reas Chapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems FAO CORPORATE DOCUMENT REPOSITORY Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Title: Inland Aquaculture Engineering More details Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems Z. Hanké Research Centre for Water resources Development Budapest, Hungary 1, WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF PIPELINES 2. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF OPEN CANAL: 3. OUTFLOW UNDER GATES AND MOVABLE WEIRS 4, FLOW OVER WEIRS 1. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF PIPELINES 1.1 Calculation of Head Loss 1.2 Fundamental Equation for Calculating Head Loss in and/or Discharge of Pipelines Most important notations: Q (m’/s) = discharge 1 (m) = length of the pipeline d (m) = diameter (inside) of the pipe = dx /4 (m?) - area of the pipe cross-section v= Q/A (m/s) - mean velocity in the pipe cross-section g = 9.81 (m/s*) - acceleration due to gravity v= (m?/s) = kinematic viscosity of water at 10°C temperature v 4g = 1.31 x 10° m/s 20°C temperature v 29 = 1.00 x 10° mé/s 2. () = friction factor. 1.1 Calculation of Head Loss Transport of water in a pipe-line involves head loss. The most important part of head loss is due to friction which is proportional to the length of the pipeline. The second most important part of head loss consists of the sum of local head losses caused by changes in direction, changes in diameter and pipe fittings such as tap, valve, etc. The general pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems form of the equation for head loss, measured in height of water column is: 7” 2g where hy (m) = head loss in height of water column, & ; (-) = resistance coefficient, v7/2g (m) = velocity head in height of water column. It is generally calculated by the downstream cross-section of the head loss producing cross-section. The main part of the head loss is due to friction, the resistance coefficient of which is: xan? ood The friction factor, 2, may be calculated by the Colebro equation i) de atod 272425) h d Rk where (m) = surface roughness of the pipe material (Table 1) Re = vdlv (-) = Reynolds Number of the flow. Table 1 Surface Roughness of the Pipe Material Pipe material A) Riveted steel (90 to 9) x 10-4 (Concrete (0 to 3x10 (Wood stave (20 to 2)x10°4 [Castion | 5x10 (Galvanized iron 15x104 (Asphalted cast iron] 42x 10-4 [Commercial steel | 0.5x104 (Wrought iron Drawn tubing 0.15104 Equation (1.3) is represented in Figure 1, originally found by Nikuradze and later completed by Colebrook and White, in which the friction factor, 2, is the function of the Reynolds Number, Re, and the third parameter is the relative surface roughness of the pipe material, « /d. Supposing v = 1 m/s mean velocity, d = 100 to 500 mm diameter, « = 110 m surface roughness and v = 1x10°° m?/s kinematic viscosity the region of practical value is: 110° < Ry < 5*108 and 0.02H, =8, 22 +/[& +4 2+ eta S He HB (. pteths |S For practical purposes Hg max = 6 to 7 (m) Pipelines can be regarded as long pipelines if local head losses can be neglected compared to friction head loss. (Vd > 500 to 1 000). As an example see Figure 5. For calculating discharge or pipe diameter the basic equation is: I] L Lethe The denominator in the square root can be replaced by the same group of parameters corresponding to the "equivalent pipe” as follows 1, (1.18) & pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 794revs Chapler 3. Hydra Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems where ie = friction factor of the "equivalent pipe”, .=Sh 7” (m) = the total length of the pipeline, and de (m) = diameter of the "equivalent pipe". Supposing itl 2 @ = 0.02 to 0.03 = constant, the “equivalent pipe" diameter amounts to: ign Sketch of a short pipe-line for calculating manometric and suction head of pumps Figure 5. Sketch of a long pipe-line for calculating head-loss in or discharge of a pipe line The diameter of the pipe cross-section can be calculated by re-arranging Equation (1.20) (1.21) 2. