zn = 0,736V
Vy 0 Zn2+/ Zn = 2H+/ H2 - E0 pin = 0 0,763 = -0,763V

1.2 Xc nh th in cc tiu chun ca in cc oxi ha kh: ta lp pin gm
in cc oxi ha kh tiu chun v in cc hyro tiu chun.
V d:
in cc Fe3+/Fe2+ thc nghim cho thy E0 pin = 0,77V v khi pin hot ng th
mch ngoi electron chuyn t in cc hyro tiu chun sang in cc oxi ha
kh tiu chun. Vy in cc oxi ha kh tiu chun l cc dng.
0
E0 pin = 0 Fe3+/Fe2+ - 2H+/ H2 = 0,77 0 = 0,77V

Bng cch tng t ngi ta xc nh c th in cc tiu chun ca cc
in cc kim loi v cc cp oxi ha kh ri xp thnh bng th in cc tiu chun
ca kim loi v cc cp oxi ha kh (xem phn ph lc)
Da vo bng ny ta thy:
- Kim loi ng trc hyro c th in cc chun m nn y c hyro ra
khi dung dch axit.
- Kim loi c th in cc cng b th cng d mt electron tr thnh cation.
- Kim loi xp sau hyro c th in cc dng khng y c hyro ra khi
axit.
- Kim loi c th in cc thp y c kim loi c th in cc cao ra khi
dung dch mui.
Trong mt cp oxi ha kh nu dng oxi ha cng mnh th dng kh cng yu
v ngc li
2. Xc nh PH bng phng php in ha
V nguyn tc, o PH ca mt dung dch bng phng php ny, ngi ta
cn s dng hai in cc thch hp. Trong , mt th in cc ph thuc vo nng
ion H+ (ngha l ph thuc vo PH) nh in cc hyro, in cc thy tinh, cn
in cc kia c th xc nh v khng i, thng l din cc calomen. Hai in cc
ny ghp thnh nguyn t Galvani. o sc in ng ca pin v suy ra PH.
V d: o PH bng cp hidro calomen
Nhng vo dung dch cn o PH mt in cc calomen v mt in cc Pt.
Thi mt lung kh hyro c p sut 1 atm vo in cc Pt. Khi ta c
nguyn t Galvani sau
(-) (Pt) H2 H+ KCl, Hg2Cl2 Hg (+)

Sut din ng ca nguyn t ny l
115
E=
cal
H2
M th ca in cc hyro 250C l
Nn
E=
H2
= 0,059 lg CH+
cal + 0,059 PH
E-
T ta c:
cal
PH =
0,059
V d 2:
o PH bng cp in cc thy tinh calomen
Lp nguyn t Galvani gm din cc thy tinh (bu thy tinh nhng trong dung
dch cn o PH) v in cc calomen. Trong nguyn t ny, in cc calomen l
cc dng. Sut in ng ca nguyn t l
E=
cal = cal 0
tt
tt
+ 0,059 PH
T ta c:
E-
cal -
0tt
PH =
0,059
3. Xc nh bin thin th ng p tiu chun (G0) ca mt phn ng
Ta bit bin thin th ng p tiu chun ca phn ng oxi ha kh lin h vi
sut in ng ca pin nh sau:
G0 = - nE0F
Do nu bit th oxi ha tiu chun ca cc cp oxi ha kh trong mt phn
ng ta c th tnh c bin thin th ng p ca phn ng
4. Phng php chun o th
Trong phng php ny, im tng ng c pht hin qua s pht hin
t ngt v th, to ra mt bc nhy th trn ng cong chun .
V nguyn tc, tin hnh chun ngi ta thit lp mt nguyn t Galvani
gm mt in cc c th ph thuc vo nng ion mun chun (gi l in cc ch
th) v th in cc khng i (gi l in cc so snh). o sut in ng ca n
trong sut qu trnh chun . V ng cong chun t xc nh im tng
ng
V d:
Xc nh nng ca dung dch NaCl bng phng php chun o th vi
dung dch chun l dung dch AgNO3
Thit lp nguyn t Galvani gm mt in cc bc nhng trong mt th tch xc
nh dung dch AgNO3 v mt in cc calomen chun. T buret cha dung dch
NaCl cha bit nng , thm dn vo cc cha hai in cc. Sau mi ln thm
NaCl li o sut in ng.
E=
Ag+/Ag
Cal
116
+
+ 0,059 lg [Ag ] - Cal
Trong qu trnh chun , nng [Ag+] gim dn. Do E o c gim dn.
Ti im tng ng nng Ag+ v cng b lm cho sut in ng gim mt
cch t ngt. V ng cong chun v tm im tng ng trn ng cong
. T xc nh c nng ca dung dch NaCl.
E=
Ag+/Ag
III. S in phn
1. nh ngha
S in phn l qu trnh oxy ha - kh xy ra trn b mt in cc khi cho
dng in mt chiu i qua dung dch cht in ly hay qua cht in ly nng chy v
c km theo s bin i in nng thnh ha nng.
2. Hin tng in phn: hiu r bn cht s in phn, ta quan st hin
tng xy ra khi in phn NaCl nng chy.
Khi nng chy, NaCl phn li thnh cc ion Na+ v Cl- chuyn ng hn lon.
- Trong bnh in phn, nu ta p t vo bnh 1 in trng tc l ni vi
ngun in mt chiu th cc ion khng chuyn ng t do m chuyn ng
nh hng: cc cation hng v Catod (cc m) v cc anion v Anod
(cc dng).
- Catod: 2Na+ + 1e 2Na ( p/ Catod)

