Experiments: Vernier Callipers Experiment 1.1

8
EXPERIMENTS
VERNIER CALLIPERS EXPERIMENT 1.1
Object : To measure the diameter of a sphere or
cylinder with a vernier calipers.
it is the least distance which can be measured by that

instrument.
Apparatus Required : Vernier callipers and sphere or

cylinder.
If the value of one division of main scale is x and the

length of n divisions of vernier scale is equal to the
length of (n 1) divisions of main scale then,
Description of the Apparatus : Vernier callipers was

invented by a French mathematician Pierre Vernier. It
is used to measure the length of a rod or cylinder,
diameter of a sphere, the internal and external
diameter of a hollow cylinder and the depth of a
small vessel.
The construction of vernier calipers is shown in the
labelled diagram 1.1. It consists of a steel strip
graduated in cm. This is called the main scale. There
is another strip known as vernier scale which can
slide over the main scale, and is graduated with the
number of divisions. The vernier scale can be fixed
at any position on the main scale by means of a
screw. There are two jaws perpendicular to the main
scale. One of the jaw is fixed at the left end of the
main scale and other jaw is fixed on the frame of the
vernier scale. The lower outside jaws are used to
measure the length or the external diameter of an

object (rod or cylinder) and the upper inside jaws are
used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow
cylinder. The vernier callipers is provided with a
long thin strip attached at the back of the main scale.
This strip is used to measure the depth of any small
vessel.
Least count. The least distance which can be measured
accurately by an instrument is called least count of
that instrument. The difference between the values of
one main scale division and one vernier scale division
is called the vernier constant or the least count, since
Least count of vernier

=
Value of 1 main scale division

x
=
n
Total number of division on vernier scale
Zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if

the zero marks of the vernier scale does not coincide
exactly with the zero mark of the main scale then it
is said to have zero error in the instrument.
There are two kinds of zero error:
(i) Positive zero error and (ii) Negative error.
Positive zero error : On bringing both the jaws
together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale lies to
the right side of the zero mark of the main scale, the
zero error is said to be the positive zero error.
To find this error, bring both the jaws together and

note the main scale division by which zero mark of
the vernier scale is ahead (right side) and also the
division of vernier scale which coincides with the
division on the main scale. This vernier division is
multiplied by the least count of the vernier. The
positive error is then obtained by adding this product
to the main scale reading.
Negative zero error : On bringing both the jaws
together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale is to the
left side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero
error is said to be the negative.

Least count =
To find this error, bring both the jaws together and
note the division of the vernier scale which coincides
with any of the division of the main scale. The number
of this vernier division is subtracted from the total
number of divisions on the vernier scale and then the
difference is multiplied by the least count of the
vernier. This gives the negative zero error.
To get the correct reading, the zero error with its

proper sign is subtracted from the observed reading,
i.e.
Correct reading= observed reading- zero error (with
sign)
x
Value of 1 main scale division
= Total number of division on vernier scale
n
4.
Bring both the jaws together and see whether

the zero mark of vernier scale coincides with
the zero mark of the main scale or not. If they
do not coincide, find the zero error by the
method stated above.
5.
Fix the cylinder (or sphere) in between the

external jaws and note the main scale reading
(i.e., Note the main scale division by which
the zero mark of the vernier scale is ahead).
6.
Now find the vernier scale reading. For this,

note the vernier scale division which coincides
with any the main scale division. Multiply
this number of vernier division with the least
count to get the vernier scale reading.
7.
Find the total reading by adding the main

scale and vernier scale readings.
8.
From this, subtract the zero error with its proper

sign to obtain the correct diameter of the given
cylinder (or sphere).
9.
Repeat the experiment and note the readings

at different places along the cylinder (or
sphere) and their mean is obtained and
arranged in a tabular form.
Method 1. Count the total number of divisions n on

the vernier scale.
Observations.
2.
1. For the least count of the vernier callipers -
Find the value of one main scale division x.
3.
Calculate the least count of the vernier calipers
using the following formula :
Total number of divisions on vernier scale n = 10

The value of 1 main scale division x = 0.1 cm.
Least count of the vernier calipers =
x 0.1
=
= 0.01 cm.
n 10
2. Table for the zero rroorPositive or negative = + (suppose)

S.N.
Main scale
reading
(in cm)
1
2
3
0
0
0
Mean zero error =
Ver nier scale reading

Coinciding
Vern ier reading =
division of
coinciding div. of
vernier scale
vernier least count
(in cm)
4
4
3
0.04 + 0.04 + 0.03 0.11

=
3
3
= 0.0366 cm = 0.04 cm
4 0.01 = 0.04
4 0.01 = 0.04
3 0.01 = 0.03
Total reading = Main

scale reading + Vernier
scale reading
(in cm)
+ 0.04
+ 0.04
+ 0.03
10
3. Table for the diameter of the cylinder S.N.

Main scale
reading
(in cm)
1
2
3
4
5
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
Mean dimeter =
=
Ver nier scale reading

Coinciding
Ver nier scale reading =
division of
coinciding div. of
vernier scale
vernier least count
(in cm)
3
4
3
2
3
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
=
=
=
=
=
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.03
1.43
1.44
1.43
1.42
1.43
1.43 + 1.44 + 1.43 + 1.42 + 1.43

5
7.15
= 1.43 cm.
5
Result : Diameter of given cylinder = 1.39cm.

Precautions. (1) The cylinder should not be pressed
too hard or kept too loose in between the jaws.
(2)
While taking the observations, the eyes must
be kept perpendicular to the scale.
(3)
3
4
3
2
3
Total reading = Main

scale reading + Vernier
scale reading or Observed
diameter (in cm)
To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinder,
the readings should be taken at different places along

the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder should
also be measured in two perpendicular directions at
the same place since it may be possible that the cross
section of cylinder may not be circular completely,
so this error may also be avoided.
11
EXPERIMENT 1.2
OBJECT- To measure the dimensions of a given
regular body of known mass using a vernier
callipers and hence find its density.
PROCEDURE
1.
Proceed in similar manner as in steps 1 to 5

in Experiment 1.1
APPARATUS- Vernier Callipers, a small rectangular

metallic block of known mass.
2.
Repeat above steps for the other edge of same

face of same dimension.
THEORY- (i) For measuring dimensions. Same as

in Experiment 1.1
3.
Repeat above steps for other face of same

dimension.
4.
Repeat steps 1,2 and 3 above for both edges

of both faces of other dimensions.
5.
Make calculations for each dimension

applying zero correction.
6.
Take mean of different values of same

dimension.
7.
Multiply the three mean dimensions to obtain

volume of the block.
8.
Calculate the density of the block material by

dividing its known mass by obtained volume.
(ii) For volume

Volume of a rectangular block= Length x Breadth x
Thickness (height)
i.e.,
Density =
Mass
i.e.,
Volume
M
V
Diagram
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Known mass of the block, m = .....g
2.
Determination of Vernier Constant (Least
Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1mm
Vernier Callipers- Measuring dimensions of a
rectangular metallic block.
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D. =
9
M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
10
Vernier constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D. = (1 09)

mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
3.
Zero error (e) = ..... cm.
Mean zero correction (c) = e= .... cm.
Rectangular metallic block
12
4.
Table for the length ( l)
Serial
No.
Side
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(1)
(2)
(3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
AB
EF
CD
GH
Vernier Scale Reading

