FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALYSIS

W W L CHEN
c

W W L Chen, 1982, 2008.

This chapter originates from material used by the author at Imperial College, University of London, between 1981 and 1990.
It is available free to all individuals, on the understanding that it is not to be used for financial gain,
and may be downloaded and/or photocopied, with or without permission from the author.
However, this document may not be kept on any information storage and retrieval system without permission
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Chapter 2
SEQUENCES AND LIMITS

2.1. Introduction
A sequence is a set of terms occurring in order. In simple cases, a sequence is defined by an explicit
formula giving the n-th term zn in terms of n. We shall simply refer to the sequence zn . For example,
zn = 1/n represents the sequence
1, 21 , 31 , 14 , . . . .
We shall only be concerned with the case when all the terms of a sequence are real or complex numbers,
so that throughout this chapter, zn represents a real or complex sequence. We often simply refer to a
sequence zn .
It is not necessary to start the sequence with z1 . However, the set N of all natural numbers is a
convenient tool to indicate the order in which the terms of the sequence occur.
Remark. Formally, a complex sequence is a function of the form f : N C, where for every n N, we
write f (n) = zn .
Definition. We say that a sequence zn converges to a finite limit z C, denoted by zn z as n
or by
lim zn = z,

if, given any  > 0, there exists N = N () R, depending on , such that |zn z| <  whenever n > N .
Furthermore, we say that a sequence zn is convergent if it converges to some finite limit z as n ,
and that a sequence zn is divergent if it is not convergent.
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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Fundamentals of Analysis

W W L Chen, 1982, 2008

xxxxx
Remark. The quantity |zn z| measures the difference between zn and its intended limit z. The
definition thus says that this difference can be made as small as we like, provided that n is large enough.
It follows that the convergence is not affected by the initial terms. Observe that the inequality |zn z| < 
is equivalent to saying that the point zn lies inside a circle of radius  and centred at z.

zn
z

In the case when zn = xn and z = x are real, the inequality |xn x| <  is equivalent to the inequalities
x  < xn < x + , so that xn lies in the open interval (x , x + ).
Example 2.1.1. Consider the sequence zn = 1/n. Then zn 0 as n . We have



1
1

|zn 0| =  0 = < 
n
n
whenever n > 1/. We may take N = 1/.
Example 2.1.2. Consider the sequence zn = in /n2 . Then zn 0 as n . We have
 n

i

1

|zn 0| =  2 0 = 2 < 
n
n
whenever n >

1/. We may take N =

1/.

Example 2.1.3. Consider the sequence zn = (n + 2i)/n. Then zn 1 as n . We have


  
 n + 2i
  2i 
2

|zn 1| = 
1 =   = < 
n
n
n
whenever n > 2/. We may take N = 2/.
p
Example 2.1.4. Consider the sequence zn = (n + 1)/n. Then zn 1 as n . We have
r

 n+1

n+1
1
1


|zn 1| = 
1 = q n
<
<


n
2n
n+1
+1
n

whenever n > 1/2. We may take N = 1/2.

Example 2.1.5. Consider the sequence zn = (2n + 3)/(3n + 4). Then zn 2/3 as n . We have

 


 

1
1
zn 2  =  2n + 3 2  =
<
<




3
3n + 4 3
3(3n + 4)
9n
whenever n > 1/9. We may take N = 1/9.
A simple and immediate consequence of our definition of convergence is the following result.
1
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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Fundamentals of Analysis

W W L Chen, 1982, 2008

THEOREM 2A. The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.

Proof. Suppose that zn z 0 and zn z 00 as n . Then given any  > 0, there exist N 0 , N 00 R
such that
|zn z 0 | < 

whenever n > N 0 ,

|zn z 00 | < 

whenever n > N 00 .

and

Let N = max{N 0 , N 00 } R. It follows that whenever n > N , we have

|z 0 z 00 | = |(z 0 zn ) + (zn z 00 )| |zn z 0 | + |zn z 00 | < 2.
Now |z 0 z 00 | is a non-negative constant less than any 2 > 0, so we must have |z 0 z 00 | = 0, whence
z 0 = z 00 .
Definition. A sequence zn is said to be bounded if there exists a number M R such that |zn | M
for every n N.
Example 2.1.6. The sequence zn = 1/n is bounded, with |zn | 1 for every n N.
Example 2.1.7. The sequence zn = in /n2 is bounded, with |zn | 1 for every n N.