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF OPEN CANALS Fundamentals for Calculating the Characteristics of Uniform Steady pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems Flow in Open Canals, the Chézy Formula 2.2 The Velocity Coefficient (Chézy's C} 2.3 Characteristics of the Canal Cross-Section, Permissible Velocity 2.4 Computation of Cross-Section Dimensions or Discharge Most important notations (beyond those summarized in Section 1) are: D (m) = water depth, P (m) = wetted perimeter of the cross-section, R= AIP (m) = hydraulic radius of the cross-section, S () = slope (energy grade line, water surface or pressure grade line in longitudinal section), C (m'/s) = Chézy (velocity) coefficient. Before embarking upon any detailed treatment of open channel flow, it is advisable to review the different conditions of flow. As is known, the flow in open channels may be classified according to variation with respect to both location and time. Considering variation with respect to location, distinction is made between: - uniform flow, in which the cross-section and the mean velocity remain constant along the stream lines, and - varied flow, in which the wetted area (A) and/or the mean velocity (v) undergo changes, viz. = gradually varied flow (changes in A and v are gradual and continuous), and = suddenly varied flow, where abrupt changes occur in A and v at certain sections: Considering variation with respect to time, the flow may be classified as: - steady, in which the characteristics of the flow remain unchanged at the cross-section under consideration, and - unsteady, in which the flow characteristics are varying in time at the same point. Combining the two kinds of classification, the flow in open channels may be: - uniform steady (e.g. prismatic canal, the water surface parallel to the bottom), - gradually varied steady (e.g. back-water reaches), - suddenly varied steady (e.g. at overfalls), - gradually varied unsteady (e.g. the passage of flood waves), ~ suddenly varied unsteady (e.g. surge waves) ‘Taking into account the aims of the present course the most important flow-types are the uniform steady flow in open canals (the calculation methods of which will be summarized below), and the suddenly varied steady flow (the calculation methods of which will be introduced in Sections 3 and 4). 2.1 Fundamentals for Calculating the Characteristics of Uniform Steady Flow in Open Canals, the Chézy Formula In uniform steady flow the slope of the water surface, Sy, , is parallel to the slope of the pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagerevs Chapler 3. Hydra Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems bottom, S , and to the energy grade line, S. . Consequently the water depth, D, and the mean velocity, v, are constant. In other words the loss in energy is due to friction (Figure 6). That means the energy loss. length, AI, equals A h, the height difference between cross-sections respectively. The work performed by the water body (the cross-section area of which is A and thickness in flow direction 1 m), due to gravity from cross-section "A" to "B", equals G=yA(Iim)Ah@1) in which y = p g (y Specific gravity, p = mass density and g = acceleration due to gravity). The resistance force due to friction is proportional to the square of velocity (turbulent flow), v’, and the area of contact, P (1m), and to some kind of friction coefficient, f. So the work performed by friction over the length, AI’, equals F=fv2 p (im) Al 22) making the work performed by the two forces equal (because the flow is uniform and steady, and therefore is in dynamic equilibrium) pgA(mAh=fvp(im ar and thus At flat slopes (c: < 4°), the value A h/A I'= sin a can be changed to the surface slope A h/A I= hil = tan a = S. To replace the term A/P (area of the cross section over wetted perimeter of the cross-section), the hydraulic radius, R, was introduced by Du Buat as a =¢ new concept some 200 years ago, and the term is the velocity coefficient and named as Chézy's C. So the so called Chézy formula, for computing the mean velocity of uniform, steady, open channel flow, has been used by hydraulic engineers (sometimes beyond its limit Of validity) in the form v= crs °4 2.2 The Velocity Coefficient (Chézy's C) The fundamental term in the Chézy formula is the velocity coefficient, C, for which many investigators have suggested a variety of relationships and determined experimental values. Some of these are Basin, Strickler-Manning-Lindquist, Kutter and Kutter- Ganguillet, Agroskin and Paviovsky. For less sophisticated practical application the formula adopted by Strickler-Manning-Lindquist may be used: Rw 25) n for water with moderate temperature and with a flow