No. of Vernier
Value
division
[n (V.C.)]
coinciding (n)
(cm)
(4a)
(4b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
l =N + n
l=l +c
(V.C.)
(cm)
(cm)
(5a)
(5b)
l1 =
l2 =
l3 =
l4 =
5. Table for the breadth (b)

Serial
No.
Side
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(1)
(2)
(3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
BC
FG
DA
HE

No. of Vernier
Value
division
[n (V.C.)]
coinciding (n)
(cm)
(4a)
(4b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
b =N + n
b=b +c
(V.C.)
(cm)
(cm)
(5a)
(5b)
b1 =
b2 =
b3 =
b4 =
6. Table for the thickness (t)

Serial
No.
Side
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(1)
(2)
(3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
CG
BF
HD
EA
CALCULATIONS
Mean corrected length of the block
l=
l1 + l2 + l3 + l4
= ........... cm
4
Mean corrected breadth of the block

b=
b1 + b 2 + b3 + b 4
= ........... cm
4
Mean corrected thickness of the block

t=
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4
= ........... cm
4

No. of Vernier
Value
division
[n (V.C.)]
coinciding (n)
(cm)
(4a)
(4b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
t =N + n
t=t +c
(V.C.)
(cm)
(cm)
(5a)
(5b)
t1 =
t2 =
t3 =
t4 =
Density of the block material.

s=
m
= ....... g cm 3
V
RESULT
Density of block material = ..... g cm3
PRECAUTIONS
(Same as in Experiment 1.1)
13
EXPERIMENT 1.3
OBJECT
calorimeter and open them till each of them

touches the inner wall of the beaker or
calorimeter, without any undue pressure on
the walls. Tight the screw S attached to the
vernier scale.
To measure the internal diameter and depth of a

given beaker/calorimeter using a vernier callipers
and hence find its volume.
APPARATUS
4.
Note the position of the zero mark of the

vernier scale on the main scale. Record the
main scale reading just before the zero mark
of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called
main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5.
Note the number (n) of the vernier scale

division which coincides with some division
of the main scale.
6.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the vernier

callipers by 90 for measuring internal
diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7.
Find total
correction.
Vernier callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter.

THEORY
(i)
For measuring internal diameter and depth.

Same as in Experiment 1.1 and 1.2.
(ii)
For volume. Volume of beaker of calorimeter=

internal area of cross section x depth.
or
()
D
2
. d
where D = internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter

d = depth of beaker/calorimeter
reading
and
apply
zero
Measurement of depth
(a) Internal diameter of beaker.

(b) Depth of beaker.
PROCEDURE (Stepwise)
1.
2.
Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least

count of the vernier callipers and record it
stepwise.
Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact
with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error.
Do it three times and record it. If there is no
zero error, then record, zero error nil.
Measurement of internal diameter

3.
Put the jaws C and D inside the beaker or
8.
Keep the right edge of main scale strip M on

the upper edge of the beaker or calorimeter.
9.
Press the jaw BD downwards so that the thin

metallic strip E on the back side of M moves
downward. Continue it till the outer edge of
E touches the bottom of the beaker or
calorimeter.
10.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions

A, B, C and D along the circumference of the
upper edge of the beaker of calorimeter.
11.
Find total
correction.
12.
Take mean of two different values of internal

diameter and four different values of the depth.
13.
Calculate the volume by using proper formula

and show that in the result with proper unit.
reading
and
apply
zero
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Determination of Vernier Constant (Least
Count) of the vernier callipers.
1 M.S.D. = 1 mm
14
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D. =
2.
Zero error = (i) ...... cm,
(iii) ...... cm.
9
M.S.D. = 0.9 mm
10
Vernier constant,
= (1-0.9) mm
3.
= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
V.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.
(ii) ...... cm,
Mean zero error (e) -= ...... cm.
Table for the Internal Diameter. (D)
Serial
No.
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(1)
(2)

No. of Vernier
Value
division
[n (V.C.)]
coinciding (n)
(cm)
(3a)
(3b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
D =N + n
D=D +c
(V.C.)
(cm)
(cm)
(4a)
(4b)
D1 (a) =
D1 (b) =
4. Table for the depth (d)

Serial
No.
Position
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(1)
(2)
(3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
at A
at B
at C
at D

No. of Vernier
Value
division
[n (V.C.)]
coinciding (n)
(cm)
(4a)
d1 =
d2 =
d3 =
d4 =
CALCULATION
Mean corrected internal diameter,
D=
D1(a ) + D1( b )
Mean corrected depth,

d=
(4b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
d =N + n
d=d +c
(V.C.)
(cm)
(cm)
(5a)
(5b)
d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4
= ............ cm
4
Volume of beaker/calorimeter
= ............ cm
()
D
2
......... cm 3
RESULT - The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is

.....cm3
15
SCREW GAUGE EXPERIMENT 2.1

Object : To determine the diameter and volume of a
wire with the help of a screw gauge.
Apparatus Required : Screw gauge, metre scale and
the given wire.
Description of Apparatus. The labelled diagram of a
screw gauge is shown in Fig. It has a U-shaped frame
of steel which is provided with a plane metallic piece
A called stud. A nut N is provided at its other end.
The nut is threaded from insides and a screw, with its
flat end B, is moved inside it. Above the frame in
which the screw moves, main scale is graduated along
the base line in mm. The zero of main scale is towards
stud A. There is another hollow cylinder rotating
over this cylindrical frame. The end of the hollow
cylinder which is towards the mains scale is divided
into 50 or 100 equal divisions. This is called the
circular or head scale. A ratchet is attached by the
spring to the other end of it which prevents the
unnecessarily tightening of the screw.
Pitch of the screw

Total number of divisions on the head scale
Zero error. If on touching

the tip of the screw B with
the stud A, the zero mark of
the head scale coincides with
the zero mark of the base
line, the instrument is free
from zero error. But if the
zero mark of the head scale remains below the base
line of the main scale, the zero error is said to be
positive.
To find it, note the division of the head scale which
coincides with the base line of the main scale. Now
multiply this number with the least count which gives
the zero error. In Fig. the 5 th division of head scale
coincides with the base line. If the least count of the
screw gauge is 0.01 mm, then zero error is = + 5
0.01 = + 0.05mm.
On the other hand, if on touching the tip of the screw
B with the stud A, the zero of the head scale goes
above the base line of the main scale, the zero error
is said to be negative.
Principle. This works on the principle of a screw. A

screw has threads on it at equal intervals of length.
If the head of a screw is rotated in a nut, the screw
can be made to move forward or backward. The
distance moved by it in one round is the same as the
distance between tow consecutive threads and is
known as pitch of the screw. The distance moved by
the screw when the circular or head scale is rotated
by one division is the minimum distance which can
be measured by the screw gauge. This is known as
the least count of the screw gauge. Thus,
Least count of the screw gauge
To find it, note the division