Example 2.1.8. The sequence zn = (n + 2i)/n is bounded, with |zn | 5 for every n N.
p

Example 2.1.9. The sequence zn = (n + 1)/n is bounded, with |zn | 2 for every n N.
Example 2.1.10. The sequence zn = (2n + 3)/(3n + 4) is bounded, with |zn | 5/3 for every n N.
Note that the bounded sequences in Examples 2.1.62.1.10 are precisely the convergent sequences in
Examples 2.1.12.1.5 respectively. They illustrate the fact that convergence implies boundedness. More
precisely, we have the following result.
THEOREM 2B. A convergent sequence is bounded.
Proof. Suppose that zn z as n . Then there exists N N such that |zn z| < 1 for every
n > N . Hence
|zn | < |z| + 1

whenever n > N.

Let M = max{|z1 |, . . . , |zN |, |z| + 1}. Then clearly |zn | M for every n N.
The next example shows that a bounded sequence is not necessarily convergent.
Example 2.1.11. The sequence zn = (1)n is bounded, with |zn | 1 for every n N. We now show
that this sequence is not convergent. Let z be any given complex number. We shall show that the
sequence zn does not converge to z. Note first of all that for every n N, we have |zn+1 zn | = 2. It
follows that
2 = |zn+1 zn | = |(zn+1 z) + (z zn )| |zn+1 z| + |zn z|.
This means that for every n N, at least one of the two inequalities |zn+1 z| 1 and |zn z| 1
must hold. Hence the condition for convergence cannot be satisfied with  = 1.
The next result shows that we can do arithmetic on limits.
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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THEOREM 2C. Suppose that zn z and wn w as n . Then

(a) zn + wn z + w as n ;
(b) zn wn zw as n ; and
(c) if w 6= 0, then zn /wn z/w as n .
Remark. Let wn = 1/n and tn = (1)n . Then wn 0 as n , but tn does not converge as n .
On the other hand, it is easy to check that zn = wn tn 0 as n . Note now that tn = zn /wn , but
since wn 0 as n , we cannot use Theorem 2C(c).
Proof of Theorem 2C. (a) We shall use the inequality
|(zn + wn ) (z + w)| |zn z| + |wn w|.
Given any  > 0, there exist N1 , N2 R such that
|zn z| < /2

whenever n > N1 ,

|wn w| < /2

whenever n > N2 .

and

Let N = max{N1 , N2 } R. It follows that whenever n > N , we have

|(zn + wn ) (z + w)| |zn z| + |wn w| < .
(b) We shall use the inequality
|zn wn zw| = |zn wn zn w + zn w zw|
= |zn (wn w) + (zn z)w|
|zn ||wn w| + |w||zn z|.
Since zn z as n , there exists N1 R such that
|zn z| < 1

whenever n > N1 ,

|zn | < |z| + 1

whenever n > N1 .

so that

On the other hand, given any  > 0, there exist N2 , N3 R such that
|zn z| <


2(|w| + 1)

whenever n > N2 ,

|wn w| <


2(|z| + 1)

whenever n > N3 .

and

Let N = max{N1 , N2 , N3 } R. It follows that whenever n > N , we have

|zn wn zw| |zn ||wn w| + |w||zn z| < .
(c) We shall first show that 1/wn 1/w as n . To do this, we shall use the identity


 1
1  |wn w|

 wn w  = |wn ||w| .
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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Since w 6= 0 and wn w as n , there exists N1 R such that

|wn w| < |w|/2

whenever n > N1 ,

so that
|wn | > |w|/2

whenever n > N1 .

On the other hand, given any  > 0, there exists N2 R such that
|wn w| < |w|2 /2

whenever n > N2 .

Let N = max{N1 , N2 } R. It follows that whenever n > N , we have



 1
1  |wn w|
2|wn w|

< .
 wn w  = |wn ||w|
|w|2
We now apply part (b) to zn and 1/wn to get the desired result.
Definition. We say that a sequence zn diverges to as n , denoted by zn as n , if,
for every E > 0, there exists N R such that |zn | > E whenever n > N .
Remarks. (1) It can be shown that zn as n if and only if 1/zn 0 as n .
(2) Note that Theorem 2C does not apply in the case when a sequence diverges to .
Example 2.1.12. The sequences zn = n, zn = n2 and zn = (1)n n all satisfy zn as n .
Example 2.1.13. Suppose that xn is a sequence of positive terms such that xn 0 as n . For
every fixed m N, we have xm
n 0 as n , in view of Theorem 2C(b). For every negative integer
m, we have xm
n as n , noting that xn > 0 for every n N. How about m = 0?

