PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS by J. C. Wachel President Scott J. Morton Project Engineer and Kenneth E. Atkins Senior Project Engineer Engineering Dynamics, Incorporated San Antonio, Texas from Proceedings of 19th Turbomachinery Symposium. Copyright 1990. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‘Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77840-3123.PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS by J.C. Wachel President Scott J. Morton Project Engineer and Kenneth E. Senior Project Bogineering Dyna Atkins Engineer Incorporated San Antonio, Texas “Buddy” Wachel is President of Engineering Dynamics, Incorporated, an independent consulting firm. He has over 28 years of experience and has published ‘cer 30 technical papers. He has solved problems worldwide tn piping vibrations, lateral and torsional critical speeds, rotor instabilities, and crankshaft filures. In ‘addition tothe practical field experience, he supercises the computer design audits of machinery and piping to ensure that the systeme will hace acceptable vibrations and stresses ‘Mr. Wachel has a BSME and MSME degrees from the Univer sity of vas. He isan ASME Fellow and a member of ASM, The Vibration Institute, and iva Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas Scott J. Morton is a Project Engineer with Engineering Dynamics, Incorpo- rated. He has experience in’ computer modelling in finite elements, rotor namics and acoustics, He 1s also in tolved in the diagnostic field testing of rotating and reciprocating equipment fand in the evaluation of structural and piping eibration problems Mr. Morton holds Bachelors and Mas- ters degrees in Maritime Systems and ‘Ocean Engineering from Texas AGM University and isa Regis tered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas 9 Kenneth E, Atkins is @ Senior Project Engineer with Engineering Dynamics, Incorporated, and has experience in per forming lateral and torsional critical 4 ‘speed analyses, rotor stability analyses and the evaluation of structural vibration problems using finite element methods | He has been actively incoleed in field we | troubleshooting ofa wide variety of rotor dynamics, structural, and piping vibra- tion problems. Mr. Atkins received a B.S. degree in Engineering Science ‘feom Trinity University in 1978, He is a member of ASME and ‘sa Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas ABSTRACT Excessive piping vibrations are a major cause of machinery downtime, leaks, fatigue failures, high noise, fires, and explo sons refineries and petrochemical plants. Excessive vibration levels usually cour when a mechanical natural frequency of the piping system is excited by some pulsation or mechanical Source, The vibration mode shapes usually involve lateral vibra- tions and/or shell wall radial vibrations Simplified methods are presented for analyzing lateral and shell wall piping vibrations and judging their severity. The ‘methods are thought to be conservative and are intended to be used as screening criteria to determine if more sophisticated Analyses, such as computer stress modelling o strain gage test ingare necessary. Frequency factors for calculating the mechan ieal natural frequencies for the classical piping configurations {uniform straight beams) and vapious piping bend configurations ate presented. Factors are presented to compensate the natural frequency calculations for concentrated and distributed weight clfects “The relationships between piping vibration displacement, ve~ locity and stress are presented and eriteriafor judging the sever: ity of piping vibration in terms of the endurance stress limit are shown. The mechanisms that can excite piping vibrations will be discussed, as well as methods for controling their severity INTRODUCTION Piping vibration fuiures have been one of the major causes of downtime, ites and explosions in industrial plants over the past 30 years. For example, one piping faire at a petrochemical120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM plant n 1974 caused over $14,000,000 in property damage (1 oe toan explosion In nuclear presrurized water esctor power plant, over 0 cases of ercks or less ocurred Inthe piping Systens of charging pumps over two-year period (2) There: foe, tis tally important that piping vibration ampitdes ina System be evaluated to determine ifthe levee are acceptable TF the vibrations levels ae judged to be excessive, the piping configuration, support structure, span length, or material may have tobe modified to make the system acceptable Alternately. 4 hese factors cannot be changed, the excation mechanisms Iustbe altered or eliminated. In order o make practical modi Cations to the piping to salve vibration problems, ies necstary {© undestand all the principles involved inthe determing the Taural frequencies and the exciton sources tht use the problems Methods ae presented for ealedating the natural frequen- cies. The relatonship between vibration ample and dynamic Streseshown nadine ection sours hase exces Sve vibrations and methods for minimising their armless dre discussed Vibration problem areas oftypical piping systems include the excaton othe Blown * Piping span natural frequencies + Piping shel wal circumferential and ai natura Requencies + Piping appurtenances (vent and drain lines, gage and test connections) 2 Walves and valve components + Reciprocating compresor cylinder and man bottle nat ural frequencies “The principles involved in understanding the behavior of pip- ing vibration ofthe components listed above are covered CALCULATION OF PIPING NATURAL FREQUENCIES [3-5] “To ensure that piping systems are fre fom excessive vibra- vions, it necessary thatthe individal piping spans not be mechanically resonant to system excitation frequencies gener ied by compressors, pumps, flow excitation mechanisms, et. ‘To accomplish this, the frequencies of the excitation fores and che mechanical natural frequencies ofthe piping must be cal- lated. With experience, simplified design procedures can be sed to evavate the piping system witha minimam of detailed computer analyses. For complex systems, stress analysis com- pte progras shold be wed oevate ppingsystem reliably Straight Piping Spans ‘Actual piping span natural frequencies deviate from the