of the head scale which
coincides with the base line
of the main scale. Subtract it
from the total number of
divisions on the head scale
and then multiply it with the
least count of the screw gauge. In Fig. 95 th division
of head scale coincides with the base line and the
total number of divisions on the head scale are 100
and the least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm,
then the zero error = (100 95) 0.01 = 0.05 mm.
To find the correct reading, the zero error with its
proper signs is subtracted from the observed reading.
Thus,
Correct reading = observed reading zero error (with
sign)
Backlash error. Sometimes due to wear and tear of
threads of screw, it becomes loose in its cylindrical
16
frame. As a result of this, while moving the screw

continuously in one direction, if the direction of
rotation is suddenly changed, it is observed that the
screw slips in the threads of the nut and the screw
does not start moving in the opposite direction at
once, but it remains stationary for some time i.e,,
screw rotates at its own place. As a consequence,
reading of the head scale changes but the reading of
main scale remains the same. The error obtained in
the resultant reading is called backlash error. To avoid
this error, the screw should be rotated in one direction
only. If it is necessary to rotate the screw in opposite
direction, then first it should be rotated in the same
direction and then in opposite direction to take the
reading.
Formula used : Volume of a wire V = r2l
Where r is the radius and l is the length of the wire.
Method : (1) On bringing any division of the head
scale in contact with the base line, the head scale is
given one complete rotation. Note on the main scale,
the linear distance moved by the screw, i.e., the pitch.
Now count the total number of divisions on the head
scale. Divide the pitch by the total number of
divisions on head scale to calculate the least count.
Thus,
Least count of screw gauge
the gap between A and B. More the screw B towards

the stud A by rotating the head scale with the help
of the ratchet so that the given wire is held gently
between the stud and the screw.
(4) Count the number of divisions which appear on
the main scale. This gives the main scale reading.
Then note the coinciding division of the head scale
with the base line. This head scale division when
multiplied by the least count, gives the head scale
reading. This reading is then added to the main scale
reading to give the total reading. This gives the
observed diameter of the wire.
(5) Widen the gap between the stud and the screw.
Again hold the wire at the same place, but in a
position perpendicular to earlier one. Repeat the
above procedure to obtain the reading of the diameter
in this position.
(6) Take atleast five more pairs of such readings at
different positions along its length and arrange them
in a tabular form and calculate their mean.
(7) From this mean, subtract the zero error with its
proper sign to obtain the correct diameter of the
given wire.
(8) Measure the length of the wire with the metre
scale.
Observations.
Pitch of the screw

=
Total number of divisions on the head scale
1. For the least count -
(2) Bring the tip of screw B close to the stud A. Find

out if there is any zero error by the method stated
above.
(3) Rotate the head scale and make a sufficient gap
between A and B so that the given wire can be easily
placed. Stop moving the screw and keep the wire in
Pitch of the screw = 0.1 cm.

Total number of divisions on head scale = 100
Least count =
Pitch of the screw

Total number of divisions on head scale
=
0.1
= 0.001 cm.
100
2. Table for the zero error

Zero error : positive or negative = ve (suppose)
S.N.
1
2
3
Head scale reading

Main scale Head scale division
(Total no. of division
reading
which coincides with
Coinciding division)
(in cm)
the base line
least count (in cm)
0
0
0
84
84
83
(100 84) 0.001 = 0.016

(100 84) 0.001 = 0.016
(100 83) 0.001 = 0.017
Total reading = M.S.

reading + Head scale
reading (in cm)
0.016
0.016
0.017
17
3. Table for the diameter

S.N.
Main scale
reading
(in cm)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
in one
direction
in
direction
in one
direction
in
direction
in one
direction
in
direction
in one
direction
in
direction
in one
direction
in
direction
Head scale reading

No. of head
No. of division
scale division
least count
coinciding
(in cm)
with the
base line
94
94 0.001 = 0.094
0.094
96
96 0.001 = 0.096
0.096
94
94 0.001 = 0.094
0.094
97
97 0.001 = 0.097
0.097
93
93 0.001 = 0.093
0.093
96
96 0.001 = 0.096
0.096
95
95 0.001 = 0.095
0.095
95
95 0.001 = 0.095
0.095
94
94 0.001 = 0.094
0.094
96
96 0.001 = 0.096
0.096
Mean observed diameter = 0.095 cm.

Correct diameter = Observed diameter Zero error
(with proper sign)
= 0.095 (0.016) = 0.111 cm.
Length of the wire (by metre scale) = 14.3cm.
Calculations.
Radius of the wire = r =
Total reading =
M.S. reading +
Head scale
reading (in cm)
Correct diameter 0.111

=
cm
2
2
= 0.0555 cm = 0.055 cm.

Length of the wire l = 14.3 cm.
Volume of the wire V = r2l
= 3.14 (0.055)2 14.3
= 0. 1358 cm3
= 0.136 cm3
Result :
(1)
0.111 cm.
Diameter of the given wire =
(2)
Volume of the given wire =
0.136 cm3
Precautions : (1) The tip of the screw should be
brought closer to the stud only with the help of
ratchet, i.e., care must be taken not to hold the wire
too tightly.
(2) In order to make allowance for non-circular crosssection, diameter of the wire must be measured in
two perpendicular directions at each place.
(3) In order to make allowance for non-uniformity of
the wire, diameter should be measured at several
places and then their average is taken.
(4) The direction of rotation of the head scale should
not be changed at once for every observation with a
screw gauge. If it is required to do so, then move the
screw still further, stop there a while and then rotate
in reverse direction. This avoids the backlash error.
18
Oral Questions and Answers

(For viva-Voce)
Q.1
What is the use of a screw gauge?
Ans. It is used to measure the diameter of a thin

wire.
Q.2
Why is this instrument called screw gauge?
Ans. This works on the principle of a screw and is

used to measure the diameter (or thickness) of a wire.
Q.3
the thimble of your screw gauge? What is the pitch

of the screw? What is its least count?
Ans. The circular head of the given screw gauge is
divided into 100 divisions. The screw moves 1
division ahead in one rotation over the main scale
whose value is 0.1 cm or 1mm. Therefore the pitch
of the screw gauges is 0.1 cm.
Which is the head scale of this instrument?

Least count =
Ans. The hollow cylinder or thimble, rotating over

the main scale is called the head scale.
Q.4 What do you mean by pitch of a screw
gauge?
Ans. The pitch of a screw gauge is the distance
moved by the screw in one complete rotation of its
head.
Q.5 How will you determine least count of a screw
gauge?
Ans. The last count of a screw gauge can be
obtained by dividing the pitch of the screw by the
total number of divisions on the head scale. Thus,
Least count =
Q.6
Pitch screw
Total number of divisions on head scale
How many number of divisions are there on
Q.7
0.1 cm
= 0.001 cm.
100
What is the use of ratchet in this instrument?
Ans. With the help of ratchet, the given wire is held

in between the stud and the screw. It prevents
excessive tightening of the wire.
Q.8 Can you measure the diameter of your hair
by your screw gauge?
Ans. No, we cannot measure the diameter of our
hair by this screw gauge because the diameter of hair
is less than the least count of screw gauge.
Q.9 State one of the main precaution of your
experiment.
Ans. To avoid the backlash error, the screw should
be rotated only in one direction.
19
EXPERIMENT 2.2
OBJECT- To measure thickness of a given sheet
using a screw gauge.
7.
Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 for 5 different positions

spread equally throughout the surface of the
sheet. Record observation in tabular form.
8.
Find total reading and apply zero correction

in each case.
9.
Take mean of different values of thickness.
APPARATUS - Screw gauge sheet (it must be rigid)