depth, D < 6 to 8 m. The values of roughness coefficient, n, must be substituted according to Table 6. pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 10reas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems Taking into account that Chézy's velocity coefficient, C, and the friction factor 2, (used mainly in pipelines), are related as E 26) a the Colebrook-White relationship (Equation 1.3) can be rearranged for calculating the velocity coefficient of open channel flow (without any restriction concerning type and temperature of fluid and depth of flow, etc.), as follows: an 0.222" C= 82g log 0.0676—+ 5 : RR 2) ‘The numerical values of roughness elements, ¢, are also compiled in Table 6. (Szesztay) It should be noted that dimensional homogeneity of Equations (2.5) to (2.7) is very important. Figure 6. Longitudinal section of open channel flow. Explanation for Chézy formula { 1 1 . yy DIA} fpf) ® Table 6 Values of Roughness Coefficient, n, and Roughness Elements, «, in Open Channeis and Flumes No] ‘Type of channel and description Roughness TT I T pnw fen oridocrepiS7Aen744e04 NAT epOFPage 138reas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems |coefficient element! ni (sim) |= (m) 7 |[Exceptionally smooth, painted or enamelled surfaces 0.009 | 1x10 [2 |[Plank planed with great care, accurately jointed; surface finished 0.010 | axto® lwith neat cement mortar 3 [Good cement mortar (1/3 sand) finish, planed planks 0011 | 1x10 (4 _|[Well jointed unplaned plank, careful concrete work 0.012 | sx10* 5 _|[Sound plank surface, good brickwork 0013 | 1107 (6 _|[Fair concrete lining 0014 2.5109 [7 _|[Brickwork, or dressed stone lining both of medium quality 0015 | 4x10 [8 |[Sound rubble masonry; old (crumbling) brickwork; unfinished, coarse | 0.017 || 1102 lconcrete; exceptionally smooth, uniformly finished rock [9 [Channels with a thick, consolidated silt layer, such excavated in 0.018 1.5e107 ldense loess or gravel covered with a thin silt layer (all in perfect |condition) 10 [Rubble lining of fair quality (good working condition); canals 0.020 2.3102 lexcavated in rock, loess, dense gravel, dense soil, with silt ldeposits, (average condition) 71 [Canals excavated in dense soll (loess, gravel, loam) with local sit | 0.0225 |[4.5x102 ldeposits: earth canals in better than average condition 12 [Good dry rubble; earth canals with average maintenance; streams | 0.025 |[6.5x102 lunder very good conditions (clean, straight banks, no scours or lbankslides, unobstructed flow) 73 |[Earth canals in poorer than average condition 0.0275 |[t.1x107 (14 |[Earth canals in rather poor condition (e.g. local scours, cobbles (0.030 |t.5x107 rocks) with conspicuous weedy spots, slopes locally slumped; [streams with good channel conditions 75 [Canals in poor condition (imegular section, heavy weeds, or 0035 a.sx107 lSediment deposits); streams with fair bed conditions, minor gravel ldeposits and litle aquatic vegetation 6 [Canals in very poor maintenance (great scours and slope slides; 0.040 4. 2x10°7 reed, dense roots, large boulders in the channel, etc.): deteriorated Istreams (poorer than above) with heavy stands of aquatic lvegetation, extensive gravel deposits, meandering flow, minor [scours and sand bars 2.3 Characteristics of the Canal Cross-Section, Permissible Velocity In the formula Q = A v, for computation of discharge, an important role is played by the cross-sectional area, while in the Chézy formula, for calculating mean velocity in the cross-section, the hydraulic radius is an important feature. The cross-sections of canals and regulated channels of small water courses are mainly trapezoidal. For bank slopes in trapezoidal canals the values in Table 7 are suggested. Table 7 Bank Slopes Suggested in Trapezoidal Canals [Type of channel material Fine-grained silt (Silty clay ‘Sand, gravel and clay 1. pub fon orgocrepiSTésenS74de04 Mimi opO Pagerevs Chapler 3. Hydra Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems Stiff clay or stone lining 4:10 1:45 Rock 2:1 to 10:4 ‘The actual mean velocity in the channel cross-section has to be between the permissible limits. The acceptable minimum for avoiding siltation is Vp min = 0.2 to 0.6 mis depending on the permissible maximum. ‘The maximum velocities recommended are shown in Table 8. Table 8 Maximum Velocities Recommended (Vp may )in m/s Type of channel material__|[Clear water