2.2. Real Sequences

Real sequences are particularly interesting since the real numbers are ordered, unlike the complex numbers. This enables us to establish special results for convergence which apply only to real sequences.
We begin with a simple example. Imagine that you have a ham sandwich, and you do the most
disgusting thing of squeezing the two slices of bread together. Where does the ham go?
THEOREM 2D. (SQUEEZING PRINCIPLE) Suppose that xn x and yn x as n . Suppose
further that xn an yn for every n N. Then an x as n .
Example 2.2.1. Consider the sequence
an =

4n + 3
.
4n2 + 3n + 1

Then
1
4n
4n + 3
4n + 3 + n1
1
= 2 < 2
<
= .
2n
8n
4n + 3n + 1
4n2 + 3n + 1
n
Writing
xn =

1
2n

and

yn =

1
,
n

we have that xn 0 and yn 0 as n . Hence an 0 as n .

Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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Example 2.2.2. Consider the sequence an = n1 cos n. If xn = 1/n and yn = 1/n, then clearly
xn an yn for every n N. Since xn 0 and yn 0 as n , we have an 0 as n .
Example 2.2.3. It is important that xn and yn converge to the same limit. For example, if xn = 1 and
yn = 1 for every n N, then both xn and yn converge as n . Let an = (1)n . Then xn an yn
for every n N. Note from Example 2.1.11 that an does not converge as n . In this case, the
hypotheses of Theorem 2D are not satisfied. Note that xn and yn converge to different limits, so no
squeezing occurs.
Example 2.2.4. Consider the sequence xn = an , where a R. There are various cases:
If a = 1, then xn = 1 for every n N, so that xn 1 as n .
If a = 0, then xn = 0 for every n N, so that xn 0 as n .
If a > 1, then a = 1 + k, where k > 0. Then
|an | = (1 + k)n 1 + kn > E

for every n >

E1
.
k

It follows that xn as n .
If 0 < a < 1, then a = 1/b, where b > 1. Hence 1/xn as n . It follows that xn 0 as
n .
If 1 < a < 0, then a = b, where 0 < b < 1. We then have bn 0 as n . Also, bn xn bn
for every n N. It follows from the Squeezing principle that xn 0 as n .
If a = 1, then xn = (1)n does not converge as n .
If a < 1, then a = 1/b where 1 < b < 0. Hence 1/xn 0 as n . It follows that xn as
n .
Proof of Theorem 2D. By Theorem 2C, yn xn 0 as n . It follows that given any  > 0,
there exist N 0 , N 00 R such that
|yn xn | < /2

whenever n > N 0 ,

|xn x| < /2

whenever n > N 00 .

and

Let N = max{N 0 , N 00 } R. It follows that whenever n > N , we have

|an x| |an xn | + |xn x| |yn xn | + |xn x| < .
Hence an x as n .
Our next task is to study monotonic sequences which are particularly interesting.
Definition. Let xn be a real sequence.
(1) We say that xn is increasing if xn+1 xn for every n N.
(2) We say that xn is decreasing if xn+1 xn for every n N.
(3) We say that xn is bounded above if there exists B R such that xn B for every n N.
(4) We say that xn is bounded below if there exists b R such that xn b for every n N.
Remark. Note that a real sequence is bounded if and only if it is bounded above and below.
THEOREM 2E. Suppose that xn is an increasing real sequence.
(a) If xn is bounded above, then xn converges as n .
(b) If xn is not bounded above, then xn as n .
THEOREM 2F. Suppose that xn is a decreasing real sequence.
(a) If xn is bounded below, then xn converges as n .
(b) If xn is not bounded below, then xn as n .
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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Proof of Theorem 2E. (a) Suppose that the sequence xn is bounded above. Then the set
S = {xn : n N}
is a non-empty set of real numbers which is bounded above. Let x = sup S. We shall show that xn x
as n . Given any  > 0, there exists N N such that xN > x . Since the sequence xn is
increasing and bounded above by x, it follows that whenever n > N , we have x xn xN > x , so
that |xn x| < .
(b) Suppose that the sequence xn is not bounded above. Then for every E > 0, there exists N N
such that xN > E. Since the sequence xn is increasing, it follows that |xn | = xn xN > E for every
n > N . Hence xn as n .
Example 2.2.5. The sequence xn = 3 1/n is increasing and bounded above. It is not too difficult that
the smallest real number B R such that xn B for every n N is 3. It is easy to show that xn 3
as n .
Example 2.2.6. Consider the sequence xn = 1 + a + a2 + . . . + an . Then xn = n + 1 if a = 1 and
xn =

1 an+1
1a

if a 6= 1.