- Anod: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e (p/ Anod)
2Na+ + 2Cl- 2Na + Cl2
hay
2NaCl dpnc
2Na + Cl2
+
Cc ion Na v Cl ng vai tr dn in gia cc in cc, kh Cl2 thot ra khi
bnh in phn, cn Na nng chy b tch ra vng Catod.
3. Cc trng hp in phn
3.1 in phn nng chy: in phn nng chy dng in phn mt s mui
(ch yu mui halogenua), oxit, hirxit ca kim loi kim, kim th, nhm nhm mc
ch iu ch nhng kim loi v mt s phi kim nh F2.
V d 1: in phn Al2O3:
Al2O3 nc 2Al3+ + 3O2Catod:
Al3+ + 3e Al
x4
2Anod:
2O O2 + 4e x 3
2Al2O3
dpnc
4Al + 3O2
V d 2: in phn NaOH:
Catod:
Anod:
NaOH nc Na+ + OHNa + 1e Na

x4
4OH O2 + 2H2O + 4e x1
4NaOH
dpnc
O2 + 2H2O + 4Na
117
3.2 in phn dung dch:
V d:
in phn dung dch NaCl, c nhng qu trnh in ha no xy ra cc in
cc?
C s gii p cc vn t ra l so snh cc i lng th in cc ca
nhng cp oxi ha - kh tng ng c kh nng tham gia vo cc qu trnh oxi ha
hay kh trn in cc khi in phn v i lng th in cc c trng cho kh
nng oxi ha hay kh ca cc cp oxi ha - kh.
Catod: trong qu trnh in phn s din ra qu trnh kh dng oxi ha ca
cp oxi ha - kh.
Khi c mt nhiu dng oxi ha th trc ht phi b kh (+ne) dng oxi ha ca
cp oxi ha - kh no c kh nng oxi ha mnh nht, ngha l c th in cc ln
nht.
Dng oxi ha l cc Men+ v H+ ca dung dch cht in li
Mun bit qu trnh no xy ra (ion no s phng in) cn so snh th in
cc (th kim loi) ca kim lai vi th in cc ca Hir. ( CH+ = 10-7M)
0.059
H2 = 0H2 +
lg [H+] = -0,059 pH = -0,059 x 7 = -0,41 V
1
Trong dung dch trung tnh, nu kim loi c th ln hn -0,41V th n s kt ta
(so vi dy th in cc ca kim loi iu ny ch c th xy ra i vi nhng kim
loi t Sn tr v cui dy)
Men+ + ne Me
Nu kim loi c th nh hn -0,41V th H2 s bay ln (nhng kim loi t Ti tr
v u dy): 2H+ + 2e H2 (i vi mi trng axit)
Hay 2H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH- (i vi mi trng trung tnh hay baz)
Cn nu kim loi c th tng ng -0,41V th c th kim loi kt ta hay kh
H2 bay ln ty theo nng v iu kin tin hnh (i vi kim loi t Zn Ni)
Anod: trong trng hp ny dng kh chnh l cc anion gc axit v
hyrxyl ca dung dch cht in li. Ngoi ra cn lu ty vt liu dng lm in cc
m n c th b oxi ha (-ne) khi in phn. V vy cn xt qu trnh anod theo 2 in
cc : anod tr (khng b oxi ha nh graphit, platin...) v anod tan (b oxi ha nh
niken...)
- i vi anod tr: da theo th in cc ca cc cp oxi ha - kh tng

ng cng nh m t s yu t khc, ta c nhn xt:
+ B oxi ha trc ht l cc anion khng cha oxi (I-, Br-, Cl-...)
+ Sau n OH+ Cui cng l anion cha oxi (SO32-, SO42-...)
Ch : Trong trng hp ny anion khng cha oxi ch b oxi ha (-ne) khi s
dng th hiu in phn rt ln), cn khi in phn dung dch nc ca axit v mui
khng cha oxi (t axit HF v mui ca n), th cc anion gc axit s b oxi ha.
V d 3: in phn dung dch nc NiSO4 vi anod tan Niken
0Ni2+/Ni = -0,250V ( >-0,41V) nhng km hn th oxi ha nc nhiu:
2H2O - 4e = 4H+ + O2
0= 1,228V
nn catod xut hin kt ta Niken, cn anod in cc Niken s ha tan.
118
NiSO4
Catod Ni2+ + SO42- Anod
Ni2++ 2e = Ni
Ni - 2e = Ni2+
i vi anod tan: c th xy ra qu trnh phng in (-ne) ca anion (qu
trnh oxi ha amin) hay ha tan anod.
Qu trnh no s xy ra ty thuc v tr ca cp oxi ha - kh tng ng trong
bng th in cc tiu chun.
- Nu kim loi anod c th nh hn (tnh kh mnh hn) th in cc ca
cc cp oxi ha - kh th anod s b ha tan:
Me - ne = Men+
Cn nu ngc li th hoc anion gc axit hay anion OH- b oxi ha .
V d 4: in phn dung dch mui CuCl2 vi anod tr:
Cu c th 0,34V, ln hn -0,41V nhiu:
CuCl2
Catod Cu2++ 2Cl- Anod
Cu2+ +2e = Cu
2Cl- - 2e = Cl2
V d 5: in phn dung dch mui K2SO4 vi anod tr:

catod kim loi K c th -2,92V < -0,41V nhiu, do H+ b kh cho H2 bay
ra v trong khng gian catod to thnh KOH do s tch ly cc ion K+ v OH-. Cn
anod c oxi bay ra do ion OH- b oxi ha ( - ne) v trong khng gian anod to thnh
H2SO4 nh s tch ly cc ion H+ v SO4-.
2 K2SO4
Catod 4K+ + 2SO4- Anod
4K+
2SO424H2O + 4e = 4OH- + 4H
2H2O - 4e = 4H+ + 2O
4H = 2H2
2O = O2
V d 6: in phn vi anod tan.
Nu khi in phn ta dng anod lm bng kim loi hay hp kim th lc anod
b tan dn do kim loi b xi ha thnh ion kim loi.
in phn dung dch AgNO3 vi anod l bc th cc phn ng in cc l:
Catod : Ag+ + 1e = Ag
Anod : Ag = Ag+ +1e
Da trn nguyn tc ny ngi ta tinh luyn kim loi.
V d:
c ng nguyn cht th t ng b ln cc kim loi qu nh Ag, Au, Pt... ta
tin hnh in phn dung dch CuSO4 vi anod ng c ln tp cht, lc phn
ng i cc l:
catod: Cu2+ + 2e = Cu
anod: Cu = Cu2+ + 2e
4. nh lut Faraday
119
Lng cht thot ra in cc t l thun vi khi lng mol nguyn t hay
khi lng mol phn t ca cht thot ra in cc, vi in lng i qua dung
dch v t l nghch vi s electron tham gia phn ng in cc.
nh lut Faraday c vit di dng biu thc nh sau:
MIt
m=
n 0F
m: khi lng cht thot ra in cc (tnh theo gam)
M: khi lng mol kh hay mol phn t ca cht thot ra in cc
t: thi gian in phn (giy,s)
I: cng dng in (Ampe)
Q = It : in lng (Coulomb)
F: s Faraday (=96500 coulomb/mol)
no: s electron tham gia phn ng in cc
V d: tnh khi lng Al thu c catod v th tch kh clo thu c anod
sau khi in phn 2gi vi cng dng in 20A, khi in phn nng chy AlCl3.
Ta c phng trnh phn ng in phn:
2AlCl3
pnc 2Al + 3Cl2
Catod: Al + 3e Al
Anod: 2Cl- Cl2
+2e
27.20.2.3.3600
Khi lng Al: m =
= 14,43 g
3.96500
3+
S mol Cl2 bay ra:

n=
It
m
=
n 0F
M
20.2.3600
= 0,746 mol
2.96500
Th tch kh Clo = 0,746 . 22,4 = 16,71 l

5. ng dng ca s in phn
in phn c ng dng rt rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau
- iu ch nhiu cht v c cng nh hu c nh H2, O2, Cl2, NaOH, H2O2
- iu ch cc kim loi
- Tinh luyn cc kim loi
- M in
120
PH LC
BNG 1
Sinh nhit tiu chun ca mt s hp cht
H2 O
H2 O
CO
CO2
SO2
SO3
SO3
NO
NO2
NH3
HCl
HI
k
l
k
k
k
k
l
k
k
k
k
k
H0s
(kcal/mol)
-57,.800
-68,320
-26,420
-94,050
-70,96
-94,45
-110,52
+21,600
+8,090
-11,040
-22,060
+6,200
H2 S
CH4
C2 H6
C2 H4
C2 H2
nC6H4
C6 H6
C6 H6
CH3OH
C2H5OH
CH3COOH
NaOH
NaF
NaCl
NaBr
k
k
k
k
k
l
k
l
l
l
l
r
r
r
r
-4.820
-17,890
-20,240
+12,500
+54,190
-39,96
+19,89
+11,720
-57,02
-66,35
-115,7
-102,00
-136,5
-98,23
-86,45
Cht
Trng thi
Cht
Na2SO4
KCl
KOH
NaI
MgO
Mg(OH)2
MgCl2
MgCO3
MgSO4
CaO
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
canxit
CaF2
CaCl2
Al2O3
Al2(SO4)3
FeO
Fe2O3
FeS
FeSO4
CuO
CuSO4
MnO
MnSO4
AgNO3
BaCO3
BaSO4
Fe2O3
ZnO
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
H0s
(kcal/mol)
-330.500
-104.180
-102.000
-69.3
-143.84
-221.00
-153.4
-266
-305.5
-151.9
-235.8
-288.45
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
-290.3
-190.0
-399.09
-820.98
-64.30
-196.50
-22.80
-220,5
-37.1
-184.0
-92.1
-254,2
-29,400
-290,703
-352,103
-77,486
-82,036
Trng thi
121
BNG 2
Nhit t chy tiu chun ca mt s hp cht hu c
Cht
Cng thc
Metan
Eptan
Protan
n-Butan
n-Pentan
Etylen
Axetylen
Benzen
CH4
C2 H6
C3 H8
C4H10
C5H12
C2 H4
C2 H2
C6 H6
C6 H6
C7 H8
C10H8
C12H12O11
CH3OH
C2H5OH
CH3COOH
C5H5COOH
Toluen
Naptalen
Saccaroz
Metanol
Etanol
Axit axetic
Axit benzonic
Trng
H0c
thi (kcal/mol)
k
-212.800
k
-372.820
k
-530.600
k
-678.980
k
-845.16
k
-337.230
k
-310.620
k
-787.200
l
-780.980
l
-934.500
r
-1228.18
r -1348.900
l
-173.670
l
-326.700
l
-208.340
r
-771.200
BNG 3
Entropy tiu chun ca mt s cht