theo- retical beam natural equencie, since the configurations tht ‘exist in typical plan piping have boundary conditions hat ier ffom ideal values Nevertheles, ideal beam theory gives valu- able starting pont for understanding piping vibration behavior “The natural equency of ay piping span canbe calculated if the fequency factor, the span length, the diameter, wall hick: hess and the weight per length are known. Fora sraghtuni- form piping span, the natural requency canbe calculated using the fillowing elatonship a, /ET & Qn al a whee { = Span natural frequency, Hz § = Gravitation constant, 386 in/sec™ E = Modulus of elasticity, pst T= Moment of inertia, int T= Span length, in, A. = Frequeney factor, dimensionless = Weight per unit length of beam (including fluid and insulation), Ibsin p= Density, Ibvin® A. = Pipe cross-sectional area, in? By substituting n material properties for steel, E = 90 % 10° livin, p = 0.285 Ibvn®, and g = 986 in/sec*, Equation 1 can be simplified to: 23, 200, te @ where: radi of gyration, inches Tength of span, f Note that this equation does not include the weight of the fluid and the insulation. The frequency factors () for calculating the first two natural frequencies for ideal straight piping spans are given in terms of the overall span length in Figure 1 oon | ae ae | ee} ee ee SS Soe ee wat sae} Sf Vimar [us cao ae yy ‘eset ou |e alae omefa on ee ee ee [aes oar salam mm om | emt ou [ae aufam anlar an eles —_ | | SE FSFE) ee ee acer as ek Pe = pp aa!) Figure 1. Frequency Factors and Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Pipe Configurations. Piping Bonds ‘The natural frequencies of selected pipe configurations with piping elbows (L-bends, U-bends, Z-bends, and three dimen-‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS 12 sional bends) were analyzed using a finite element program (ANSYS) to generate frequency factors for the first two modes. In this analysis, acurved beam (elbow) element was used so that ‘more accurate frequency factors for the piping configurations Could be established. In doing so, the frequency factors may be slightly diferent from other published data for square corer beams or beams without cylindrical cross sections. The fre- queney factors were generated fora range of aspect ratios to de~ ‘elop sufficient information so that the natural frequency of pip~ ing spans could be approximated regardless of the configuration ‘The accuracy of the analysis was verified by comparison ofthe frequency factors with the theoretical values atthe limits ofthe aspect ratios, The frequency factors asa function ofthe aspect fatios of the leg lengths are given in Figures 2,3, 4,5, 6,7, 6 REQUENGY FACTOR,» bya ure texore mation Figure 2. Frequency Factors for Uniform L-Bend Piping Config- trations [PREQUENCY PACEOR,» # mya weo uexoTm ano Figure 3. Frequency Factors for Uniform U-Bend Piping Config rations for First Ourof-Plane Mode. eeqUENcY FACTOR,» ya tee wenara RATIO Figure 4. Frequency Factors for Uniform U-Bend Piping turations for First In-Plane Mode. . = an H t : i alt i manent 4 2 woot i iy I os Figure 5. Frequency Factors for Uniform Z-Bend Piping Config- Bese Fagen cet tn ee Applying energy methods (3, it can be shown thatthe first sata Feqvency fae with aconcentted oan bec culated by: f 5 8 afieee where: f, = Pipe span natural frequency with concentrated weight, He122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM £.= Pipe span natural frequeney without concentrated * = woh He P= Concentrated weight, Ibs Na We Weight of beam span, lbs B= Weight correction factor, dimensionless ‘Weight correction factors tobe used incalulating the natural = frequencies ofideal pipingspansforweightsatthe maximomde- — & flection locations are given in Figure 9. ftwo weights are lo. = cated noe span, the llowingequatonscanbe sed tocalcu- SS : SSS is LTS | | We | eecaees [HTT PREQUENGY FACTOR,» ‘ ya uac LENGTH RATIO Figure 6. Frequency Factors for Uniform Z-Bend Piping Config trations for First In-Plane Mode. REQUENCY FACEOR,» TH fete ya tea texarH RATIO igure 7, Frequency Factors for Uniform 8D-Bend Piping Con- ‘figurations for First Mode, aya tec Lexorm nario Figure 8. Frequency Factors for Uniform 3D-Bend Piping Con- figurations for Second Mode. late the effect of the second weight, The frequency for one weight Py is =A ® es If the second weight in the span is considered by itself, the equation is: o I L+e ‘The frequency forthe span with both weights can be obtained fiom the following equation: fee 6 al 1 as g eal Correlation of Calculated and Measured Natural Frequencies ‘Theoretical beam natural frequency calculations ean be cor tected to make them agree more closely with measured field data [7], The oretion ictors, given in Table are base on the non-ideal end conditions typically encountered in actual pip ing installations is ‘The procedures for calculating the natural frequency of piping spans ean be used to select clamp spacings which ensure that the piping spans will be resonant above some selected frequency. ‘The use of these correction factors will normally give answers that are within 15 percent of measured values. For the majority ofpiping vibration problems, this accuracy should be sufficient.‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS 123 be eed PA om RF oo rp dg a7 OS on 2g shi aa Figure 9, Weight Correction Factors for Uniform Piping Confiz- turations. ‘able 1. Natural Frequency Correction Factors For Piping End Conditions. ‘Type of End Conions ‘offi tae Snipe Wald ed Reified 09-18 iodp Walled Sorputd PF on Siro Seppet Seppe ee Pi or nigh Welle Rube OS Soles Seppe Parte 02-47 Beate Soputt Suppo Ferttad ao Beate WedsChangeacPtse Feat os rie Sapp Changes Pane nd Ead oo Seg ioe ant 10 wane wan = Spee enh Tile egee Shell Wall Vibrations High frequency piping shell wall vibrations can be caused by excitation of circumferential radial mode natural frequencies [6]. The nodal patterns are illustrated in Figure 10 for a simply, supported eylinder showing the combination of he lateral beam ‘ibration modes and circumferential modes. A number of theories are used to caleulate the natural frequencies and the stresses de to shell wall vibration. According to Blevins (6 the logge and Sanders shell theories are generally felt to be the ost accurate. Figure 