THEORY - Same as in Experiment 2.1, for diameter
(thickness) of a wire.
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
Serial
No.
(1)
Find the value of one linear scale division

(L.S.D.)
Determine the pitch and the least count of the
screw gauge and record it stepwise.
Bring the plane face B in contact with plane
face A and find the zero error. Do it three times
and record them. If there is no zero error, then
record zero error nil.
Move the face B away from face A. Place the
wire lengthwise over face A and move the face
B towards face A using the retchet head R.
Main Scale
reading
(N) (cm)
(2)
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Determination of least count of the screw

gauge. (Same as Experiment 2.1)
2.
Zero error. Same as in Experiment 2.1.
3.
Table for the thickness (t).
CALCULATIONS
1.
Find value of t for each observation and write

the observed value to in column 4(a).
2.
Write corrected value of t in column 4(b).
Circular Scale Reading

No. of Circular
Value
Scale division
[n (Least
on reference
count)(mm)
line (n)
(3a)
(3b)
Total Reading
Observed
Corrected
t=N + n
t = t+ c
L.C.
(mm)
(mm)
(4a)
(4b)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
t1 =
t2 =
t3 =
t4 =
Stop when R turns (slips) without moving the
screw.
3.
Note the number of divisions of the linear

scale visible and uncovered by the edge of
the cap. The reading (N) is called linear scale
reading (L.S.R.).
Mean thickness of the sheet,
Note the number (n) of the division of the

circular scale lying above reference line.
Find mean of values of t recorded I column

4(b)
RESULTS - The thickness of the given sheet is ..

mm = .. cm.
PRECAUTIONS (to be taken) - Same as in
Experiment 2.1.
20
VIVA-VOCE
Q.1.
Why is the screw used in screw gauge called

a micrometre screw?
Ans.
It is so called because it can measure distance

correct upto a micrometer (106 metre).
Q.2
Why is a screw gauge so named?
Ans.
Diameters of wires are governed by some

standard numbers called standard wire gauge
(S.W.G.). As the instrument measures these
diameters, it is named screw gauge.
Q.11 What are the reasons for a zero error?
Q.3
What is the principle of a screw gauge?
Ans.
Ans.
The principle is that when an ideal screw

moves in a fixed nut, the translatory motion
of the screw is proportional to the rotation
given to the screw.
Q.4
What are the various types of motions

possessed by a screw?
Ans.
The screw has two types of motions : (i) axis

has linear motion, (ii) surface has circular
motion.
Q.5
What is a ratchet? Explain its utility.
Ans.
Ratchet is an arrangement inside the milled

head (R) at the end of the screw. It prevents
the screw from undue pressure.
Q.6
Define pitch of the screw gauge.
Ans.
The pitch is the distance moved by the screw

in one complete rotation. It is equal to the
distance (measured along the axis) between
the consecutive threads of the screw.
Q.7
What is least count of a screw gauge?
Ans.
It is the distance moved by the screw when it

is rotated by one circular scale division. It is
given by
Least count =
Pitch
No. of divisions on the circular scale
Q.8
What is the least count of commonly used

screw gauge?
Ans.
It is 0.001 cm.
Q.9
What is zero error of screw gauge?
Ans.
When faces A and B of screw gauge come in

contact and zero of circular scale does not
come on reference line, the screw gauge has
an error. This error is called zero error.

Q.10 When is the zero error positive and when
negative in a screw gauge?
Ans.
When faces A and B of screw gauge come in

contact and zero of circular scale does not
cross the reference line, zero error is positive.
If the zero crosses the reference line, zero error
is negative.
The reasons for zero error are:
(i) Wear and tear of the screw
(ii) The defect in manufacturing.
Q.12 Of what metal is the screw made and why?

Ans.
The screw is made of gun metal to avoid wear

and tear after long use.
Q.13 What is back-lash error?

Ans.
Due to wear and tear, the screw becomes loose

in the nut and may not move forward when
turned in the nut. Error due to this is called a
back-lash error.
Q.14 How can the back-lash error be avoided?

Ans.
It can be avoided by exerting a slight lateral

pressure on the screw and by turning it always
in the same direction.
Q.15 Can back-lash error be avoided completely?

Ans.
No.
Q.16 How can you find thickness of a paper by a

screw gauge?
Ans.
We find thickness of 100 sheets of paper. Then

calculate thickness of one sheet.
Q.17 Why do you measure the diameter of the

wire in two perpendicular directions?
Ans.
It is done to eliminate error due to nonuniformity of thickness.
Q.18 Two screw gauges have equal number of

divisions in circular scale. One has pitch 1
mm and the other has pitch 0.5 mm. Which
is more accurate and why?
Ans.
The other one is more accurate because its

least count will be half of that of the first.
21
EXPERIMENT 2.3
Object : To measure the volume of an Irregular Lamina.
Apparatus : Screw gauge, sheet, (must be rigid) semi
graph paper.
Observation : Thickness of sheet as experiment 2.2

and for Area = Number of square inside the boundary.
Calculation : Thickness of sheet as experiment 2.2
Theory : Same as in experiment 2.1
For Area = Area of sheet = n
Procedure :
Volume of Irregular Lamina = Area thickness
1.
Thickness of sheet calculated as experiment

2.2.
2.
Now put the sheet over the graph paper and

sketch the boundary by pencil.
3.
Now count the square inside the semigraph

paper. Half and more than half square count a
full square.
=A t
= At cm 3
Result : The volume of Given sheet= ..cm 3
Precaution : Same as in experiment 2.1.
22
SPHEROMETER EXPERIMENT 3.1

Object : To determine the radius of curvature of a
spherical surface with a spherometer.
Apparatus Required : A spherometer, a plane glassplate, a metre scale, a piece of white paper and a
given spherical surface.
Description of Apparatus : The labelled diagram of
spherometer is shown in Fig. It consists of a metallic
frame-work supported on the three fixed legs X, Y
and Z of equal lengths. The legs have pointed ends
and are equidistant from one another. The pointed
ends of these legs form the three vertices of an
Least count of spherometer
Pitch of the screw

