Running head: EMOTIONAL REGULATION IN CHILDREN

Neural Systems of Emotional Regulation in Children

EDPS 654
Alison Lessard
University of Calgary

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Introduction
For most children, the ability to adapt and respond appropriately to the requirements of
daily life is automatic. They are able to adjust their responses to a variety of situations and
control anger or frustration appropriately. Emotional regulation is essential for socialization,
moral development, and psychological health (Levesque et al., 2004). We rely on our ability to
respond, shift, and adapt to new situations and respond with socially appropriate behaviors
(Jurado & Rosselli, 2007). The ability to regulate emotion determines the impact external events
have on ones physical and psychological wellbeing. Children who struggle with emotional
control often respond atypically in comparison to their peers. This impairment can impact their
social functioning, interactions and acceptance by others.
Over the past three decades neuroscience has developed rapidly with the aid of functional
imaging technology (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). Images of the brain during emotional arousal
have offered insight into pathways executed in the brain. In order to fully understand emotional
regulation, it is necessary to examine the processes that generate and manage emotion within the
brain. The purpose of this paper is to examine the research related to the neural basis of emotion
and self-control. While not intending to provide an in depth study of brain systems involved in
emotion, an overview of pathways involved in emotional regulation will be presented. In
addition, two case studies of children who present with emotional regulation difficulties will be
provided.
Emotional Regulation
There is a large amount of variability between individuals regarding the intensity of
emotional reactions to environmental stimuli (Carthy, Horesh, Apter, Edge & Gross, 2010).
Emotional regulation involves not just negative but also positive emotions. Hofmann,

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Schmeichel and Baddeley (2012) described emotional regulation as involving standards of

thought, feeling and behavior. A persons motivation or capacity to achieve balance in these
three areas is representative of their ability to self-regulate (Hofmann et al., 2012). Levesque et
al. (2004) stated that successfully adapted individuals are able to properly control emotional
reactions by utilizing their cognitive abilities. Strategies such as rationalization, reappraisal and
suppression are examples of how cognitive forces oversee our responses to situations (Levesque
et al., 2004). Emotions are not always the most appropriate response to daily encounters, so our
ability to regulate ourselves determines how outside influences affect our mental and
psychological health (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). The ability to cognitively regulate our responses
to negative experiences can help to neutralize the situation and allow for a more controlled
response (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). This implies that humans are not simply at the mercy of their
emotions and at some level cognitive control exists.
Self-regulation is not always an easy task for those who are affected with disorders such
as depression, anxiety or bi-polar disorder. Green et al., (2011) stated that neuropsychological
and genetic processes likely have an impact upon an individuals ability to regulate their
responses to emotion. Those who utilize maladaptive strategies such as rumination, self-blame
and catastrophizing are less likely to demonstrate adaptive responses (Green et al., 2011). Carthy
et al., (2009) posited that anxious children experience increased negative emotional reactions and
have deficits in emotional regulation. Anxious individuals may over-react in a negative manner
and regulating their emotions is more challenging than for non-anxious people (Carthy et al.,
2009). In a study of those diagnosed with depression, Joorman and DAvanzato (2009) found
these individuals had more difficulty regulating negative emotion and utilized strategies such as
rumination as opposed to reappraisal.

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Neural Basis of Emotion and Self-Regulation

Rationalization, reappraisal and suppression were three of many strategies identified
that assist in managing emotions (Gross, 1999). Functional imaging studies have allowed
researchers to directly observe the human brain as it responds to emotional stimuli and exerts
cognitive control (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). Levesque et al., (2004) stated that observations of
healthy individuals using cognitive strategies for emotional regulation, have demonstrated the
importance of the pre-frontal cortex (PFC). Neuroimaging studies have noted increased
activation in the PFC region when cognitive strategies to control emotion were being utilized
(Green & Malhi, 2006). This has lead researchers to believe that PFC regions are involved in
conscious evaluation of emotional information (Green & Malhi, 2006). In their study, Levesque
et al., (2004) stated that the PFC was involved in monitoring and controlling the processing of
emotional information as well as selecting strategies and responsive actions. Gilbert and Burgess
(2008) suggested that the PFC has multiple connections to other areas of the brain. As a result,
the PFC is involved in the integration of information and exerting control over various brain
systems (Gilbert & Burgess, 2008). Gilbert and Burgess (2008) included the anterior cingulate
cortex (ACC) in the emotional regulation system of the brain. Gilbert and Burgess (2008)
suggested that the ACC signals the PFC when a need for control is required. In other words, the
ACC acts as a monitoring system for evaluating whether involvement of the PFC is necessary.
The efficiency of the PFC in exerting control on emotions in young children could be affected by
this regions developmental pattern. Levesque et al., (2004) indicated that myelination and
dendritic development occur later in the PFC region of the brain. Gilbert and Burgess (2008)
also reported that the PFC matures slowly, with some areas continuing to develop into
adolescence and even adulthood.