Suppose that a > 0. Then xn is increasing. If 0 < a < 1, then xn < 1/(1 a) for all n N, and so
xn converges as n . If a 1, then xn is not bounded above, so that xn as n . In fact,
if a 6= 1, then the convergence or divergence of xn depends on the convergence and divergence of an+1 ,
which we have considered before in Example 2.2.4.
Example 2.2.7. Consider the sequence
xn = 1 +

1
1
1
+ + ... + .
1! 2!
n!

Clearly xn is an increasing sequence. On the other hand,

1
1
1
+
+ ... +
12 23
(n 1)n

 



1
1 1
1
1
=1+1+ 1
+

+ ... +

2
2 3
n1 n
1
= 3 < 3,
n

xn = 1 + 1 +

so that xn is bounded above. Unfortunately, it is very hard to find the smallest real number B R such
that xn B for every n N. While Theorem 2E tells us that the sequence xn converges, it does not
tell us the precise value of the limit. In fact, the limit in this case is the number e.

2.3. Tests for Convergence

We first of all apply our knowledge of real sequences in Section 2.2 to study complex sequences.
THEOREM 2G. Suppose that xn and yn are real sequences and zn = xn + iyn . Then
zn z = x + iy

as n

if and only if
xn x
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

and

yn y

as n .
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Proof. () Suppose first of all that zn z = x + iy as n . Then given any  > 0, there exists
N R such that
|zn z| < 

whenever n > N.

Observe now that

|xn x| =

(xn x)2

(xn x)2 + (yn y)2 = |zn z|.

It follows that
|xn x| < 

whenever n > N.

|yn y| < 

whenever n > N.

Similarly,

() Suppose next that xn x and yn y as n . Then given any  > 0, there exist N1 , N2 R
such that
|xn x| < /2

whenever n > N1 ,

|yn y| < /2

whenever n > N2 .

and

Observe now that

|zn z| = |(xn + iyn ) (x + iy| |xn x| + |yn y|.
Let N = max{N1 , N2 } R. It follows that
|zn z| < 

whenever n > N.

This completes the proof.

We now return to Theorem 2D. It turns out often that the sequences xn and yn in Theorem 2D can
be constructed artificially. An example is the following result.
THEOREM 2H. (RATIO TEST) Suppose that the sequence zn satisfies


 zn+1 


as n .
 zn  `

(1)

(a) If ` < 1, then zn 0 as n .

(b) If ` > 1, then zn as n .
Proof. (a) Suppose that ` < 1. Write L = 21 (1 + `). Then clearly ` < L < 1. On the other hand, it
follows from (1) and taking  = 12 (1 `) > 0 that there exists an integer N0 such that




 zn+1 

 ` < 1 `
 zn 

2

whenever n > N0 .

In particular, we have


 zn+1 
1`


 zn  < ` + 2 = L
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

whenever n > N0 .
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It follows that for every n > N0 , we have

|zn | < L|zn1 | < L2 |zn2 | < . . . < LnN0 |zN0 | = LN0 |zN0 |Ln .
Let
M = max

1nN0

|zn |
.
Ln

Then for every n N, we have

0 |zn | M Ln .
Clearly the sequence M Ln 0 as n . It follows from Theorem 2D that |zn | 0 as n , so
that zn 0 as n .
(b) Suppose that ` > 1. Let wn = 1/zn . Then |wn+1 /wn | 1/` as n . It follows from (a) that
wn 0 as n , so that zn as n .
Remark. No firm conclusion can be drawn when ` = 1, as can be seen from the following sequences
which all have ` = 1:
The sequence zn = c converges to c as n .
The sequence zn = (1)n diverges as n .
The sequence zn = 1/n converges to 0 as n .
The sequence zn = n diverges to infinity as n .
The sequence zn = in n diverges to infinity as n .
Example 2.3.1. Consider the sequence zn =

(n!)2
. We have
(2n)!




 zn+1  zn+1
(n + 1)2
n2 + 2n + 1
1
((n + 1)!)2 (n!)2
=

=
= 2

=
 zn 
zn
(2(n + 1))! (2n)!
(2n + 2)(2n + 1)
4n + 6n + 2
4

as n .