Cht
H
H2
C
C2
N
N2
O
O2
O3
Trng thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
So (Cal/mol
)
27.391
31.208
37.759
47.636
36.613
45.769
38.476
49.003
57.079
Cht
F
F2
S
Cl
Cl2
Br
Br2
I
I2
Trng thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
K
So (Cal/mol
)
37.917
48.439
56.917
39.457
53.288
41.805
58.641
43.184
62.280
122
BNG 4
Entropy tiu chun ca mt s cht

n cht rn
Cht
Trng
thi
Cgraphit
Ckim cng
Natt
Sthoi
Sn t
r
r
r
r
r
So
(Cal/mol )
1.372
0.568
12.239
7.600
7.832
Cht
Catt
Fett
Cutt
Zntt
Agtt
Trng
thi
r
r
r
r
r
So
(Cal/mol
)
9.900
6.520
7.923
9.950
10.170
Hp cht v c kh
Cht
H2 O
H2O2
NH3
HCl
HI
CO
CO2
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
So
(Cal/mol )
45.104
55.593
45.970
44.646
49.351
47.219
51.059
Cht
NO
NO2
N2 O
SO2
SO3
ClO
ClO2
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
So
(Cal/mol
)
50.347
57.349
52.519
59.300
61.367
54.140
61.386
Hp cht v c lng - rn
Cht
H2 O
H2O2
SO3
Trng
thi
L
L
L
So
(Cal/mol )
Cht
16.709
26.915
27.199
CaOtt
Ca(OH)2tt
CaCO3,canxit
BaCO3
BaSO4tt
Fe2O3,hematit
CuOtt
Trng
thi
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
So
(Cal/mol
)
9.500
19.931
22.204
26.793
31.597
20.889
10.189
123
ZnOtt
AgCltt
Hp cht hu c kh
Cht
CH4 (metan)
C2H6 (etan)
C2H4 (etilen)
C2H2 (axetilen)
C3H8 (propan)
C3H6 (propylen)
C4H10 (isobutan)
C4H8 (1-buten)
C4H8 (cis-2-buten)
C4H8 (trans-2-buten)
C6H6 (benzen)
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
So
(Cal/mol )
44.998
54.760
52.390
47.990
47.421
63.719
70.600
73.573
71.869
70.698
64.400
Trng
thi
l
l
l
l
So
(Cal/mol )
30.306
38.408
38.193
64.400
Hp cht hu c lng
Cht
CH3OH (metanol)
C2H5oh (etanol)
CH3COOH (axit axetic)
C6H6 (benzen)
r
r
10.430
22.922
124
BNG 5
Th ng p to thnh tiu chun Go298,tt (kcal/mol)
Cht
H
H2
C
C2
N
N2
O
O2
O3
H2 O
H2O2
NH3
HCl
HI
CO
CO2
H2 O
H2O2
SO3
CaOtt
Ca(OH)2tt
CaCO3
Canxit
BaCo3
BaSO4tt
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
L
L
L
r
r
r
r
r
r
Gott
(kcal/mol)
48.51
0
160.442
185.449
108.886
0
55.389
0
39.006
-54.634
-25.239
-3.939
-22.777
0.411
-32.780
-94.254
-56.687
-28.781
-89.340
-44.371
-214.76
-269.80
-271.89
-325.57
Cht
F
F2
S
Cl
Cl2
Br
Br2
I
I2
NO
NO2
N2 O
SO
SO2
SO3
ClO
ClO2
Fe2O3
Hematit
CuOtt
ZnOtt
AgCltt
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
r
r
r
r
r
Gott
(kcal/mol)
14.806
0
56.946
25.262
0
19.701
0.751
16.789
4.627
20.686
12.259
24.900
-4.693
-71.748
-88.689
23.449
28.800
-177.39
-31.00
-76.08
-26.244
125
BNG 6
Th ng p to thnh tiu chun ca mt s hp cht hu c
Cht
CH4 (metan)
C2H6 (etan)
C2H4 (etilen)
C2H2 (axetilen)
C3H8 (propan)
C3H6 (propylen)
C4H10 (n-butan)
C4H10 (isobutan)
C4H8 (1-buten)
C4H8 (cis-2-buten)
C4H8 (trans-2-buten)
C6H6 (benzen)
CH3OH
(Metanol)
C2H5OH
(Etanol)
CH3COOH
(Axit axetic)
C5H5COOH (Axit
benzonic)
Trng
thi
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
l
l
l
l
Gott
(kcal/mol)
-12.146
-7.636
16.355
50.184
-5.832
14.847
-3.958
-4.962
16.788
15.655
15.153
30.987
-39.759
-41.800
-93.212
29.737
BNG 7
Hng s in li ca mt s axit v baz trong dung dch nc 250C
Cht in ly
HNO2
C6H5COOH
Phng trnh in ly

HNO2
H+ + HSeO4

C6H5COOH
K1= 2,0.10-5
H+ + H2BO-3
K1 = 5,8.10-10

H3BO3
H2B4O7
H+ + HB4O-7
H2B4O7
H+ + B4O2-7
HB4O-7
HCOOH
HCOOH
K1 = 1,8.10-4
K2 = 1,5.10-5
H+ + GeO-3
K1 = 5,0.10-10
H+ + GeO2-3
HGeO3
H+ + IO-3
HIO3
K2 = 2,0.10-13