Total number of divisions on circular scale
Thus, the least count of spherometer is calculated

just like as the least count a screw gauge. With the
help of milled head (or cap), the disc is given a full
complete rotation and the distance through which
the edge of the disc moves, is noted. This distance
is called the pitch of the screw. Then the total number
of divisions on the circular scale is counted. The
pitch divided by the total number of divisions on the
circular scale gives the least count of the spherometer.
Let the pitch of the screw be 1 mm and the total
number of divisions on the circular scale be 100,
then the least count of the spherometer =
1 mm
=
100
0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.
equilateral triangle. A nut N is provided at the centre

of the frame through which passes a fine screw S. The
lower part of the screw is pointed and it is called the
fourth or the central leg of the spherometer. When it
is brought in the plane of the remaining three legs,
it falls at the centre of the equilateral traingle formed
by them i.e., all the three vertices of the triangle are
equidistant from it. A round disc of brass B is fixed
rigidly at the upper end of the screw S whose
circumference is graduated in 50 or 100 equal
divisions. This is called the circular scale of the
spherometer. There is a cap H (milled head) at the
middle of the disc. Screw is made to move up or
down by rotating it. A vertical scale L, graduated in
millimetre is fixed at one of the leg of spherometer.
It is called the main scale.
The zero mark of this scale lies at its middle. Its uper
scale represents positive and lower scale represents
negative values. This scale just touches the disc so
that the main scale and circular scale readings can
easily be taken.
To escape from the zero error, while taking

measurement, even if the zero is marked in middle of
the scale, it should be used by considering the zero
at the lowest point of the scale. In this postion, since
the reading remains always above the zero mark, all
the readings are positive.
To avoid the backlash error, the screw should always
be rotated in one direction only while taking the
observation. If it is necessary to rotate the screw in
opposite direction, then first it should be rotated in
the same direction to some extent and then in the
opposite direction.
Theory : Each spherical
surface is a part of sphere
whose radius is called the
radius of curvature of that
spherical surface. First, the
spherometer is placed upon
a plane glass plate and the
reading is taken when screw
just touches the plate. Again
the spherometer is placed on
the spherical convex surface
23
and reading is taken when screw just touches the

spherical surface. The height of the spherical surface
h = AC is obtained by taking the difference of both
the readings (Fig.). Now if the distance between the
fixed leg and the screw is XC = a and the radius of
curvature of spherical surface is R, then it is obvious
from Fig.
or
a2 =
l2
3
By substituting the value of a2 in equation (i),

l2
h
R = 3 +
2h
OX = OA = R
and
OC = OA AC = (R h)
or
Therefore, from the right angle triangle OCX,
or
R2 = (R h)2 + a2
or
R2 = R2 2Rh + h2 + a2
or
2Rh = h2 + a2
or
h2 a 2 a 2 h
+
=
+
R=
2 h 2 h 2h 2
l2 h
R=
+
6h 2
...... (i)
CZ a
= and
By the property of median, CK =
2
2
XY l
=
2
2
Now from the right angle triangle CKX,

(CX)2 = (CK)2 + (XK)2
2
() ()
or
or
a 2 l2
a =
+
4
4
or
3a 2 l 2
+
4
4
or
3a2 = l2
l
+
2
........ (ii)
Formula used : Radius of curvature of spherical

surface.
In Fig. X, Y, Z represent the positions of three legs of

spherometer and C is the position of its central leg
(or screw). XYZ is an equilateral traingle in which
the distance between two legs XY = l and CX = CY
= CZ = a. In equilateral traingle XYZ, ZK is the
perpendicular bisector as well as the median both.
a
a2 =
2
l2 h
+
6h 2
By knowing l and h, R can be calculated by using

the above formula.
OX 2 = OC2 + CX2
XK =
R=
where l = mean distance amongst the external legs of

spherometer and h = height of the spherical surface.
Method : (1) First, to find the pitch of the spherometer,
rotate the disc by four or six complete rounds and
note the distance moved by the disc on the main
scale. Now divide this distance by the number of
rotations to calculate the pitch.
(2) Divide the pitch by the total number of divisions
on the disc to calculate the least count.
(3) Now place the spherometer on a plane glass plate
and rotate the central leg (or the screw) till the screw
just touches the plane surface. At this position,
assuming zero at the lowest mark of main scale, note
the main scale reading and circular scale division
which touches the edge of the main scale. After then
the circular scale division is multiplied by the least
count. This reading is added to the main scale reading
to give the total reading.
(4) Now the spherometer is placed on the given
convex spherical surface such that its external three
legs lie on this plane. The central leg is then turned
down till it just touches the spherical surface. At this
position, assuming zero at the lowest mark, note the
main scale reading and the circular scale division
which touches the edgs of the main scale. After then
the circular scale division is multiplied by the least
count. This reading is then added to the main scale
reading to give the total reading.
24
(5) The height h of the spherical surface is obtained

by subtracting the first reading from the second
reading.
(6) The spherometer is then placed upon the left page
of the practical note book and is slightly pressed.
Three dots corresponding to the ends of the outer
fixed legs of spherometer are imprinted on the paper.
By joining these three dots, an equilateral triangle is
formed and by measuring the length of each side
with the help of metre scale, the mean length l
between the external legs of spherometer is obtained.
Number of complete rotations given to screw = 1

Distance moved by the disc at the main scale = 1
mm.
Hence pitch of the screw x
Dis tan ce moved by the disc at the main scale

Number of complete rotation given to screw
1 mm
= mm = 0.1 cm.
1
Observations.
Number of division on the disc n = 100
(1) For the determination of least count of

spherometer-
Least count of spherometer =
x 0.1 cm
=
= 0.001 cm.
n
100
(2) Tables for the height h of the spherical surface(i) On plane glass plate :
S.N.
1.
2.
3.
Main scale
reading
a (in cm)
Circular Scale Reading b (in cm).

No. of circular scale
No. of division
division touching the
least count
edge of the
(in cm)
main scale
0.3
0.3
0.3
Mean reading
62
62
63
62 0.001 = 0.062
62 0.001 = 0.062
63 0.001 = 0.063
Total
reading
=a+b
(in cm)
0.362
0.362
0.363
0.362 + 0.362 + 0.363 1.087

=
= 0.3623 cm.
3
3
= 0.362 cm.
(ii) On convex spherical surface :
S.N.
1.
2.
3.
Main scale
reading
a (in cm)
0.3
0.3
0.3
Circular Scale Reading b (in cm).

No. of circular scale
No. of division
division touching the
least count
edge of the
(in cm)
main scale
94
94
93
94 0.001 = 0.094
94 0.001 = 0.094
93 0.001 = 0.093
0.394 + 0.394 + 0.393 1181

.
=
= 0.3937 cm.
3
3
= 0.394 cm.
(3) For the determination of distance l between the legs of a spherometer XY = 2.6 cm, YZ = 2.6 cm, ZX = 2.6 cm.
Mean reading
Mean l =
XY + YZ + ZX 2.6 + 2.6 + 2.6

=
= 2.6 cm.
3
3
Total
reading
=a+b
(in cm)
0.394
0.394
0.393
25
Calculation.
Oral Questions and Answer

(For viva-voce)
Height h of the spherical surface

= Mean reading on spherical surface
Q. 1.
Why is the spherometer so named?
Mean reading on plane glass plate
Ans.
It is so called because it is used to measure

the radius of curvature of a spherical surfce.
Q. 2.
What is the principle of a sphreometer?
Ans.
This works on the principle of a screw. When

a screw moves in a nut, the translatory
motion of the screw is proportional to the
rotation given to the screw.
Q. 3.
What do you mean by the pitch of the

spherometer?
Ans.
The distance moved forward or backward by

the screw on given one complete rotation, is
known as the pitch. It is equal to the distance
between the two consecutive threads on the
screw.
Q. 4.
What do you mean by the least count of the

spherometer?
Ans.
The distance moved forward or backward by

the disc when it is rotated by one circular
scale division. It is given as :
= 0.394 cm. 0.362 cm. = 0.032 cm.