10. Axial and Circumferential Nodal Patterns for Simply Supported Cylinder Without Axial Constraint. ‘The curvature ofthe shell couples the flexural and extensional \ibrations and considerably complicates the analysis of shell vi- brations. The shell theories deseribe the motion ofthe shell in terms of an eighth-order differential equation. Because of the complexity of the shell equations and thete solutions, few closed- form solutions are available for the natural frequencies and rode shapes of shells, Blevins [6] gives the following relationship for caleulating the natural frequencies for eylindrieal shells of infinite length: Palatal” ae at, bien. "BR + 234.. ® where: +f, = Shell wall matural frequency, He 1 = Frequency factor, dimensionless R= Mean radius of pipe wal, inches = Poisons ratio +7 = Mass density of pipe material, seein f= Pipe wall thickness, inches 1 = Mode number, 12... Amold and Warburton {9] investigated the effects ofthe end conditions on the natural frequencies of shells and compared measured test results with thei calculations, Fung, Secblerandaa PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM Kaplan [10] included the effects of internal pressure on the nat- ural frequencies of shell For a steel pipe with Poisson's ratio of 0.3, the equation can be simplified to: ie a f= FE (53749) ® ‘The frequency factor is a function ofthe thickness divided by the mean radius; therefore, the natural feequency varies linearly ‘with the shell wall thickness and is inversely proportional tothe square ofthe radius. VIBRATION-INDUCED STRESS LEVELS In order to determine if piping vibration amplitudes are ac- ceptable, the resultant dynamie stresses caused by the vibrax tions must be compared to the allowable endurance stress limit ‘Toaccomplish this, the maximum stress i a piping span vibra fnggat resonance must be expressed as a function ofthe dynamic deflection or velocity measured atthe maximum vibration point wwithin the span. “There have been attempts to develop criteria for acceptable piping vibration levels ara function of requency. Probably, the Trost widely used are the vibration amplitude os fequeacy chars (4, 7} that were developed, based on experience in the petrochemical industry. These amplitde versus frequency Char are used aba screningrteria nthe evaluation Ing systems experiencing high vibration levels "aie mata present nhs sot ives the ratonship between vibration and stress in typical piping conBgurations and presents definitive methods for evaluating piping system re- ibility using the actual vibration-induced stresses. Vibration Displacement Amplitude Vs Frequency Criteria “The vibration versus frequency riteria chat given in Figure Lan be used as a first evaluation ofthe severity ofa piping vi bration problem. These curves are based on experience and have been used inthe petrochemical industry for over 25 years with good succes [4,7]. These criteria are very conservative for Tong flenble piping spans, such as those used in centrifugal | LL eS ee EC vmamox rasquency, a Figure 11, Allowable Piping Vibration Levels Vs Frequency, equipment plant piping, They are not aplcable to shell all The authors’ experiences have shown that, whenever piping vibration amplitudes at the measured frequencies are greater than the danger line, piping failures are a typical occurrence ‘When vibration levels were below the design line, very few fil- ures have occurred. Therefore, these vibration versus frequency criteria can serve as a good starting point in evaluating piping, vibrations to screen those systems that need further analyses. Stress ava Function ofthe Vibration Displacement (Deflection) Amplitude Abotter method to evaluate the severity of piping vibration deflection amplitudes isto compare the maximum resonant ‘ibration-induced dynamic stresses to an allowable endurance limit stress. There is general agreement that the low cycle fatigue curves for carbon stel given in the ASME USAS BSL7- 1269 can be used to obtain an aeceptable endurance list stress 1], ANSV/ASME Code OMS-1957 [13] uses this stress versus cyeles-to-ilure curve as a basis for specifying ertela for evaluating the vibration-indvced stresses nuclear powerplant Pipi for preoperational and tartip testing, API Standard 618, [5] uses the same data to specify the allowable dynamic stress level for steel pipes a a design requirement. ‘OMSIsthe frst code that has attempted to establish amethod for evaluating piping vibration-induoed stresses based on mes sured resonant vibration amplitides or velocities. The methodology used in the code involves a three-step process in determining the acceptability of piping vibrations. The Bst step Is categorized as Vibration Monitoring Group 3 (VMG3) and in- volves.a visual or perception walkdown ofthe piping to deter nine ifthe vibrations are acceptable, based on the experience af the analyst withthe type of piping system being examined I, inthe judgement of the aalt, the vibrations are not obvi- ously sae, the pins judged to bein the Vibration Monitoring Group 2 (VMG3. In VMIG3, the acceptability ofthe piping v brations are judged by conservatively estimating the ibration- induced stresses by measuring the bration and ealeulating the vibration-induced stresses by. simplifed methods. These Inethods are based on modelling the vibration portion ofthe pip- ing via 8 simple beam analogy and determining the vibration limits in terms of the displacement or velocity. (Note that this paper gives the information required to make these calcula tions.) ‘The third category is Vibration Monitoring Group 1 (VMC1) and involves a rigorous qualification method requiring that the vibrational stresses be determined with a high degree ofaccuray. VMGI quliation may involve adettledcomelation between analysis and experimental results or instrumentation of the piping with asuffeient numberof strain gages to determine the magnitude ofthe highest stresses, nVMG1, computer mod: «ls ofthe system are developed, in conjunction with the meas ured vibration amplitudes, o predict the manimum vibration- induced stresses ‘The same methodology is used in evaluating piping vibrations ‘throughout the petrochemical industry; however, the methodol- cay isnot spectcally detailed in an applicable code. Olson [2] has compared the acceptable vibrations