It follows from Theorem 2H that zn 0 as n .

Example 2.3.2. Consider the sequence zn =
from Theorem 2H that zn as n .

(n!)2 n
5 . Then |zn+1 /zn | 5/4 as n . It follows
(2n)!

2.4. Recurrence Relations

In practice, it may not always be convenient to define a sequence explicitly. Sequences may often be
defined by a relation connecting two or more successive terms. Here we shall not make a thorough study
of such relations, but confine our discussion to two examples of real sequences.
Example 2.4.1. Suppose that x1 = 3 and
xn+1 =

4xn + 2
xn + 3

for every n N. Note first of all that 0 < x2 < x1 . Suppose that n > 1 and 0 < xn < xn1 . Then
clearly xn+1 > 0. Furthermore,
xn+1 xn =
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

4xn + 2 4xn1 + 2
10(xn xn1 )

=
< 0.
xn + 3
xn1 + 3
(xn + 3)(xn1 + 3)
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It follows from the Principle of induction that xn is a decreasing sequence and bounded below by 0, so
that xn converges as n . Suppose that xn x as n . Then
x = lim xn+1 = lim
n

4xn + 2
4x + 2
=
.
xn + 3
x+3

Hence x = 2. Note that the other solution x = 1 has to be discounted, since xn > 0 for every n N.
Example 2.4.2. Let s > 0. Suppose that x1 > 0 and that for n > 1, we have


1
s
xn =
xn1 +
.
2
xn1
It is not difficult to show that xn > 0 for every n N. On the other hand, for n > 1, we have


s2
1
+ 2s ,
x2n1 + 2
x2n =
4
xn1
so that
x2n

1
s=
4




2
s2
1
s
2
xn1 + 2
2s =
xn1
0,
xn1
4
xn1

and so
1
xn+1 xn =
2

s
xn +
xn

1
xn =
2

s
xn
xn

s x2n
0.
2xn

It follows that, with the possible exception that x2 x1 may not hold, the sequence xn is decreasing
and bounded below, so that xn converges as n . Suppose that xn x as n . Then


s
s
1
1
xn1 +
x+
,
=
x = lim xn = lim
n
n 2
xn1
2
x
so that x2 = s. This gives a proof that s has a square root.

2.5. Subsequences
In this section, we discuss subsequences. Heuristically, a subsequence is obtained from a sequence by
possibly omitting some of the terms, and keeping the remainder in the original order. We can make this
more formal in the following way.
Definition. Suppose that
z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . , zn , . . .
is a sequence. Suppose further that n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . < np < . . . is an infinite sequence of natural
numbers. Then the sequence
zn1 , zn2 , zn3 , . . . , znp , . . .
is called a subsequence of the original sequence.
Example 2.5.1. The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . of even natural numbers is a subsequence of the sequence
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . of natural numbers.
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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W W L Chen, 1982, 2008

Example 2.5.2. The sequence 2, 3, 5, 7, . . . of primes is not a subsequence of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .

of odd natural numbers.

Example
2.5.3. The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . of natural numbers is a subsequence of the sequence 1, 2,