Radius of curvature of spherical surface
0.032
l2 h
(2.6) 2
R=
+ =
+
2
6 h 2 6 0.032
= 35.208 + 0.016 = 35.224 cm.
Result. Radius of curvature of the given spherical
surface = 35.224 cm.
Precaution. (1) Reading of the spherometer should
be taken only when the tip of the screw just touches
the plane of the plate or the spherical surface. In this
position, the tip of the screw and its image on the
plate will just touch each other.
(2) To avoid backlash error, the screw should be
moved in the same direction.
(3) The main scale should remain vertical.
(4) For the determination of the value of l, the
distance between each two consecutive of the outer
three legs should be measured and their mean is
calculated.
Probable error. (1) If the circular scale divisions are
not of equal size, then in result, error may arise due
to changing of pitch.
(2) If the disc is loose in nut, then it bends towards
a side. As a result, the error may arise in the
observations.
(3) If the three outer legs do not form the equilateral
triangle and the tip of the screw may not be at the
point of intersection of medians of the triangle, then
above will not be applicable.
l2 h
+ , l comes
6h 2
in a square form and h is a small quantity, therefore
to obtain the accurate value of radius of curvature R,
the values of l and h both should be measured with
a greater accuracy.
Least count =
Pitch
No. of division on the circular scale
It is the least distance, it can measure accurately.

Q. 5.
What is the value of pitch and least count

of spherometer used in your experiment?
Ans.
Because the distance moved forward by the

disc of spherometer on giving one complete
rotation is 1 mm., therefore pitch = 1 mm.
Since the number of divisions on its disc =
100, hence
Least count =
1 mm
= 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.
100
Q. 6.
What is the backlash error? How can it be

avoided?
Ans.
Due to wear and tear, the screw becomes

loose in its cylindrical frame. As a result of
this, while moving the screw continously in
one direction, if the direction of rotation is
suddenly changed, it is observed that the
Inference. Since in the formula R =
26
screw slips in the threads of the nut and the

screw does not start moving in the opposite
direction at once, but it remains stationary
for some time i.e. screw rotates at its own
place. As a consequence, reading of the head
scale changes but the reading of the main
scale remains the same. The error obtained
in the total reading is called backlash error.
To avoid this error, the screw should be rotated
in one direction only. If it is necessary to
rotate the screw in opposite direction, then
first it should be rotated in the same direction
and then in opposite direction to take the
reading.
Q. 11. What is the radius of curvature and

curvature of a plane surface?
Q. 7.
Do you calculate zero error in your

experiment? If not, then how can you
remove it?
Ans.
No. For its removal, the spherometer is placed

on a plane glass plate and reading is taken
by assuming zero at its lowest mark. The
spherometer is then placed on the spherical
surface and again reading is taken by
assuming zero at the lowest mark. The
difference between these readings gives the
height of the spherical surface.
Ans.
The radius of curvature of a plane surface is

infinity and curvature is zero.
Q. 12. State the formula for radius of curvature

in your experiment?
l2 h
+
6h 2
Ans.
R=
Q.13
Which of the quantity is to be measured

with accuracy: l or h and why?
Ans.
H, since it is a small quantity.
Q.14
Can you measure the radius of curvature

of earth with a spherometer?
Ans.
No, since the radius of curvature of earth is

so large that the value of h will be nearly
zero.
Q.15
State the greatest and the smallest sphere

whose radius of curvature canbe measured
with your spherometer?
Ans.
The sphere for which the value of h will be

equal to least count of the spherometer will
be greatest sphere and the sphere, that can
be kept among the three external legs of
spherometer will be smallest sphere.
Q.16
Out of two curved surfaces for which the

value of h is 0.152mm and 0.205 mm
respectively, which surface has the larger
radius of curvature?
Ans.
First surface has more radius of curvature for

which h = 0.152mm.
Q.17
There are three legs in a spherometer,

why?
Q. 10. What is the relation between the curvature

and radius of curvature of a spherical
surface?
Ans.
Because any plane can be described by at

least three points, which are not in a straight
line.
Ans.
Q.18
Is equal distance necessary among the three

legs?
Ans.
Yes, otherwise formula R =
Q. 8.
What are the characteristics of an ideal

spherometer?
Ans.
(i) The threads of the screw must be

throughout narrow and uniform.
(ii) There must be no backlash error.
Q. 9.
Ans.
i.e.,
What is meant by the radius of curvature

of a spherical surface?
Each spherical surface is a part of a sphere
whose radius is called the radius of curvature
of the spherical surface.
The reciprocal of curvature of the spherical

surface is called the radius of curvature of
that spherical surface.
Curvature =
1
Radius of curvature
be applicable.
l2
h
+
will not
6h 2
27
EXPERIMENT 3.2
OBJECT - To measure thickness of a given sheet
using a spherometer.
the reference reading crosses past the pitch

scale).
APPARATUS - Spherometer, sheet (it may be a glass

sheet), a big size plane glass slab.
9.
Continue till the tip of the screw just touches

the plane surface of the glass slab.
Diagram - As experiment 3.1.
10.
Note the reading of the circular scale which is

finally in line with the vertical (pitch) scale.
Let it be b.
11.
Find the number of circular (disc) scale

division in last incomplete rotation.
12.
Repeat steps 4 to 11, for 5 different positions,

spread equally throughout the surface of the
sheet. Record observations in tabular form.
13.
Take mean of different values of thickness.
THEORY - As experiment 3.1.

PROCEDURE (Stepwise)
1.
Find the value of one vertical (pitch) scale

division.
2.
Determine the pitch and the least count of the

spherometer and record it stepwise.
3.
Place the spherometer on a big size plane

glass slab, so that its three legs rest on it.
4.
Rise the screw sufficiently so that the given

small glass strip could be placed below the
screw.
5.
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Determination of least count of the

spherometer.
1 pitch scale division = 1 mm
Gently turn the screw downwards till the screw

tip just touches the surface of the glass strip.
(The tip of the screw will just touch its image
in the glass strip).
Number of full rotation given to screw =4

Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Pitch, p =
Note the reading of the circular (disc) scale

which is in line with the vertical (pitch) scale.
Let it be a (It will act as reference).
Hence,
7.
Remove the glass strip from below the screw.
Hence, least count =
8.
Turn the screw downwards and count the

number of complete rotations. (n1) made by
the disc (one rotation becomes complete when
6.
3.
Serial
No.
(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4mm
= 1mm
4
Number of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100

1mm
= 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.
100
2.
Zero Error. Zero error does not occur in a
spherometer because result is obtained by taking
difference of final and initial readings.
Table for the thickness (t)

Circular (Disc) Scale Reading
Initial
Final
(a)
(b)
(2a)
(2b)
Number of
complete
rotations
(n1)
(3)
No. of Disc
scale divisions
in incomplete
rotation
x = (a b)
or (100 + a) b
(4)
Total Reading
t = n1 p + x
(L.C.) (mm)
(5)
t1 =
t2 =
t3 =
t4 =
t5 =
28
CALCULATIONS
1.
2.
2.
Find value of t for each observation and write

it in column 5.
The screw should be moved in same direction

to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
3.
Find means of values of t recorded in column