H2GeO3
HIO3
K1= 5,1.10-4
C6H5COO- + H+
H3BO3
H2GeO3
Ka v Kb
H+ + HCOO
K1 = 1,6.10-1
K1= 1,7.10-4
126
H3AsO4
H3AsO4
H2AsO-4
HAsO-4
H2O2
H2O2
HF
HF
CH3COOH
CH3COOH
H+ + H2AsO4
H+ + HAsO2-4
H+ + AsO3-4
H+ + HO-2
H+ + F
CH3COO- + H+
K1 = 6,0.10-3
K2 = 1,1.10-7
K3 = 4,0.10-12
K1 = 2,0.10-12
K1 = 6,8.10-4
K1= 1,8.10-5
CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2COOH
CH3CH2COO- + H+
K1= 2,0.10-5
HCNS
HCNS
H+ + CNS
K1= 1,4.10-1
H2SeO3
H2SeO3
H+ + HSeO-3
K1 = 2,4.10-3
HSeO-3
H+ + SeO2-3
H+ + HSeO-4
K2 = 4,8.10-9
H+ + SeO2-4
H+ + HSO-4
K2 = 8,9.10-3
H + SO
H+ + HSO-3
K2 = 1,2.10-2
H+ + SO2-3
H+ + HS
K2 = 6,3.10-8
H+ + S2
H+ + HTeO3
K2 = 1,3.10-13
H+ + TeO33
H+ + HTeO4
K2 = 2,0.10-8
H2SeO4
H2SeO4
HSeO4
H2SO4
H2SO4
HSO
H2SO3
H2SO3
HSO-3
H2S
H2S
HS-
H2TeO3
H2TeO3
HTeO3
H2TeO4
H2TeO4
HTeO4-
H2S2O3
H2S2O3
H2SO3-
H2CO3
H2CO3
23
H+ + TeO32
H+ + HS2O3

K1 = 1,3.10-2
K1 = 8,9.10-8
K1 = 3,2.10-3
K1 = 2,5.10-9
K2 = 4,1.10-11
K1 = 2,5.10-1
H+ + S2O32-
K2 = 1,9.10-2
H+ + HCO3-
K1 = 4,5.10-7
C6H5OH
C6H5OH
H+ + CO32
C6H5O- + H
H3PO3
H3PO3
H+ + H2PO3
HCO3-
in ly hon ton
K2 = 4,7.10-11
K1= 1,3.10-10
K1 = 1,6.10-2
127
H2 PO32H3PO4
H3PO4
H2PO3HPO42-
H4P2O7
H4P2O7
H3P2O72H2P2O72HP2O73-
HClO
HClO
HClO2
HClO2
H2CrO4
H2CrO4
HCrO-4
2HCrO-4
H2C2O4
H2C2O4
HC2O-4
H+ + HPO32
H+ + H2PO4
H+ + HPO42
H+ + PO43
H+ + H3P2O7
H+ + H2P2O72
H+ + HP2O73
H+ + P2O74
H+ + ClO
H+ + ClO2
H- + CrO4
H+ + CrO42
Cr2O72- + H2O
H+ + HC2O4
H+ + C2O42
NH4+ + OH
NH4OH
NH4OH
C6H5NH2
C6H5NH2
CH3NH2
CH3NH2
C6H5NH3 + OH
CH3NH3 + OH
C2H5NH2
C2H5NH2 + H2O
C2H5NH3+ + OH
K2 = 2.0.10-7
K1 = 7,6.10-3
K2 = 6,2.10-8
K3 = 4,4.10-13
K1 = 3,0.10-2
K2 = 4,4.10-3
K3 = 2,5.10-7
K4 = 5,6.10-10
K1 = 3,0.10-8
K1 = 1,1.10-2
K1 = 1,8.10-1
K2 =3,2.10-7
3,0.10-2
K1 = 5,6.10-2
K2 = 5,1.10-5
K1= 1,8.10-5
K1= 4,2.10-10
K1= 4,8.10-4
K1= 4,7 .10-4
128
BNG 7
Tch s tan trong nc ca mt s cht 250C