determined by using the ANSU/ASME Code OM 3 (12), which is based on stress, to theamplitude versus frequency curves presented in Figure Li The vibratio-induced stress ina piping span vibrating at reso- ance has been shown to be related to the maximum vibration Amplitude (deflection) im the span [4,5, 6,7 The relationship inven inthe equation below D is Kay Tr (SCF) (0)‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS Bs where, S) = Dynamic stress, pst Ky = Deflection stress factor y jaximum vibration amplitude (deflection) mea sured between nodes (aormally at supports), mils D = Outside pipe diameter, inches L_ = Span length, fe SCF = Stress concentration factor “The delletion stress factor ia function ofthe boundary con~ ditions and the vibration mode shape at resonance. Blevins (6] tives the normalized vibratory mode shapes at resonance or the classical beams. This data can be used to generate the deflection Stress factors for these modes using the methods presented by Wathel [4] The deflection stress factors forthe fst two modes ofthe ideal classical beams and the piping configurations with elbows ae also given in Figure 1. These factors are used to caleu- late the stress tthe piping span natural fequency and the stress has tobe cometed ithe pipe vibrating fret e- quency. Mode correction factors ae given in later section. For the piping configurations with elbows, the stress deflec- tion factors were calculated with the finite element program ANSYS. The accuracy ofthe calculations was verified by com- parson with the factors obtained for the clasical beams. The plots ofthe deflection stress factors are given in Figures 12,18, 1H, 15, 16,17, and 15 for the various piping configurations with bends for the out-of-plane and the in-plane modes. The stress used inthe caleuations was the maximtim resultant stress since ‘ibrations in piping configurations with bends cause multiieec- tional stresses. “The allowable vibration amplitude can be calelated based on the endurance limit. OMS speciies 10000 psi zero to peak as the lowable endurance limit for carbon stel and species that the rninimu safety factor is 13 which equates to 7690 pat zero to ‘oak. API GIS states thatthe stresses shal be Tes than 26000 pst peak to peak, oF 13000 psi zero to peak, and ts normaly used Seth salty tor of 2 The allowable vibration yn msi sven by: ral T [ | | I iB 7” l <4 i [ [4 i A i- Tr | Epes “ = i rues rm amen |] =e, sya186 tevoru namo Figure 2. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Stee L-Bend Configurations. nya nea wesere aar1O Figure 13. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend Configurations for First Out-of Plane Mode. 5. ™* Son GA ( B ep) ay where S, = Allowable stress, pi SCF = Stress concentration factor SF = Safety fctor Ky = Deflection stress factor ya uaa LexoTH RATIO Figure IM. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend Configurations for First In-Plane Mode If the API 618 allowable of 26000 psi peak to peak is used as the endurance limit combined with a stress concentration factor of 4.33, a safety factor of 2, and a stress deflection factor of 3000126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM yA tec texcrH RATIO igure 15. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend Configurations for First Out-of Plane Mode. ‘yA te6 Lenora RATIO Figure 16. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend Configurations for First In-Plane Mode. (applicable for a fixed-fixed pipe), the allowable vibration in peak to peak mils can be calculated. Equation (11) becomes: yo i -tlecf Tant os This can Be used onset) a sresnng ter ir steaigh rans of piping or for piping wth bends, based on defection stress tos given n Figures Land 1218. The pan engi the length between mented vibration nodes whi i 2 a E i NETH a 1 seat | TT ah tot Lith ‘yateevexore m0 igure 17. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend Configurations for First Mode. DEFLECTION STRESS FACTOR, Ky ya ung Lenora nao Figure 18. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend Configurations for Second Mode. are normally atthe supports. This riteria is overly conservative for cantilever beams. Stress as a Function ofthe Vibration Velocity In a piping span vibrating at resonance, itis also possible to relate the maximum stress tothe measured velocity [4]. Inorder to develop a closed-form solution ofthe dynamic stress asa fanc- tion ofthe velocity, the radius of gyration has to be expressed as ‘function ofthe outside diameter ofthe pipe. A comparison of the radius of gyration for different sizes of pipe versus the simplified equation of 0.34 D, where D, is the outside pipe diameter shows that, fora significant range of pipe sizes, this‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS a simplified equation is within a few percent for pipe schedules ftom 10 to 160 {41 By making the substittion of 0.94 D, for the radits of gyration, the relationship ofthe maximum pipe veloc: {tin the span to stress can be developed. The results show that the stress in an ideal beam is equal oa constant, K, multipled by the mastmum clocty measured in the piping span. “The velocity stress factors for the first two meds are given in Figure 1 for the dlssical types of straight spans as defined by aged on es For the piping co na with piping elbows, the ve stress factors were also calculated fn the analysis which d ‘eloped the frequency factors andthe deflection stress factors. “The velocity stres factors are given in Figures 1-25 or he fist two modes for the various aspect ratios ofthe leg lengths. ‘YeLOcHTY sTaBss FACTOR, K, auc uexerm eATIO Figure 19. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel L-Bend Con figurations ‘The actual maximum span stress s equal tothe velocity stress factor times the maximum measured velocity times the stress ‘concentration factor. This equation for the stress is S=K,xVxSCF as) where: 8 = Dynamic stress, psi K, = Velocity stres factor SOF = Stress concentration factor V_ = Maximum velocity in pipe span, in/sec ‘The allowable velocity is also a function ofthe endurance limit and is given in the Equation (14). To account for system un= knowns, itis necessary to include a safety factor, usually 2 for fatigue analysis. S. ° TEXSPSCF 2 Ay feadee : Cr 2/4 Lec Lenora nari Figure 20, Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend Configurations for First Out-f-lane Mode. ‘veLoctry #71235 FACTOR B/A wee LeNoTE RATIO Figure 21. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend Con- figurations for First In-Plane Mode. Allowable vibration velocity in pipe span, in/sec Allowable endurance limit stress, psi Velocity stress factor SCF = Stress concentration factor SE = Safety factor In calculating allowable vibration, itis customary to use the zero to peak stres allowable, since velocity salvays expressed. ts zero to peak. Based on an allowable endurance limit of 13000 psi zero to peak, a maximum velocity stress constant of 318, a128, PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM ‘vevoctry stats rAcroR, the first natural frequency when caleulating the actual dynamic stresses ofa piping span, For evaluating the maximum vibration-induced stresses, the ‘equation becomes: Sa(S) (SCF) Ky Ky Ky an where: Sq = Maximum dynamic stress, psi S = Dynamic stress caloulated at the natural frequency, me “Tae TTT coeur - ae woee |e | || ~ er i Figure 22. Veocy Sires Factors for Uniform Stel Z-Bend Confluraton for First Ouro Pane Mode io 7 g 2 ae ‘vetocrry srnsss FACTOR, a Bra uae LENGTH AIO Figure 23: Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend Configurations for First In-Plane Mode. stress concentration factor of 5, and a safety factor of 2, the al- lowable velocity is equal to: y, Big x2 x5) 0 Vy=4 indsee zero to peak a6) Other Considerations for Vibration-Induced Stresses It is necessary to consider other factors, such as concentrated or distributed weights, and responses at frequencies other than, ya ec teNcTH RATIO Figure 24. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend Configurations for First Mode. vevocrry stusss sxcroR, nya 126 nena nao Figure 25. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend Configurations for Second Mode,‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS 129 K,_ = Stress correction factor for concentrated weights K, = Stresscorection factor for modefrequency considerations Ky = Stresscorrection factor for pipe contents and insulation Stress Weight Correction Factors (K;) When a concentrated weight is located in a pipe span vibrat- ing atits frst natural frequency, the stresses calculated using the uniform beam equations can be in error; therefore, correction factors must be applied to the stress calculations. The stress ‘weight correction factors given in Figure 26 can be used to com ‘pensate the dynamic stress calculations forthe effect of concen trated weights on piping spans with the classical boundary con- ditions. Two curves are presented, one which gives the factors for correcting the calculated stresses based on measured eibration deflection and the other for correcting the calculated stresses based ‘on measured bration velocity. To obtain these factors, concen trated weights were placed atthe vibration antinode locations for the cantilever, simpl)-supported, ixed-supported,fxed-fxed, L~ Bend, U-Bend, Z-Bends and SD-Bends piping configurations ‘The curves are composite curves which should be conservative for piping spans vibrating at their frst natural frequency. This factor increases the stress; therefore, the allowable vibration is reduced ‘whenever a concentrated weight is present. ao : eee Ee | [STRESS WELOIE CORRECTION FACTOR, [RATIO OF CONCENTRATED WEIGHT To SPAN WEIGHT Figure 26. Stress Weight Correction Factors (ky) For these curves, ifthe concentrated weight is not exactly at the antinode, the weight correction factor ean be approximated by linear interpolation, ‘Mode Correction Factor (K,) If the piping span is not vibrating at its first lateral bending mode, mode correction factors which depend upon whether the span Is vibrating above or below the first natural frequency must seems. Fe ing spn i ibang below ts let ater beam wiraon mode, te moe shape wil be iar shape te Sate detector mode shape tnd wl paul Gang ote "bon ft mde shape the equeny approche Bt tatu! equency ate anahes peste dtr the tects summarised Figure the deflection stress method. These data show thatthe stresses cal= culated using the vibration deflection for the piping span vibrat- ing at its first mode will be withio a few pereent of the correct stress for most piping configurations DEFLECTION MODE CORRECTION FACTOR Ky Pusquency nario Figure 27. Off-Resonant Mode Stress Correction Factors for De- Slection-Stress Calelatons (Rs). If the piping span is vibrating at frequencies higher than the first natural frequency, the calculated stresses based on the de- Aection mode shape at the first natura requeney can bein error. ‘The mode correetion factor needs to be developed fora particu lar configuration if this method isto be used for frequencies that are greater than approximately 50 percent above the first natural frequency. the stresses are calculated using the velocity stress method, the mode correction factor from Figure 28, given as a function ‘of the frequency ratio for the classical beams, can be used [4]. It can be seen that the mode correction factor is inversely pro- portional tothe frequoncy; the lower the frequency, the higher the mode correction factor. This means that the velocity stress calculations should not be used for frequencies below the first natural frequency unless the exact mode correction factor is de= veloped. This is recognized in OM3 which that the stresses should be multiplied by the ratio of the natural fre ‘queney to the exciting frequency. ‘When the excitation frequency is higher than the ist natural frequency, Figure 28 shows that the stresses calculated at the Ast natural frequeney would be conservative. Ifthe piping span is vibrating at its second natural frequency, the deflection and/or velocity stress factor given forthe Second mode should be used to caleulate the stresses. The natural fe= ‘quency for the span length used should match the measured fre ‘quency or the resulting calculations could be in error. In com plex piping systems, this can be a problem, since adjacent spans an cause severe ofesonance vibrations Stress Correction Factor for Weight of Pipe Contents and Insulation (Ky) ‘The primary effect of the increased weight of piping contents and insulation is to lower the mechanical natural