flow| Water flow with [clayey [sandy-gravel ‘sediment load Fine sand (non colloidal) 0.45 0.65 [| _0.45 [Sandy foam (non colloidal) 0.50 0.65 | _0.60 [Sit loam (non colloidal) 0.60 0.90 [0.60 ‘Alluvial silts (non colloidal) 0.60 7.00 [0.60 (Dense clay loam 0.70 1.00 | _0.75 [Volcanic tuff 0.70 1.00 [_0.70 Fine gravel 0.70 1.50 [__1.10 (Stiff clay 710 150 [__14.20 (Cobbies in loam matric (non colloidal) 7.40 150 | _1.50 (Alluvial silts (Colloidal) 1.20 1.50 [0.90 (Cobbies in sit matrix (colloidal) 4.20 1.60 [4.50 (Coarse gravel (non colloidal) 1.50 180 | _1.90 ‘A typical trapezoidal cross-section of a canal is shown in Figure 7, while Figure 8 illustrates a compound trapezoidal cross-section mainly applied for regulated small watercourses, The first one is recommended if the hydraulic characteristics of flow (e.g. D, Q) are more or less constant. The second one is used if the main parameters vary to a large extent (€.9. Onin << Qmax ANd Din << Dmax etc.) Figure 7 indicates also two more measures, viz. free-board of lining, s, and freeboard of ‘embankment, f, the recommended values of which are shown in Table 9. Figure 7. Simple trapezoidal cross-section pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page rasreas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems ‘min 1 i Pte! imi Table 9 Free-boards of Lining, s, and Embankment, f, Respectivel Discharge, Q (m/s) Free-board of Tining, s (m)[embankment, f (m) 03 0.15 0.40 3 0.20 0.60 10 0.36 075 30 0.50 1.00 2.4 Computation of Cross-Section Dimensions or Discharge The water conveying capacity of an open channel is fundamentally determined by the slope (bottom, surface, energy grade line). It is advisable to use as a guideline for slope of the canal the mean slope of the valley (that is the most economical solution). So ‘supposing the slope is known, the task is either to compute the discharge of a known cross-section or the dimensions of a cross-section if discharge is known. ‘The first one is easy to solve because it is only necessary to apply the Chézy formula Q=Av=Ac/RS 29 in which the numerical values are all known or can be calculated Ifthe aim is to design a cross-section for a known discharge capacity the following considerations apply: pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page areas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems a) The slope, S, should equal (or be slightly less than) the mean slope of the valley; b) The bank-slope, p, of the cross-section should be according to Table 7; ©) The mean velocity should be between the limits of permissible velocities (Table 8); d) Roughness coefficient, n, or roughness element, «, should be according to Table 6); So the values, known originally or adopted, are as follows: Q, Sp, Vpmin ANd Vpmaxs My OF € Adopting the continuity equation QWpmin 2 A> QNpmax’ + while applying the Chézy formula (Equation 2.4) in the form proposed by Strickler- Manning-Lindquist (Equation 2.5) (Gey ae) Figure 9. Free outflow followed by a shooting tailwater flow Figure 10. Free outflow followed by an undulating hydraulic jump in the tailwater pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 1904reas Chapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems Figure 11. Free outflow followed by a perfect hydraulic jump with surface roller in the tailwater This means the most important geometric characteristics of the cross-section, viz. cross- sectional area. A, and hydraulic radius, R, have to lie between the above limits. Considering that the characteristics of the hydraulically optimum cross-section may be computed, viz. fap? 1 29 area A=pe NIP oI P (2.10) pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 10reas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems hydraulicradius: R Sand bottomwidth : b = 2D. the actual water depth may vary between the limits: av? ny? 2]—@2| ” Vz > SE€, the critical velocity between shooting and tranquil flow. The cross-section "0-0" is then followed by shoring flow (Figure 9), undulating hydraulic jump (Figure 10) or perfect hydraulic jump with surface roller (Figure 11) . The two last cases have tranquil flow down-stream of the hydraulic jump. Applying Bernoulli's energy equation the discharge of unit width, q, flowing out of the opening, e, under the sharp edged movable gate equals 2D (3.1) pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 