Cht in li
Phng trnh in li
Ka v Kb
AgCl
AgCl
Ag+ + Cl
1,1.10-11
AgBr
AgBr
Ag+ + Cl
6,3.10-13
AgI
AgI
Ag+ + I
1,5.10-16
AgCN
AgCN
Ag+ + CN
7.10-15
AgIO3
AgIO
Ag+ + IO3
3,2.10-8
Ag2S
Ag2S
2Ag+ + S2
5,7.10-51
Al(OH)3
Al(OH)3
Al3+ + 3OH
1,9.10-33
Al(OH)3
Al(OH)3
H+ + (AlO2.H2O)
1,1.10-15
As2S3
As2S3
2As3+ + 3S2
4.10-29
( 180C)
BaCO3
BaCO3
Ba2+ + CO32
7.10 -9
BaCO4
BaCO4
Ba2+ + CrO42
2,3.10-10
BaSO4
BaSO4
Ba2+ + SO42
1,08.10-10
Be(OH)2
Be(OH)2
Be2+ + 2OH
2,7.10-10
H2BeO2
H2BeO2
H+ + BeO22
2.10-30
Bi(OH)3
Bi(OH)3
Bi3+ + 3OH
1,3.10-31
( 180C)
BiOCl
BiOCl
Cl- + BiO+
Bi2S3
Bi2S3
2Bi3+ + 3S2
CaCO3
CaCO3
Ca2+ + CO32
4,8.10-9
Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+ + 2HO
3,1.10-5
CaSO4
CaSO4
Ca2+ + SO42
6,26.10-5
7.10-9
1,6.10-72
( 180C)
129
CaSO4.2H2O
CaSO4.2H2O
2H2O
Ca2+ + SO42- +
1,3.10-4
1.10-4
Ca3(PO4
Ca3(PO4)2
3Ca2+ + 2PO43
Cd(OH)2
Cd(OH)2
Cd2+ + 2OH
2,4.10-13
( 180C)
Co(OH)2
Co(OH)2
Co2+ + 2OH
1,6.10-18
( 180C)
Co(OH)3
Co(OH)3
Co3+ + 3OH
2,5.10-43
CoS
CoS
Co2+ + S2
3,1.10-23
Cr(OH)3
Cr(OH)3
Cr3+ + 3OH
6,7.10-31
Cr(OH)3
Cr(OH)3
CrO2- + H+ + H2O
CuCO3
CuCO3
Cu2+ + CO32
5,6.10-10
Cu(OH)2
Cu(OH)2
Cu2+ + 2OH
5,6.10-20
Cu2Cl2
CuCl2
Cu22+ + 2Cl
1,8.10-7
Cu2I2
Cu2I2
Cu22+ + 2I
1,1.10-12
Cu2S
Cu2S
Cu22+ + S2
2.10-47
( 180C)
CuS
CuS
Cu2+ + S2
FeCO3
FeCO3
Fe2+ + CO33
2,11.10-11
Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2
Fe2+ + 2OH
4,8.10-16
( 180C)
Fe(OH)3
Fe(OH)3
Fe3+ + 3OH
3,8.10-38
( 180C)
FeS
FeS
Fe2+ + S2
3,7.10-19
Hg2Cl2
Hg2Cl2
Hg22+ + 2Cl
1,1.10-18
Hg2I2
Hg2I2
Hg22+ + 2l
3,7.10-29
Hg2O
Hg2O + H2O Hg22+ + 2OH-
)2
9.10-17
4.10-38
1,6.10-23
130
1,7.10-26
HgO
HgO + H2O Hg2+ + 2OH-
Hg2S
Hg2S
Hg22+ + S2+
1,0.10-47
( 180C)
HgS
HgS
Hg2+ + S2
4,0.10-53
( 180C)
KClO4
KClO4
K+ + ClO4
1,07.10-2
Li2CO3
Li2CO3
2Li+ + CO32
1,66.10-3
MgCO3.3H2O
MgCO3.3H2O
3H2O
Mg2+ + CO32- +
1,0.10-5
MgS
MgS
Mg2+ + S2
2,0.10-15
Mg(OH)2
Mg(OH)2
Mg2+ + 2OH
5,5.10-12
MnCO2
MnCO2
Mn2+ + CO32
5,05.10-10
Mn(OH)2
Mn(OH)2
Mn2+ + CO32
4.10-14
( 180C)
MnS
MnS
Mn2+ + S2
Ni(OH)2
Ni(OH)2
Ni2+ + 2OH
1,6.10-14
NiS
NiS
Ni2+ + S2
3.10-21
(180C)
PbCO3
PbCO3
Pb2+ + CO32
1,5.10-13
PbCl2
PbCl2
Pb2+ + 2Cl
1,7.10-5
PbBr2
PbBr2
Pb2+ + 2Br
6,3.10-5
PbI2
PbI2
Pb2+ + 21
8,7.10-9
PbCrO4
PbCrO4
Pb2+ + CrO42
PbO
PbO + H2O Pb2+ + 2OH-
PbS
PbS
Pb2+ + S2
PbSO4
PbSO4
Pb2+ + SO42
5,6.10-16
( 180C)
1,77.10-14
5,5.10-16
1,1.10-29
1,8.10-8
131
Pt(OH)2
Pt(OH)2