3, 4, . . . .
We would like to obtain conditions under which convergent subsequences exist. We first investigate
the special case of real sequences.
THEOREM 2J. Every sequence of real numbers has either an increasing subsequence or a decreasing
subsequence, possibly both.
Proof. We shall say that n N is a peak point if xn > xm for every m > n. There are precisely two
possibilities:
(i) Suppose that there are infinitely many peak points n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . < np < . . . . Then
xn1 > xn2 > xn3 > . . . > xnp > . . .
is a decreasing subsequence.
(ii) Suppose that there are no or only finitely many peak points. Let n1 = 1 if there are no peak
points, and let n1 = N + 1 if N represents the largest peak point. Then n1 is not a peak point, and so
there exists n2 > n1 such that xn1 xn2 . On the other hand, n2 is not a peak point, and so there exists
n3 > n2 such that xn2 xn3 . Continuing inductively, we conclude that there exists an infinite sequence
n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . < np < . . . of natural numbers such that
xn1 xn2 xn3 . . . xnp . . .
is an increasing subsequence.
THEOREM 2K. Every bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent subsequence.
Proof. By Theorem 2J, there is either an increasing subsequence which is necessarily bounded above,
or a decreasing subsequence which is necessarily bounded below. It follows from Theorem 2E and 2F
that the subsequence must be convergent.
Example 2.5.4. For the sequence xn = (1)n , it is easy to check that all increasing or decreasing
subsequences of xn are eventually constant and so convergent.
Example 2.5.5. For the sequence xn = (1 + (1)n )n, it is easy to check that there is an increasing
subsequence 4, 8, 12, . . . (n = 2, 4, 6, . . .), as well as a decreasing subsequence 0, 0, 0, . . . (n = 1, 3, 5, . . .).
Example 2.5.6. The sequence xn = (1)n n1 is convergent with limit 0. It is easy to check that there
is an increasing subsequence (n odd), as well as a decreasing subsequence (n even), and both converge
to 0. Can you convince yourself that every other subsequence of xn converges to 0 also? If not, see
Theorem 2L below.
Example 2.5.7. The sequence xn = n diverges to infinity. Can you convince yourself that every
subsequence of xn is increasing and diverges to infinity also?
We now no longer restrict our study to real sequences, and consider subsequences of sequences of
complex numbers.
THEOREM 2L. Suppose that a sequence zn z as n . Then for every subsequence znp of zn ,
we have znp z as p . In other words, every subsequence of a convergent sequence converges to
the same limit.
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Proof. Given any  > 0, there exists N R such that

|zn z| < 

whenever n > N.

Note next that np p for every p N, so that np > N whenever p > N . It follows that
|znp z| < 

whenever p > N.

Hence znp z as p .
We now extend Theorem 2K to complex sequences.
THEOREM 2M. (BOLZANO-WEIERSTRASS THEOREM) Every bounded sequence of complex numbers has a convergent subsequence.
Proof. Suppose that zn is a bounded sequence of complex numbers. Let xn and yn be real sequences
such that zn = xn + iyn . Since zn is bounded, there exists M R such that |zn | M for every n N.
Then clearly |xn | M and |yn | M for every n N, so that xn and yn are both bounded. By Theorem
2K, the sequence xn has a convergent subsequence xnp . Consider the corresponding subsequence ynp of
the sequence yn . Clearly |ynp | M for every p N, so that ynp is bounded. By Theorem 2K again, the
sequence ynp has a convergent subsequence ynps . The corresponding subsequence xnps of the sequence
xnp , being a subsequence of a convergent sequence, is again convergent, in view of Theorem 2L. It now
follows from Theorem 2G that the subsequence znps = xnps + iynps of the sequence zn is convergent.
Definition. A complex number C is said to be a limit point of a sequence zn if there exists a
subsequence znp of zn such that znp as p .
Example 2.5.8. The sequence zn = n has no limit points. To see this, note that zn as n .
Let wn = 1/zn . Then wn 0 as n . It follows from Theorem 2L that every subsequence of wn
converges to 0. Hence every subsequence of zn diverges to infinity.
Example 2.5.9. The sequence zn = in has four limit points, namely 1 and i.
Example 2.5.10. The sequence
1, 21 , 22 , 13 , 23 , 33 , 14 , 24 , 34 , 44 , 15 , 52 , 35 , 45 , 55 , . . .
has infinitely many limit points. In fact, the set of all limit points is the closed interval [0, 1]. This is a
famous result in diophantine approximation.
Remark. Note that Theorem 2L says that a convergent sequence has exactly one limit point. Note also
that the sequence 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, . . . has exactly one limit point but does not converge.
We now characterize convergence of sequences in terms of boundedness and limited points.
THEOREM 2N. A sequence of complex numbers is convergent if and only if it is bounded and has
exactly one limit point.
Proof. () This is a combination of Theorems 2B and 2L.
() Suppose that zn is bounded and has exactly one limit point . We shall show that zn as
n . Suppose on the contrary that zn does not converge to as n . Then there exists a constant
0 > 0 such that for every N N, there exists n > N such that |zn | 0 . Putting N = 1, there exists
n1 > 1 such that |zn1 | 0 . Putting N = n1 , there exists n2 > n1 such that |zn2 | 0 . Putting
N = n2 , there exists n3 > n2 such that |zn3 | 0 . Proceeding inductively, we obtain a sequence
n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . < np < . . . of natural numbers such that |znp | 0 for every p N. Since
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zn is bounded, the subsequence znp is also bounded. It follows from the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem
that znp has a convergent subsequence znps . Suppose that znps z as s . Then clearly z 6= , for
|znps | 0 for every s N. This means that z is another limit point of the sequence zn , contradicting
the assumption that zn has exactly one limit point.
Recall that the set R is complete, in terms of the Axiom of bound. We now study completeness from
a different viewpoint.
Definition. A sequence zn of complex numbers is said to be a Cauchy sequence if, given any  > 0,
there exists N = N () R, depending on , such that |zm zn | <  whenever m > n N .
It is easy to establish the following.
THEOREM 2P. Suppose that a sequence zn is convergent. Then zn is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof. Suppose that zn z as n . Then given any  > 0, there exists N R such that
|zn z| < /2