frequency, since the insulation and contents do not add appreciable stiff:130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM -asquency Rario Figure 28, Off-Resonant Mode Stress Correction Factors for Velocity-Stress Calculations (Ky, ness. In the original derivation of the natural frequency, the linear density was in the denominator of the square root func: tion. Therefore, the natural frequency is reduced by the ratio of the square root ofthe original linear weight per unit length to the new overall weight per unit length. For the stress calculations using the deflection stress factors, the correction fictor is 1. For the stress calculations using the ‘velocity stress factors the correction factor will be equal to: as) where: ‘vc = Weight per unit length of contents vw, = Weight per unit length of insulation ww, = Weight per unit length of pipe [A servening velocity value can be obtained by assuming val- ues ofthe correction fuctors that are maximum. OMS arrived at 1 screening eriteria of 0.5 ia/see; however, this number has proven to be very conservative in many piping systems (14. ‘OMS uses a fctor of K, of L5 and a Ky of 8. The concentrated ‘weight correction factor Ky of§ that is used was based on a con- ‘centrated weight to span weight of20to I, In practice, the ratio, is more likely tobe ess than 3to 1. Fora maximum concentrated ‘weight to span weight of3, K, would be approximately 2.7, and the sereening criteria would be 1.5 inSec. IFvibration measure ‘ents indicate that the screening criteria is exceeded, the actual stress factors and the correction factors should be applied for the span and the acceptability ofthe vibrations based on these numbers. ‘Shell Wall Vibration-Induced Stresses ‘When the high frequeney piping shell wall vibrations (axial and circumferential mode shapes) are excited, the equations re~ lating vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration to the piping stress based on the lateral beam vibration between sup- ports do not apply. Therefore, the equations relating vibration amplitudes to stress for these modes must be determined in Order to assess the reliability ofthe vibrations, ‘The stresses in the shell wall are given by the following iso- tropic stress strain relationships: sir ee) 9) 5)= er ete) (0) where: S,_ = Lateral bending stress, psi Sp = Ciroumferential stress, pst ¥ = Poisson's ratio=0.3 for steel ‘= Strain in axial direction = Strain in circumferential direction Milasinovie (15) presented an expression relating vibration velocity measured on the cylindrical shell wall #9 dynamic Sein eal a) where: 'V = Vibration velocity, insee, zero to peak C Velocity of sound in metal YIEaip)=202,284 invsec for steel] € = Dynamic strain, i/in “The assumptions made in the derivation above ae that the ‘bration measurements ae peak measurements and several e- Sonant modes are involved, sich thatthe peak vibration velocity is approximately the same around the ireumference and along the axial length of the piping between the constraints. Its not lenown how practical this assumption, since the vibration con ditions ina given pipe lenath area function of the piping config uration, the wall thickness, and the internal diving forces Mikasinovie tested different pipe sizes, wall thicknesses and end conditions with satsfietory results. ‘Using this formula, t would be possible to relate the vibration velocity tothe fatigue endurance limit. In ANSUASME OMS, the allowable endurance limit stress is 10000 psi, and the imum safety factor i 1.3, which makes the allowable stress ‘equal to 7680 psi zero to peak. For the shel wall vibrations, the rnaximum stress concentration factor in the heat-afected tone ofa weld would be 5, This means that the allowable stres could bbe as low as 1538 psi zero to peak. If we divide the stress by the clastic modulus of 30,000,000 psi, the allowable strain is ob- tained at 1.3 micrstrain (infin * 10") This value i consistent with the experience ofthe authors (16) Usiog this value forthe acceptable strain, the allowable veloc- ‘ty equal to (202284) (51.3 x 10-8) £ De 2) inches per second zero'to pesk (23)‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS BL If the stress concentration factor is less than the maximum, the allowable vibration velocity would be higher by the ratio of the actual stress concentration factor to 5, For a butt weld, the stress concentration factor is approximately 2; therefore, the al> lowable velocity would be 4.1 ips. ‘The vibrational velocity ofthe shell walls also related to the sound pressure level (C weighting} however, noclosed-form s0- lution exists, Field experience with strain gages installed on pi ing with high frequency, broad band vibrations has shown that the sound pressure level (SPL) measured approximately 1 inch away from the pipe wal is proportional to the dynamie stain Although the relationship between dynamic strain and SPL amplitude is not exact, the overall levels as presented below have been used to estimate the severity of shell wall vibrations and asa screening method to help determine where strain gages, should be installed on a piping system to determine the safety factor. Piping SPL and Strain Criteria When the SPL is measured with the sound pressure meter using C weighting approximately 1.0 in from the vibrating pipe ‘wall, the following criteria have been found to be applicable: 190 dB is equivalent to approximately 100 microstrain 196 dB is equivalent to approximately 200 microstrain In addition to the criteria outlined above, it has been shown by field experience that allowable strain levels can be specified [16]. These allowable strain levels () are given below. © < 100 microstrain Safe en 100 microstrain < € < 200 mierostrain Marginal (25) €>200 microstrain Excessive 8) ‘These strain limits are based on measurements that are lo- cated away from the high intensified stress locations, such as the hheat-affected zone. Typically, the strain gages are installed about one-half inch away from the weld. This strain limit erteria is equivalent to an allowable stress of 3000 psi peak to peak, VIBRATION EXCITATION SOURCES Piping vibrations are most often excited by pulsation forces i side the piping or, secondarily, by mechanical excitation from ‘machinery unbalanced forces and moments atone and two times