Pt2+ + 2OH
102-5
Sb(OH)3
Sb(OH)3
Sb3+ + 3OH
4,0.10-42
Sb2S3
Sb2S3
2Sb3+ + 3S2
1.10-30
H2SiO3
H2SiO3
HSiO3+ + H
1.10-30
Sn(OH)2
Sn(OH)2
Sn4+ + 4OH
5.10-26
Sn(OH)4
Sn(OH)4
Sn4+ + 4OH
1..10-56
SnS
SnS
Sn2+ + S2
1.10-28
SrCO3
SrCO3
Sr2+ + CO32
9,42.10-10
SrSO4
SrSO4
Sr2+ + SO42
2,8.10-7
TeO(OH)2
TeO2+ + 2OH
Te(OH)4
Te(OH)4
Te4+ + 4OH
TiO(OH)
TiO(OH)2
TiO2+ + 2OH
1.10-30
ZnCO3
ZnCO3
Zn2+ + CO32
6.10-11
Zn(OH)2
Zn(OH)2
Zn2+ + 2OH
4.10-16
ZnS
ZnS
Zn2+ + S2
TeO(OH)2
1.10-11
7.10 - 53
( 180C)
6,9.10-26
BNG 8
Th in cc chun ( 25 0C)
0 (Vn)
in cc
Phn ng in cc
Li+/Li
Li+ + e
Li
-3,04
Hb+/Rb
Rb+ + e
Rb
-2,92
Cs+/Cs
Cs+ + e
Cs
-2,92
K+/K
K+ + e
-2,92
132
Ra2+/Ra
Ra2+ + 2e
Ra
-2,92
Ba2+/Ba
Ba2+ + 2e
Ba
-2,90
Ca2+/Ca
Ca2+ + 2e
Ca
-2,87
Na+/Na
Na+ + e
Na
-2,713
La3+/La
La3+ + 3e
La
-2,52
Mg2+/Mg
Mg2+ + 2e
Mg
-2,38
Be2+/Be
Be2+ + 2e
Be
-1,85
HfO2,
H+/Hf
HfO2 + 4H+ + 4e
Hf + 2H2O
Al3+/Al
Al3+ + 3e
Al
-1,66
Ti2+/Ti
Ti2+ + 2e
Ti
-1,63
Zr4+/Zr
Zr4+ + 4e
Zr
-1,53
V2+/V
V2+ + 2e
-1,18
Mn2+/Mn
Mn2+ + 2e
Mn
-1,18
WO42-/W
WO42- + 6e + 4H2O W + 8OH-
Se2-/Se
Se3+ + 2e
Se2
-0,92
Zn2+/Zn
Zn2+ + 2e
Zn
-0,763
Cr3+/Cr
Cr3+ + 3e
Cr
-0,74
SbO2-
SbO2- + 3e + 2H2O Sb + 4OH-
Ga3+/Ga
Ga3+ + 3e
Ga
-0,53
S2?S
S + 2e
S2
-0,51
Fe2+/Fe
Fe2+ + 2e
Fe
-0,44
Cr3+/Cr2+/
Pt
Cr3+ + e
Cr2+
-0,410
Cd2+/Cd
Cd2+ + 2e
Cd
-0,402
/Sb
-1,7
-1,05
-0,67
133
Ti3+,
Ti2+/Pt
Ti3+ + e
Ti2+
Tl+/Tl
Tl+ + e
Tl
- 0,335
Co2+/Co
Co2+ + 2e
Co
- 0,27
Ni2+/Ni
Ni2+ + 2e
Ni
- 0,24
Mo3+/Mo
Mo2+ + 3e
Mo
- 0,2
Sn4+/Sn
Sn2+ + 2e
Sn
- 0,136
Pb2+/Pb
Pb2+ + 2e
Pb
- 0,126
Ti4+,
Ti3+/Pt
Ti4+ + e
Ti3+
- 0,04
H+, H2/Pt
2H+ + 2e
H2
0,000
Ge2+/Ge
Ge2+ + 2e
Ge
+ 0,01
Cu2+,
Cu+/Pt
Cu2+ + e
Cu+
+ 0,153
Sn4+,
Sn2+/Pt
Sn4+ + 2e
Sn2+
+ 0,154
Cu2+/Cu
Cu2+ + 2e
Cu
+ 0,337
Fe(CN)63- + e
Fe(CN)64
OH-/O2,
Pt
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
4OH
Cu+, Cu
Cu+ + e
Cu
+ 0,52
2I-/I2
I2 + 2e
2I2
+ 0,536
Te4+/Te
Te4+ + 4e
Te
+ 0,56
MnO4-,
MnO42-
MnO4- + e
MnO42
Rh2+/Rh
Rh2+ + e
Rh
Fe3+,
Fe3+ + e
Fe2+
Fe(CN)63
, Fe(CN)64-/Pt
-0,37
+ 0,36
+ 0,401
+ 0,561
/Pt
+ 0,6
+ 0,771
134
Fe3+/Pt
Hg22+/Hg
Hg22+ + 2e
2Hg
+ 0,798
Ag+/Ag
Ag+ + e
Ag
+ 0,799
Hg2+/Hg
Hg2+ + e
Hg
+ 0,854
Hg2+,
Hg+/Pt
Hg2 + e
Hg+
+ 0,91
Pd2/Pd
Pd2 + 2e
Pd
+0,987
2Br-/Br2,
Pt
Br2 + 2e
2Br
Pt2+/P2
Pt2+ + 2e
Pt
Mn2+,
H+/MnO2, Pt
Cr2O72-,
Cr3+/Pt
+1,066
+1,2
+ 1,236
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e Mn2+ + 2H2O