78reas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems in which « is the contraction coefficient and ¢ the velocity coefficient of the sharp edged gate (Figure 14), and D is the water depth in the headwater and e the gate opening The range of validity of Equation (3.1) can be limited by the tailwater depth, D2, with respect to headwater depth, D, viz. (3.2) If the relative opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and the relative tailwater depth, D/D2 is less than 0.44 a simplified relationship can be used: 4=0.6e/2eb °® Figure 12 illustrates a typical submerged outflow under a sharp edged gate which occurs if the tailwater depth exceeds the upper limit of Equation (3.2). Discharge can only be computed as a rough estimation because the hydraulic conditions are very unstable. Applying Bernoulli's energy equation between headwater and cross-section "0-0" in the tallwater, D’ has to be taken as pressure head (water depth) which is hardly possible to determine. It is necessary, therefore, to apply an approximation for calculating D,. ‘Adopting the momentum (impulse) theorem between cross-sections "0-0" and "2-2", respectively, the undeterminable D' can be replaced by the tailwater depth, Dy. The resulting equation, serving only for a rough estimation of the discharge of unit width q is, as follows: (3.4) inwhich D and Dp, are water depths in the head and tailwater, respectively, while e is the gate opening, Then « and 6 are the contraction and velocity coefficients, respectively, of the sharp edged gate (to be adopted as functions of relative gate opening, e/D, (Figure 14). If the relative opening, e/D is 0.1 or less and if the taihwater depth with respect to headwater depth, D2/D, is 0.44 or more, a simplified relationship can be used: (3.5) If the tailwater depth is increased it reaches a limit where the submerged outflow transforms into outflow under pressure as shown in Figure 13. The relevant and more or less simplified relationship for computing discharge of unit width, q, equals, pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 1areas Chapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems (3.6) which is the limit of Equation (3.4) if e et -either D2 tends to unity, e -orD tends to zero, tends to unity. Figure 12. Submerged outflow (the hydraulic jump with surface roller shifter upstream to the gate so that the "0-0" cross-section is submerged) ------f--=0 —-—----4------» NMS Figure 13. Outflow under pressure pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 190reais Chapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems ed OB T 06 on 00 060 O65, 070 é ee asz 095 & 098 pula a0 orglocrepiS7AMelxS744e04 Mimi opO Pagereas CChapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems In practical applications the two latter conditions have to be simultaneously satisfied. Ifthe relative gate opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and if the tailwater depth with respect to headwater depth, D2/D, tends to unity, a simple relationship can be used for rough estimation of discharge per unit width, q, as follows q=0.6e)2g(D —D,) °? 3.2 Hydraulic Computations for Estimating Characteristics of Tailwater Apron and the Hydraulic Jump As indicated in the introduction to this section the outflow under gates can be described in terms of suddenly varied steady (or unsteady) flow. The sudden variation of water depth and velocity is dangerous from the point of view of scouring. The hydraulic structure which protects against this is called the tailwater apron. Considering the various forms of outflow reviewed in the previous paragraphs, from the point of view of scouring, the most dangerous one is the free outflow. Following the flow direction (Figure 11) the headwater depth, D, is large while velocity, v, is small. in the gate opening, e, and afterwards in the contracted cross-section "0-0" the water depth, « e, is low and the velocity, vo, is much above the critical velocity (between shooting and tranquil flow), Ye =/8©© or generally Vz = VD . The flow between cross-sections 0-0" and "1-1", respectively, is shooting and while the depth is increasing from « e to Dy, the velocity is decreasing from vo to v;, and in cross-section "1-1" the actual velocity is more than the critical one, viz. Vi = VD, . Then a hydraulic jump follows, with a sudden variation in both water depth (increase) and