5.
Reading should be taken atleast five places

equally spread over the sheet.
4.
Excess rotation should be avoided.
Mean thickness of the sheet,
SOURCES OF ERROR
t +t +t +t +t
t = 1 2 3 4 5 = ......... mm
5
cm
1.
The screw may have friction.
2.
The spherometer may have back-lash error.
RESULT- The thickness of the given sheet is ..

mm = ..cm.
3.
Circular (Disc) scale divisions may not be of

equal size.
PRECAUTIONS
4.
The sheet may not be of uniform thickness.
1.
The screw should move freely without friction.
29
FORCE AND FRICTION

Force of friction
When one surface moves over another surface
or when there is relative motion between two surfaces
then a tangential force acts between the two surfaces.
This force opposes relative motion between the two
surfaces, and is known as force of friction.
Major cause of frictional force is the presence

of microscopic irregularities between the two surfaces.
When two surfaces are placed in contact with each
other then their grooves get interlocked together due
to interatomic forces. When relative motion takes
place between the surfaces, then a force is required
to break the interlocking and the relative motion
becomes difficult. This is expressed by saying that a
force of friction is acting between the srufaces.
Even in very smooth surfaces some
microscopic irregularities are always present. A second
cause of force of friction is presence of adhesive
forces & cohesive forces. Adhesive forces are attractive
forces acting between two molecules of the same
substance. As the molecular forces are electromagnetic
forces, therefore, the force of friction is basically an
electromagnetic force.
of friction can be reduced, but it cannot be completely

eliminated.
Limiting force of friction : If two surfaces are in
contact with each other and no external force is acting
on them then force of friction acting between them
is also zero. If an external force is applied on one
surface in such a way that the surfaces do not move
then an equal and opposite force acts. This force of
friction is known as static force of friction. If the
applied force increases this static force also increases.
But static force of friction can increase only upto a
certain limit. The value of limiting force of friction
depends upon the nature of surfaces. On slightly
increasing the applied force beyond maximum force
of friction, the surface starts moving. Maximum value
of force of friction in this case is known as limiting
force of friction.
Co-efficient of friction : Force of friction (F) acting
between two surfaces is directly proportional to force
of normal reaction between the surface.
or force of friction F R (Normal Reaction)
F = R where is a constant.
This constant is known as co-efficient of friction.
Force of friction
or = F/R = Normal Re action

In case, no motion takes place, then force of
friction is static force of friction and co-efficient of
friction is known as co-efficient of static friction. It
is denoted by s.
In case of limiting friction, co-efficient of
friction is known as-co-efficient of limiting friction.
It is denoted by . If the object is moving with
uniform velocity then co-efficient of friction is known
as co-efficient of kinetic friction. It is denoted by k.
Value of k is always less than that of , s, and k
are rations of two similar quantities, hence they have
no units, but their values depend on nature of surfaces
in contact.
The force of friction depends on the nature of

surfaces in contact. By making surfaces smooth, force
Angle of friction : It is that angle which the resultant

of limiting force of friction and normal reaction makes
30
with normal reaction. It is generally denoted by .
sliding down. This position is known as position of

limiting equilibrium. If inclination is slightly
increased further then the object starts moving down
the plane.
From Fig. it is clear that three forces are acting
on the object in this position (i) weight of object mg
vertically downwards (ii) R is force of normal reaction
acting normal to plane, (iii) Force of limiting friction
trangential to the surface and up the incline. The
weight mg can be resolved into two rectangular
components (i) mg cosq and (ii) mg sinq
In fig. a block is shown which is just at the

point of moving over a horizontal surface. On it an
external force
P acts. F is limiting force of friction
which is just opposite to

P . as shown in fig. The
resultant of
F and R is determined by the rectangle
OBCA.
Then BOC = Angle of friction =

Tan =
BC OA Fs
=
=
OB OB R
Fs
but
= = tan
R
Hence co-efficient of limiting friction is equal

to tangent of angle of friction.
Angle of respose : If an object is placed on an
inclined plane in such a way that the object is at the
point of sliding down the plane, then the angle which
the plane makes with the horizontal direction is
known as angle of repose.
In equilibrium R = mg cos
Fs = mg sin
tan = Fs/R. But Fs/R = = co-efficient of limiting
friction.
= tan
Or tangent of angle of repose is equal to coefficient of limiting friction. Therefore, by knowing
angle of repose co-efficient of friction between the
surfaces of block and the plane can be calculated.
We know that tan also = tan
It shows that = or angle of friction = angle
of repose.
Disadvantages of friction : It causes wear and tear of
machinery, hence their life-span is reduced. Also a
part of input energy is converted into heat due to
friction, hence efficiency of machinery decreases.
Methods of reducing friction : To reduce friction
surfaces are polished. By polishing, irregularities get
smoothened and friction is reduced. If a lubricant
like Oil, Grease or Mobile Oil is used between the
surfaces then also friction decreases.
Methods to increase friction: Some times friction is
to be increased. For this dry mud or sand can be used,
Sand paper can also be used. Tyres and shoe soles are
made rough to increase friction.
When an object is placed on an inclined plane

and its inclination is gradually increased, then at a
certain position, the object is just on the point of
31
EXPERIMENT 4
Aim : To study the relationship between the force of
limiting friction and normal reaction and to find the
coefficient of friction between a block and a
horizontal surface.
Apparatus : The inclined plane apparatus having
glass top, wooden block provided with a hook, thread,
scale pan, weight box, spring balance and a spirit
level.
Theory : To find the coefficient of friction between
a block and a horizontal surface, consider the
experimental arrangement as shown in fig. The block
R = w + W .....
Therefore, coefficient of friction between the block

and the horizontal surface is given by
=
F
p+P
=
R w+W
.... (5.08)
For more set of observations, the experiment is

repeated for different values of w (= 100 g, 200 g,
300 g, ....) and in each case, the weight on the scale
pan is adjusted so that the block just begins to slide
on tapping the horizontal surface gently. A graph is
plotted between the values of F and R for different
observations. The graph will be a straight line as
shown in Fig. The slope of the graph also gives the
value of the coefficient of friction between the block
and the horizontal surface i.e.
= slope of the graph =
is connected to a scale pan with a thread and the

thread is passed over the pulley fixed to the edge of
the inclined plane apparatus. Place some known
weight w on the block. Then, from a weight box, start
adding weight to the scale pan. Adjust the weights so
that the block just begins to slide, when the horizontal
surface is tapped gently. Let P be the weight placed
on the scale pan and p be the weight of the scale pan.
Then,
....(5.07)
AC
BC
Formula used : The coefficient of friction, =
F
R
Procedure : 1. Place the inclined plane apparatus

horizontally on the table and level it with the help
of spirit level.
2. Make pulley fitted to the inclined plane apparatus
free by oiling it.
3. Find the least count and zero error (if any) of the
spring balance.
4. Weigh the wooden block (W) and the scale pan (p)
separately with the help of the spring balance and
record their corrected weights by applying zero
correction.
5. Attach one end of the thread to the scale pan and
the other end to the hook of the wooden block.
applied force on the block = p + P