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e
7H2O
2Cr3+
+ 1,33
Ti3+,
Ti+/Pt
Ti3+ + 2e
Ti+
+ 1,247
Cl-/Cl2,
Cl2 + 2e
2Cl
+ 1,359
Pb2+/Pb
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e
Pb2+ + 2H2O
+ 1,455
Au3+ + 3e
Au
Pt
O2
, Pb
Au3+/Au
MnO4-,
H+/Mn2+,Pt
MnO4-,
H+, MnO2
+1,50
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e MnO2 + 2H2O
+1,51
MnO2 + 2H2O
+1,695
MnO4- + 4H+
135
TI LIU THAM KHO
1. Phan An l thuyt c s ca ha hc Trng i hc Y H Ni 2001

2. Nguyn nh Chi Phm Thc Cn - C s l thuyt ha hc NXB i hc
v trung hc chuyn nghip H Ni 1979
3. Nguyn c Chung Cu hi v bi tp trc nghim ha i cng - NBX
Khoa hc k thut 2000
4. PGS V ng - C s l thuyt cc qu trnh ho hc - NXB i hc v
trung hc chuyn nghip H Ni 2000
5. Hong Nhm Ha hc v c tp 1 NXB Gio dc H Ni 2000
6. Nguyn Hnh - C s l thuyt ho hc - NXB Gio dc 1994
7. Phan Th Hong Oanh. Bi ging cu to nguyn t v lin kt ha hc
Trng i hc Khoa hc Hu 2005
8. Nguyn nh Soa - Ho i cng trng H Bch khoa TP HCM 1996
9. L Nguyn To - L Tin Hon - Gio Trnh ho hc cht keo - trng H
tng hp H Ni 1990
136
10. Nguyn Vn Tu - V Vn Son NXB i hc v gio dc chuyn nghip
H Ni 1994
11. o nh Thc Cu to nguyn t v lin kt ha hc Tp 1 v 2 NXB bn
i hc v gio dc chuyn nghip H Ni 1980
12. Rene Didier Ha i cng tp 1, 2, 3 NXB Gio dc H Ni 1997
BIN SON
1. Nguyn Ph Huyn Chu
Chng I: Nhng khi nim v nh lut c bn ca ha hc
Chng II: Cu to nguyn t v lin kt ha hc
Chng III: Cu to phn t v lin kt ha hc
Chng V: ng ha hc
Chng VI: Cn bng ha hc
Chng X: in ha hc (Phn ng oxi ha kh v nguyn t Galvani)
2. Nguyn Th Minh Minh
Chng IV: Nhit ng hc ha hc
Chng IX: Ha keo
Chng X: in ha hc (S in phn)
3. Trn Th Ha
Chng VII: Dung dch
Chng VIII: Dung dch in ly
Chng X: in ha hc (Mt s v d)
137
Bin tp: Nguyn Ph Huyn Chu

24 Hoa DC DH HUE

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I HC HU

TRUNG TM GING DY V THC HNH C BN

ThS. NGUYN PH HUYN CHU

Ho hc l ngnh khoa hc t nhin, nghin cu v thnh phn cu to v tnh cht ca cc

II. Vai tr v nhim v ca mn ho i cng

NHNG KHI NIM V NH LUT C BN

Ngi ta thng phn thnh:

- Ho cht tinh khit

(Khi P tnh bng atm, V tnh bng lt th R = 0,082lt atm/mol )

Trong , mA, mB l khi lng hai cht A, B phn ng va vi nhau. A, B l ng

Gi s c 2 cht A v B phn ng vi nhau theo phng trnh:

I. Nhng c s vt l nghin cu cu to nguyn t

II. Hm sng v phng trnh sng ca electron

- Hm sng phi tho mn iu kin:

-V: th nng ca ht ti to x,y,z

4.2. S lng t orbital (l) (s lng t momen gc)

III. Orbitan nguyn t - hnh dng cc orbital nguyn t

2.2. AO p (Xc nh bi l = 1; ml = -1, 0, +1 (Py, Pz, Px) l nhng cp hnh cu tip xc vi

IV. Nguyn t nhiu electron - s phn b electron trong nguyn t nhiu

Tng s spin S = +1/2

Vy cch phn b th 2 ph hp vi qui tc Hund 1

3. Hin tng phng x t nhin

- S phn hu + (+: ht positon e )

Km theo cc tia hay l cc tia gm cc bc x in t c nng lng ln.

5. ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to

VI. Cu to nguyn t v h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc

- Tng s electron lp ngoi cng

Phn t l phn t nh b nht ca cht, n c to nn t nhng nguyn t cng loi hoc

Ngi ta xy dng c thang m in ca cc nguyn t trong hydro c m

Ngi ta nhn thy :

II. Lin kt ion

III. Lin kt cng ho tr

H2 ( nng lng thp)

phn lp 2p c 3AO cha 4 eletron trong c 2 electron c thn nn oxi c ho tr 2.

- Trng thi kch thch 1s2 2s2 2p2

Trng thi kch thch

Hai AO lai ho sp to thnh ca Be s xen ph vi 2 AO ho tr ca 2 nguyn t F (2py)

Lai ho sp2 (Lai ho tam gic):

- Lai ho sp3 (lai ho t din)

Gii phng trnh Schrodinger i vi hm ny ngi ta tm c hai nghim l:

( 1sA 1sB ) l MO phn lin kt s ng vi nng lng cao hn (c mt

( 1sA 1sB ) l MO lin kt s ng vi nng lng thp hn khi trng thi

n: tng s cc electron trn cc MO lin kt

Bc lin kt cng ln th lin kt cng bn

* Tnh cht t ca phn t

IV. Tng tc gia cc phn t

* Nguyn nhn xut hin lin kt hydro

Lm gim in li, gim tnh axit ca cc cht.

* Lc cm ng: cc phn t phn cc tng tc vi cc phn t khng phn cc lm xut

* Lc khuych tn: cc phn t khng phn cc gn nhau do chuyn ng ca cc

V. S lc v trng thi tp hp ca cc cht

Atn > Abtn

Nu vit di dng vi phn, ta c:

Sau y ta xt kh nng sinh cng ca h:

(trng thi ban u)

Du = ng vi qu trnh thun nghch S = S2 - S1 =

Du > ng vi qu trnh bt thun nghch S >

Nh vy entropi l thc o thun nghch hay khng thun nghch ca qu trnh.

S1, S2 ... l entropi ca cc thnh phn

4.2. Qu trnh thun nghch ng tch

V. Th ng p v chiu t din bin ca qu trnh ha hc

V nng ca cc cht bin i lin tc, nn chnh xc hn ngi ta s dng tc

II. Cc yu t nh hng n tc phn ng

V d: mt phn ng c h s nhit l = 3. Hi khi tng nhit ln 400 th tc