velocity (decrease). In cross-section "2-2" the actual velocity v2, is less than the critical one, so the flow is tranquil. Because of the magnitude of velocities and of their sudden variation the canal bottom has to be protected against scouring by the tailwater apron up to cross-section "2-2" The main task of hydraulic computations is the determination of the length of the tailwater apron. The length (in meter units) of tailwater apron consists of three main parts: = gate opening to cross-section "0-0" (shooting, gradually decreasing water depth and increasing velocity), - cross-sections "0-0" to "1-1" (shooting, gradually increasing water depth and decreasing velocity), - cross-sections "1-1" to "2-2" (hydraulic jump, sudden increasing water depth and decreasing velocity) ‘The horizontal length between gate opening and cross-section "0-0" can be estimated as equal to gate opening, say: p= @ (3.8) The length between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1" can be calculated by the differential equation of gradually varied steady flow, applying the Chézy formula in the form proposed by Strickler-Manning-Lindquist. The resulting relationship (also called distance of hydraulic jump) is as follows: 2! pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page 2areas Ccharer 3. Hyeralc Aapects in Designing Anuncture Systems It is important to remember that the numerical values of roughness. coefficient, n, as shown in Table 6 are in sim"? units, and so the numerical values of both the various water depths, D,,¢ e, gravitational acceleration, g, and the discharge of unit width, q, have also to be applied in meter and second units ) G9) The characteristics of the hydraulic jump can be computed by applying the momentum theorem. According to this theorem the resultant of the outside hydraulic forces has to be balanced by the change of momentum. If this dynamic equilibrium is not established the jump moves either upstream or downstream. Assuming the velocities over the entrance and exit sections (cross-sections "1-1" and "2-2"), to be uniform and horizontal, only the difference of the horizontal hydrostatic forces (wall friction neglected) needs to be balanced by the change of momentum. The resulting equation expresses the relationship between the so called conjugate depths of the hydraulic jump, as follows: 7] @.10/a) Polft iis hag de 2 ed) 7-7] 8.1010) -14,fi+s 4, = ed, The horizontal length between cross-sections "1-1" and "2-2", the length of the hydraulic jump, may be estimated as 1,=6(0,-) 0 In designing a plane, horizontal tailwater apron the following are the steps to be taken: a) Known variables are: discharge of unit width, 4, headwater depth, D, tranquil flow, tailwater depth, Dp, tranquil flow. b) By applying Equation (3.10/b) the conjugate upstream water depth, D,, of the hydraulic jump can be calculated (shooting flow) from the tailwater depth, D2 (which is the conjugate downstream water depth of the hydraulic jump). ©) By rearranging Equation (3.1) the water depth in cross-section "0-0" can be computed as: 3.12) ee tee 12) 4°? in which the velocity coefficient, , can be taken as unity as a first pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems approximation, and later on reiterated according to Figure 14. Otherwise, for rough estimation. Equation (3.3) may be rearranged as q 619) d) By comparing the results obtained in items b) and of) the possible alternatives are ee (or 0.6 e) 0 uy, =k) 0.787+0.25 jae @ Ay in which 1 and (4.18) Hy=h+1]_& on 2g| bi +h,) (4.19) pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems The basic discharge coefficient derived by Knapp with due regard to losses is Eq wort 372 (4.20) t=084 0967-00143) ] M If instead of free overfall a submerged (or drowned) overall exists, the discharge coefficient of free overtall has to be multiplied by the submergence coefficient and so H 5075 of o (4.21) The submergence coefficient of Ogee type weirs is tabulated in Table 10 (according to the notations of Fig. 18c) Figure 19. Explanation for calculation of nappe trajectory Y Figure 20. Cross sections of rock fill weirs pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture Systems Table 10 Submergence Coefficients o, of Ogee Type Weirs e |ool © |ool e | co hte hte hte 0.00 |[1 000|{ 0.660 |[0.930][ 0.850][0.670 0.20 |[0.997|[ 0.720 |[0.890][ 0.900][0.575 (0.50 |[0.980)[ 0.780 |[0.820|[0.950)[0.412 (0.63 |[0.950]{ 0.820 |[0.756|| 1 000][0.000 4.3 Special Weirs Rock fill weirs are often applied as regulating structures e.g. bottom drops in small watercourses, Various dam sections can be used depending on the construction methods (Figure 20). The relationship between overfalling discharge and hydraulic characteristics is the same but the discharge coefficient depends, besides the characteristics of M, a and h, on the type, the material and the construction method of the weir, and varies from 0.5 to 0.65. Circular weirs are often used as spillway shafts for maintaining a nearly constant water level in a reservoir or pond (Figure 161). The vertical section (Figure 21) of the so called “morning glory” type illustrates its functioning. The usual relationship can be applied for calculating discharge but 2x R is substituted for b. Because of the favourable shaping of the entrance section a relatively high discharge coefficient exists, between 0.5 and 0.8, with a decreasing coefficient as weir head is increased, This structure can function as a circular weir only up to a certain limit of weir head, ha , the corresponding discharge, Q,, , of which equals the discharge capacity of the shaft. The discharge capacity of the shaft can be approximated by a "short pipeline” calculation. If the actual discharge exceeds the discharge capacity of the shaft then the free overfall transforms into submerged overfall which results in an increased level in the headwater. By further increasing discharge the structure will be submerged and it will function as a short pipeline with a favourable "bell mouth" entrance. This indicates how important the determination of the discharge capacity of the structure is. The limit of oblique weirs (Figure 16b) is the side weir of Figure 22, the crest of which is parallel to the main flow direction, The discharge capacity of a side weir is significantly less than that of a weir with a crest perpendicular to the main flow direction. As illustrated in Figure 22 the weir head varies along the crest and the maximum is reached at the downstream end of the crest, The discharge capacity of the side weir can be pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO Page waeanus Cagle 3 Hyraue Aspects in Designing Aquoutire Systems approximated using this maximum weir head, h, with a discharge coefficient corresponding to the actual types of weir and overfall, respectively, but it has to be multiplied by the side coefficient which can be estimated (Pawlowsky and Engels) as nye 422) b So the overfall discharge equals Soyo beh in which 1 as the relevant one of the discharge coefficients, can be applied 4.23) Q 4.4 The Tailwater Apron Following Weirs The sudden variation in water depth and mean velocity over weirs is similar to that which has been illustrated in the previous section concerning outflow under gates and movable weirs. The consequences of these variations are obvious: a siltation process can be foreseen in the headwater, and a scouring in the tailwater will endanger the stability of the structure if no appropriate tailwater apron is constructed. The same considerations can be applied as in designing a tailwater apron to a fixed weir, with the amendments summarized below. The shape and the geometric and kinematic characteristics of a nappe (jet) have been illustrated. These can also be applied in designing the tailwater apron as follows: a) The distance between the downstream edge of the weir crest and the cross-section "0-0" of the tailwater apron can be estimated by rearranging Equation (4.15) _ Gwen)“ “hb 2g 1, b) The water depth of the shooting flow in cross-section "0-0" can be approximated by the relevant thickness of the nappe and can be calculated by rearranging Equation (4.14) (4.25) ©) Considerations a), b) and d) of the computations in Section 3 apply with the only difference that instead of e and « e (or 0.6 e) always I, (Equation 4.24) and D, (Equation 4.25), respectively, should be understood. Figure 21. Morning glory (vertical section) pido fon orgocrepiSTésehS74de04 Mimi opO PageChapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems reais Figure 22. Side weir in plan and cross section pula a0 orglocrepiS7AMelxS744e04 Mimi opO Pagereas Chapter 3 Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquacuture Systems pula a0 orglocrepiS7AMelxS744e04 Mimi opO Page