whenever n > N.

It follows that
|zm zn | = |(zm z) + (z zn )| |zm z| + |zn z| < 

whenever m > n N + 1.

Hence zn is a Cauchy sequence.

An alternative way of saying that R and C are complete is the following result.
THEOREM 2Q. Suppose that zn is a Cauchy sequence. Then zn is convergent.
Proof. Since zn is a Cauchy sequence, there exists N N such that
|zn zN | < 1

whenever n N,

|zn | < 1 + |zN |

whenever n N.

so that

Let M
= 1 + max{|z1 |, . . . , |zN |}. Then |zn | M for every n N, so that zn is bounded. It follows from
xxxxx
the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem that zn has a convergent subsequence znp . Suppose that znp as
p . In view of Theorem 2N, it remains to show that is the only limit point of zn . Suppose on the
contrary that z is another limit point of zn . Then there exists another subsequence zn0r of zn such that
zn0r z as r .
Let  = 31 | z| > 0.

zn
z

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Then there exist P, R R such that

|znp | < 

whenever p > P,

|zn0r z| < 

whenever r > R.

and

It follows that for every p > P and r > R, we have

|znp zn0r | = |(znp ) (zn0r z) + ( z)| | z| |znp | |zn0r z| > 31 | z|,
contradicting that zn is a Cauchy sequence.

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Problems for Chapter 2

4n + 3
.
5n + 2
a) Make a guess for the limit of zn as n .
b) Use the -N definition to verify that your guess is correct.

1. Consider the sequence zn =

2. Show that the sequence

5

zn =

n
cos(esin(25n ) log(n2 ))
+
2n + 1
n3

is convergent as n , find its limit and explain every step of your argument.
3. Suppose that zn ` as n , and that wn =
[Hint: Consider first the case ` = 0.]

z1 + z2 + . . . + zn
. Show that wn ` as n .
n

4. Prove that the following sequences converge as n and find their limits except for part (d):
1 + 2 + ... + n
a) zn = (n + 1)1/4 n1/4
b) zn =
n2
n
1
1
1
c) zn = n
d) zn =
+
+ ... +
2
n+1 n+2
2n
n

1
is increasing and bounded above.
5. Show that the real sequence xn = 1 +
n
[Remark: Hence it converges. The limit is the number e.]
6. Suppose that z is a fixed complex number. Discuss the convergence and divergence of the sequence
zn =

z + zn
,
1 + zn

explain every step of your argument, and take care to distinguish the four cases
a) |z| > 1;
b) |z| < 1;
c) z = 1;
d) |z| = 1, but z 6= 1.

7. A real sequence xn is defined inductively by x1 = 1 and xn+1 = xn + 6 for every n N.

a) Prove by induction that xn is increasing, and xn < 3 for every n N.
b) Deduce that xn converges as n and find its limit.
8. Suppose that x1 < x2 and xn+2 = 12 (xn+1 + xn ) for every n N. Show that
a) xn+2 > xn for every odd n N;
b) xn+2 < xn for every even n N; and
c) xn 13 (x1 + 2x2 ) as n .
9. Find the limit points of each of the following complex sequences:
a) zn = (1)n

b) zn = (2i)n

c) zn =

1+i

n

10. Show that a complex sequence zn has exactly one of the following two properties:
a) zn as n .
b) zn has a convergent subsequence.
[Hint: Assume that (a) fails. Show that (b) must then hold.]
11. Suppose that 0 < b < 1 and that the sequence an satisfies the condition that |an+1 an | bn for
every n N. Use Theorem 2Q to prove that an is convergent as n .
Chapter 2 : Sequences and Limits

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