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While the PFC exerts emotional control and receives input from the ACC as to whether
control may be required, the amygdala is involved in detecting and recognizing emotional
information (Mitchell & Greening, 2012). Historically, the amygdala has been known for
automatic responses to stimuli, specifically fight or flight responses. This type of activity was
considered to occur outside the conscious awareness of an individual (Mitchell & Greening,
2012). Green and Malhi (2006) suggested that the amygdala operates at an unconscious level for
awareness of threat but also communicates with the PFC regions for conscious reappraisal of
negative stimuli. Greene and Malhi (2006) stated that a connected brain system exists between
the amygdala and regions of the ACC and PFC for the processing of emotional information.
Continued research is needed to examine the complexity of multiple structures of the brain
involved in the detection of emotional information, appraisal systems and controlled emotional
responses (Ochsner & Gross, 2005).
Executive Function
Gilbert and Burgess (2008) described executive functions as high-level processes that
regulate those at a lower level. The brain systems involved in emotion generation and regulation
have been referred to as bottom up and top down responses (McRae, Misra, Pereira & Gross,
2011). Bottom up systems are considered to be more automatic such as those caused by fear.
Bottom-up emotion is believed to be generated from the amygdala and is elicited mostly by
perceptions (McRae et al., 2011). Top down responses are tied to the cognitive appraisal of an
event (McRae et al., 2011). We are offered more flexibility in our responses when they are
subjected to top down cognitive appraisal (McRae et al., 2011). Executive function is described
by Gilbert and Burgess (2008) as the interaction between bottom up and top down responses.
Gilbert and Burgess (2008) also indicated that the PFC has interconnections with a wide range

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brain structures and as a result is able to exert control and integrate information. According to
Hofmann, Schmeichel and Baddeley (2012), there are three basic executive functions: updating,
inhibition and shifting. Updating is connected to working memory and the ability to retrieve
information quickly. Inhibition refers to how the brain actively inhibits bottom up responses.
Shifting describes how the brain switches back and forth between multiple goals (Hofmann,
Schmeichel & Baddeley, 2012). Jurado and Rosselli (2007) suggested a connection between
executive functioning and emotional regulation. Executive functioning assists us with shifting,
planning, adapting, persevering and organizing ourselves which are all essential components for
success in everyday life (Jurado and Rosselli, 2007). Executive functioning also improves
throughout childhood indicating a link with brain maturity and development ( Jurado & Rosselli,
2007).
Increasingly, children with emotional and behavioral difficulties are included in
mainstream classrooms. Everyday tasks and demands of the classroom environment are often
overwhelming for these children. They may lack the skills and cognitive resources required for
managing appropriate emotional responses. In order to support children with social and
behavioral needs, teachers attempt to determine why these students are struggling and design
environmental and academic accommodations to support them. The following case studies
provide examples of two children whose inability to self-regulate has necessitated the
involvement of numerous interagency and school-based supports.
Case Study: Tina and Terry
Tina and Terry are full biological siblings who are currently in Grade 6 and Grade 4
respectively. Their parents are divorced and while the children reside with their mother they
have bi-monthly visits with their father. While visitation with their father is scheduled, he often