the running speed. Potential excitation sources are included in the following list and are also summarized in Table 2. + Mechanical energy from machinery unbalanced forces and, moments + Pulsations generated by reciprocating compressors and pumps + Pulsations generated by centrifugal compressors and pumps + Pulsations generated by flow through or across objects, + Pulsations generated by pressure drop at restrictions + Pulsations generated by cavitation and flashing + Pulsations generated by waterhammer and surge Pulsation Generating Mechanisms Reciprocating Compressors and Pumps aes se ul enema cfectanpae SUE SGA ee spac hase ane Gane Comer nd og Tain pci pry ct ahs Seem lpr sre a patterns [17] may produce additional pressure fluctuations, SSL Oe en aoe paw alletiine Menaitibencatci peace ing, and the location ofthe unit in the piping geometry (7, 1). Flow Through or Across Objects Flow through a restriction or past an obstruction or restriction in the piping may produce turbulence or flow-induced pulsa tions [19, 20]. These flow generated pulsations (commonly called Strouhal excitation) produce noise and vibration at fre {quencies which are related to the flow velocity and geometry of, the obstruction, The acoustical modes of a piping system and the location of the turbulent excitation have a strong influence on the fre- {quency and amplitude of the vortex shedding. The frequencies generated by the turbulent energy are centered around a fre~ ‘queney which can be determined by the following equation: SV. t= @ Stroubal vortex frequency, Hz Strouhal number, dimensionless (0.2 to 0.5) Flow velocity in the pipe, fvsee Characteristic dimension ofthe obstruction, &12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM Table 2, Piping Vibration Excttation Sources Metal andor Ping ‘nae Veh Pome Pun, f= Mf en) Maal Ae cp Sek Sapa) netraiagess D.neiainePmes MPa f= HE Poet 6 cmt tow Praneeatann f= Comps Yon Mees gh Acme gs) Sen ure Monn ce Chia 2. gaSROUS FLOW EXCITED eae Otsacdas Ma igh Band Bond roe 4, uguip (on mxeD PHASE) FLOW BxcrTEO ‘ite Rtnce Bee ve Viratom Low 42030 He ‘Gua Sede Pow remo ord tain) Cation nd igh Acute Gers, Brod Band Fahne Mae igh reac, s. pressune suncey For low over tubes, D isthe tube diameter, and for excitation by flow pasta branch pipe, Disthe diameter ofthe branch pipe. Pressure Drop Through Restrictions Pressure regulators, low control valves, relief valves, and pressure letdown valves produce pulsations (noise) associated With turbulence and flow separation, and the relatively broad band frequency spectrum is characterstically centered around. a frequency corresponding to a Stroubal number of approxi- mately 0.2. Cavitation and Flashing Flashing and cavitation can occur in the low pressure region ofliquid system pressure control valves when the pressure drops below the vapor pressure, When cavitation occurs, a gas bubble is formed and moves with the flow. As the pressure increases, the pressure rises above the vapor pressure, the gxs bubble col- lapses, and a high amplitude shock pulse results in the Suid "To avoid flashing after a restriction, suficient back pressure should be provided by taking pressure drop at several locations. Alternately, the restriction could be located near un open end so that the Mashing energy can dissipate into a lager volume. Hydraulic Waterhammer and Surge Starting and stopping pumps with the atendant fast opening and closing of valves isa major cause of severe transient pressure Crain conte Vitration Medea rene Piing/ Src Loni DBevte Gout thee Chrueer ja Pomp suar/Stre surges in piping systems. Increasing the closure time of valves can teduce the severity ofthe surge pressure. Methods areavail- able to evaluate the severity of waterhammer ina particular pip- Ing configuration for various closure rates [21] Centrifugal compressors and pumps can sometimes surge ‘when they are operating at alow flow, high head condition. The low-versus-head curve ean actually cause backflow to occur and. significant pulsations can be generated which are a function of the piping acoustical natural frequencies and the overall impe- dance characteristics [18]. Coupling Mechanisms For vibrations to occur, there must be an energy generating souree plusacoupling mechanism to convert the pressure forces into shaking forces. Therefore, in evaluating the piping vibration characteristics of an installation, itis essential to understand the coupling mechanisms which cause shaking forces to oceur in the piping system. Pressure pulsations couple to produce shaking forces t piping bends, closed ends of vessels and headers, discontinuities ot changes in the piping diameters and at restrictions, such as orifices, valves, and reducers, In a continuous straight pipe of constant diameter, pulsations will not produce a significant vib- ration exeitation fore,‘TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS 13 EVALUATION OF THE SEVERITY OF PIPING VIBRATION When a vibration problem occurs, tis necessary to evaluate its severity and determine the most effective way toalleviate the ‘problem, The frst step is to make an intial survey or walkdown, ‘of the piping system to determine piping spans with high vibra- tion levels. During the walkdown of the piping, it is necessary to Took for common symptoms of piping vibrations problems, ‘These include fatigue cracks inthe piping, leaks at flanges, bro- ken or loose pipe clamps or hangers, cracked concrete piers, rubbed weight supports (bright metal), damaged pressure gages, noise related tothe pipe hitting its restraint, or high shell wall vibrations, "The second. step is to make vibration measurements to evaluate specie piping spans that are thought to have excessive vibration amplitudes. The acceptability is judged by performing, the calculations necessary to obtain the dynamic stresses using the simplified techniques presented in this paper, Since the re= lationships between vibration and stress were developed for re~ sonant piping spans, the frequeney factors presented can be ‘used to verify that the span i at resonance. the system vibration characteristics are complex and itis de sired to ensure the safety ofthe piping, it may be necessary to develop a computer model of the piping. This model could be Torced to have the measured vibrations and the resultant stres- ses caleulated, The acceptability of the vibrations could be judged by comparison of the calculated stresses to the material ‘endurance limit. Strain gages can be installed at the suspected high stress locations to measure the dynamic strains which can bbe compared to the criteria presented herein, SOLUTIONS TO PIPING VIBRATION PROBLEMS Solutions to most piping vibration problems involve reducing the excitation forces, eliminating the coupling mechanisms, or eliminating the mechanical or pulsation resonances. The most effective solutions are those that eliminate the resonances since the amplification factors for mechanical resonances are typically 10 ~ 30. Amplification factors for pulsation resonances can be as high as 50, although the range of 10 — 30 is more typical. Modifications to Solve Mechanical Resonances Since the span natural frequency isan inverse function ofthe square of the span length, the most effective way to solve a mechanical resonance i toad pipe restraints, such as piers, ‘Supports or clamps to shorten the vibrating span. Many times, temporary bracing with hydraulic jacks, wooden beams and ‘wedges can be used to confirm that a support ata particular loca tion wil reduce the vibrations. Someof the general guidelines which can be used in selecting modifications to detune the mechanical resonances are outlined below: + Pipe supports and clamps should be installed on one side of ‘each bend, aall heavy weights, and atall piping discontinuities. + The support and clamp stiffness should be adequate to re- strain the shaking forees inthe piping tothe desired amplitudes and should be greater than twice the basic span stfines In order to effectively enforce a node atthe support location + Vents, drains, bypass, and instrument piping should be braced tothe main pipe to eliminate relative vibrations between the small-bore piping and the main pipe. + Restraints, supports, or gussets should not be directly ‘welded to the pressure vessels or the piping unless they ae sub- jected to the appropriate heat treatment. Itis more desirable to ‘add a saddle-type clamp around the pipe and weld the braces to the clamp. + Pipe guides with clearance are used as thermal expansion control devices and are generally ineffective in controling pip ing vibrations + To resist vibration, the piping clamps should have contact withthe pipe over 150 degrees ofthe circumference. Rubber or gasket-type material can be used between the clamp and the pipe to improve the contact. + The piping span natural frequency should not be coincident with the excitation frequencies + In piping that has high shel wall vibrations, reduction ofthe vibrations and the noise can be accomplished by adding constrainedslayer damping, if proper design procedures are used. + In systems with pressure reducing valves, the wall thick- ness of the piping should be one-half inch or greater if there is ‘possibilty of sonic low downstream of the valve [20]. Full sad~ dle reinforcement tees or welding tees should be used ‘downstream of sonically choked valves or where there is possi= bility of sonic flow occurring at the branch pipe intersection, Solutions to Pulsation Resonances When a pulsation resonance i found, acoustic changes to the piping system can be the most effective way to detune or reduce the amplitudes of the pulsations. Probably the most effective ‘element that can be conveniently used in existing systems is an orifice plate, which is an acoustical resistance element, and is ‘most effective when located ata pressure pulsation node. Gener ally, without additional information, an orifice plate with a ‘diameter ratio of approximately 0.5 will give sufficient pressure drop (acoustical resistance) to evaluate whether such an acousti- ‘eal modification will be an effective solution orifice plates are ineffective or impractical due to the pres- sure drop, it may be necessary to install pulsation filters to re~ duce the amplitudes ofthe pulsations. These could be volume bottles, Helmboltz-type filters, gas/bladder type accumulators, ‘tc. It may be necessary to acoustically model the piping system using digital or analog techniques to determine the level of ‘changes that wil be required to detune the system and solve the problem. A combination of mechanical and pulsation changes may be needed to reduce the severity of the problem to the point where the vibrations are acceptable. CONCLUSIONS Some of the basic principles necessary for understanding the behavior of piping vibrations and determining the acceptable vibration levels in piping spans have been presented. The infor. mation presented can be used by engineers to perform the following: + Calculation of the ist and second mechanical natural fre~ ‘quencies of uniform piping spans, including piping bends with various aspect ratios. + Calculation of the maximum vibration-induced stresses based on the maximum measured vibration deflection within a uniform piping span. Calculation ofthe maximum vibration-induced stresses based ‘on the maximum measured vibration velocity within a uniform piping span.mH PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM + Calculation ofthe maximum acceptable vibration deflection ‘within a uniform piping span, based on the endurance stress limit + Calculation of the maximum acceptable vibration velocity within a uniform piping span, based on the endurance stress Timit + Calculation of the effeets of concentrated and distributed (contents and insulation) weights on the natural frequencies and the vibration-induced stresses. + Calculation ofthe effects of offresonant stresses + Determination ofthe acceptable sereening criteria fora pip- {ng span to eliminate those spans with adequate safety factors so that detailed vibration and stress analyses wll not have to be per~ formed on all piping spans. ‘+ Determination of the possible excitation sources that could bbe causing the piping vibrations + Determination of the possible mechanisms that could be coupling the pulsation or mechanical energy into shaking forces, «+ Determination ofthe possible mechanical solutions to solve the vibration problem. + Determination of the possible acoustical solutions to solve the pulsation problem which may be causing the vibrations. 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