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brings them home early and refuses to give them their medication when they are with him. Tina
and Terrys maternal grandparents are actively involved in their lives and are supportive of their
mother as she strives to care for them on her own. The childrens mother reported that a
maternal aunt struggled with mental illness and was not able to care for her daughter who was
raised by Terry and Tinas grandmother. Terry and Tinas father has admitted to having
difficulties with behavior in school. During parent teacher interviews he was critical of
programming and was known for his angry outbursts during meetings. On one occasion their
father challenged the childrens psychiatrist and accused him of drugging his children. Terry
and Tinas mother is supportive and works closely with both the school and outside agencies.
Tina
Tina is an imaginative, outgoing, and musical girl. Her current diagnoses include ADHD
and Oppositional Defiance Disorder. She was prescribed Clonadine and Respiridone to support
her behavior in 2011. Respiridone in particular had a very positive effect on Tinas behavior and
social functioning. However, she recently informed her teacher she is no longer taking her
medication. From a young age, Tina has struggled with extreme reactions to social situations. It
was difficult for her to work through a problem that would be minor incident for others her age.
Tina could be dramatic and when upset she used profanity, yelled, and threatened adults and
children. Tina could become enraged with a seemingly trivial issue at recess and required
significant amounts of time and support to assist her in calming and solving her problem. Her
ability to rationalize situations was often limited and at times she reacted vindictively several
days later. When debriefing a situation with Tina, it seemed as though she was attempting to deal
with a variety of concerns at the same time. Following her train of thought was a challenge. This
year Tina has transitioned to middle school and her classroom behavior overall has been

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acceptable. During unstructured situations, which are more frequent in middle school, Tina has
been involved in verbal altercations with older students as well as with those her own age. She
has struggled with being socially excluded by her peers. Tinas mother has difficulty managing
her behavior in the home and Tina is often verbally abusive toward her younger brother Terry.
Terry
Terry is a bright, artistic and engaging little boy. He is very musical and loves to sing. As
an infant, Terrys mom reported that he was difficult to soothe and was prone to long periods of
crying. Terry was assessed before the age of three years for behavioral concerns. He attended a
Headstart program for three years prior to Kindergarten, where he received intensive
occupational and language therapy as well as behavioral support. Terry was assessed in a
psychiatric setting on three separate occasions between the ages of 5 and 9 years. His most recent
assessment lasted 7 months where he resided in the hospital and went home on weekends. His
current diagnoses from 2010 are Pervasive Development Disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder,
Bi-Polar Affective Disorder and a Learning Disability. At his last discharge meeting from the
hospital, Terrys psychiatrist suggested that Terry was affected by extreme emotional immaturity.
Terry demonstrates high levels of emotionality, experiences difficulty managing transitions, and
has extreme reactions to basic requests from adults. His social interaction skills are limited and
Terry is prone to heightened levels of anger or intense excitement. Terry also becomes overfocused on topics such as dinosaurs or Transformers. He roared like a dinosaur when upset or
mimicked dinosaur behavior such as clawing and snapping his jaws. When a task or request was
presented, Terry would hit, scratch, scream, tear up his work, roll on the floor or throw furniture.
He also had a history of running out of the school onto the road and a high level of supervision
was necessary. Terry required high levels of structure, routine and frequent breaks. Assignments

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were broken down into a task, task, task, break sequence. Depending upon his flexibility the
task could be as simple as writing his name, sitting in his chair, or as complex as completing a
page of math equations. In Grade 2, Terry received parallel programming as he was not able to
function successfully within the classroom. Terry has experienced several trials of medication
and currently is taking Risperidone before and after school. While he requires ongoing, one on
one support to manage transitions and to support his emotional and academic needs, Terry has
made significant gains in his ability to manage within an inclusive Grade 4 environment.
Terry and Tina are two examples of children who experience emotional regulation
concerns. Both children are at risk for long-term effects of their psychological health and
adaptive functioning. Close monitoring and specialized programming within the school
environment is necessary, however their ability to manage emotions in unstructured
environments may continue to impact their functioning.
Conclusion
Brain research has provided insight into mechanisms involved in regulating human
behavior. Dagliesh (2004) suggested that integrating functional imaging, pharmacology,
cognitive psychology, and behavior genetics would continue provide more support in this area.
Neural system research could guide therapeutic interventions and assist in developing
appropriate supports for children who struggle to regulate their emotions. Cognitive behavioral
therapy focused on the utilization of metacognitive strategies such as reappraisal and
rationalization may be supportive. In essence, this would entail teaching individuals to
consciously exert top down, cognitive control on their emotions. Understanding strategies that
support cognitive appraisal in children would also support teachers in designing appropriate

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programming. Carthy et al., (2010) suggested a further area for research is in examining whether
emotional reactivity changes in response to treatment.
There is a promising future in understanding emotional regulation aided by imaging
technology and brain research. New developments in the field could transform the way we
understand emotional cognition, disorders and brain development (Gilbert & Burgess, 2008).
Further insight into a complex system of emotions, regulation and executive functioning would
improve the quality of life for many. Ultimately, supporting the mental health and social
functioning of those who struggle with emotional regulation is important not only for those
affected, but their families and society as a whole.

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