Since the block just begins to slide, the applied force
p + P must be just equal to the force of limiting
friction F between the block and the horizontal surface
i.e.
F=p+P
If W is the weight of the block then the normal
reaction,
6. Place the block on the inclined plane apparatus

and pass the thread over the pulley as shown in Fig.
7. Place the weights on the pan and tap the surface
of the inclined apparatus gently. If the block does
not slide, go on adding weights to the scale pan till
the block just beings to slide on taping the surface
gently. Note down the weights placed in the pan. Let
it be P. Then,
total applied force = p + P
32
Since the block just begins to slide, the applied force

is equal to the force of limiting friction F between
the block and the horizontal surface i.e.
F=p+P
8. Since there is no motion along the vertical, normal
reaction R is equal to the weight of the block i.e.
9. Now, place a known weight w, say 100 g on the
block so that the normal reaction becomes equal to
w+W. By proceeding as in step 7, find the weight
added to the pan so that the block just begin to slide
on tapping the surface gently.
10. Repeat the experiment for four different values of
weight w placed on the block and record the
observations in tabular form.
11. Find the ratio of force of limiting friction F (= p
+ P) and the normal reaction R (= w + W) in each
case. The ratio gives the coefficient of friction
between the block and the horizontal surface.
12. Plot a graph between R (along X-axis) and F
(along Y-axis) as shown in Fig.
Since the graph between F and R is a straight line,
the force of limiting friction between the two surfaces
(wood and glass) is proportional to the normal
reaction.
Weight on the
block, w
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
0 gf
100 gf
150 gf
200 gf
250 gf
300 gf
= ....gf
Corrected weight of the

scale pan, p
= ....gf
From the graph; AC ..... cm and BC ..... cm

Therefore, slope of the graph =
R=W
No.

wooden block, W
Normal reaction,
R=x+W
AC
= .......
BC
Hence, coefficient of friction = slope of the graph =

....
Result. 1. Since
F
constant and graph between F and
R
R is a straight line, it follows that value of the limiting

friction between two given surfaces is directly
proportional to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces.
2. The coefficient of limiting friction between the
surfaces (wood and glass), = ....
Precautions : 1. The pulley should be free from
friction.
2. Clean and dry the surfaces of the block and the
horizontal plane apparatus before the experiment.
3. Tap the surface of the inclined plane apparatus
gently.
Weight in
the pan, P
Limiting friction
F=p+P
F
R
Mean coefficient of friction, = .....

13. By taking two points A and B on the graph, find
the slope of the graph. Then, slope of the graph is
equal to the coefficient of friction between the two
surfaces.
4. The segment of the thread between the block and

the pulley should be horizontal.
Observations and calculations.
5. The scale pan should not touch any part of the

table.
The value of one small division

of spring balance
= ....gf
Sources of error. 1. The dust particles on the plane

surface increase the friction between the two surfaces
in contact.
Zero error (if any) of the

spring balance
= ....gf
2. The weight of the thread has not been taken into

account.
Zero correction to be applied
= ....gf
3. The inclined plane apparatus may not be horizontal.
33
VIVA VOCE
Frequently Asked Questions
Q. 1.
What is friction?
Ans.
When a body tends to slide over another

body, a force, which tries to oppose the
relative motion between the two bodies,
comes into play. This opposing force is
called force due to friction. It is due to
roughness of the two surfaces in
contact.
Q. 8.
What is the unit of coefficient of

limiting friction?
Ans.
It has no unit.
Q. 9.
What are different kinds of friction?
Ans.
1. Static friction, 2. Kinetic friction.
Q. 10.
What is angle of friction?
Ans.
The angle, which the resultant of force

of limiting friction and normal reaction
makes with normal reaction, is called
the angle of friction.
Q. 2.
Will the force of friction act, if the

bodies in contact are at rest?
Ans.
No, it acts only when one body tends

to slide over another body.
Q. 11.
What is meant by angle of repose?
Q. 3.
What are the causes of friction?
Ans.
Ans.
It is due to the interlocking of the

irregularities of two surfaces in contact
and depends upon the force with which
the two bodies press against each other.
The angle of inclination with the

horizontal, at which a body just begins
to slide down the inclined plane, is
called the angle of repose.
Q. 12.
On what factors does the force of

friction depend?
What is the relation between angle of

repose and angle of friction?
Ans.
The angle of friction and the angle of

repose are equal.
Q. 13.
Why should string connecting the

wooden block and the scale pan
passed over the pulley should be
horizintal?
Q. 4.
Ans.
It depends upon the nature and the state

of polish (smoothness) of the two
surfaces in contact.
Q. 5.
Why do we call friction a self

adjusting force?
Ans.
When applied force is zero, friction is

zero. As the applied force is increased,
friction also increases and becomes
equal to the applied force. It happens
so, till the body does not start moving.
For this reason, friction is called self
adjusting force.
Ans.
In case it is not so, the force of limiting

friction will be equal to the component
of the pull parallel to the horizontal.
Q. 14.
What happens to limiting friciton,

when a wooden block is moved with
increasing speed on a horizontal
surface?
Q. 6.
What is limiting friction?
Ans.
Ans.
It is the maximum force which comes

into play, when a body moves over the
surface of another body.
Limiting friction decreases as the

wooden block is moved with increasing
speed on the horizontal surface.
Q. 15.
How can you reduce the force of

friction between two bodies ?
Ans.
By lubricating the moving parts and

by polishing the surfaces in contact.
Q. 7.
What is coefficient of friction?
Ans.
It is the ratio of the limiting friction to

the normal reaction for the two surfaces
in contact.
34
Q. 16.
Smoother the surface, lesser is friction.

Why?
Ans.
When the surfaces are made smoother

then the size of the irregularities in the
surfaces decreases. As a result, the area
of actual contact also decreases. As the
number of atoms in contact will also
decrease due to decrease in the area of
contact, the force of molecular
attraction and hence the force of friction
decreases.
Q. 20.
Why do we slip on a rainy day?
Ans.
On a rainy day, the wet ground becomes

very smooth. As a result, the coefficient
of friction between our feet and the wet
ground gets much reduced.
Consequently, the force of friction
(F = R) between the feet and the
ground becomes very small. As a result,
it may cause us to slip.
Q. 21.
Sand is thrown on tracks covered with

snow in hilly areas. Why?
Q. 17.
Polishing a surface beyond a certain

limit may increase friction. Why?
Ans.
Ans.
When the surfaces are polished beyond

a certain limit, the area at each point of
contact becomes very small. However,
the total area of the two surfaces in
contact is very large. It is because, the
number of points of contact becomes
very large on making the surface highly
polished. Since the number of atoms
(or molecules) of the two surfaces in
contact is proportional to their area in
contact, the force of friction increases
due to the greater value of force of
molecular attraction between the two
surfaces.
When the tracks in hilly areas got

covered with snow, the force of friction
between the tyres of a vehicle and the
snow covered track reduces appreciably.
Due to this, the driving is no longer
safe. In order to produce sufficient force
of friction for safe driving, sand is
thrown on the snow covered tracks.
Q. 22.
Why are wheels made circular?
Ans.
So as to convert sliding friction into

rolling friction. It is because, rolling
friction is much less than sliding
friction.
Q. 23.
It is easier to roll a barrel than to

pull it along the road. Why?
Q. 18.
Why are tyres made of rubber and

not of iron?
Ans.
The rolling friction is lesser as

compared to the sliding friction.
Ans.
It is because, coefficient of friction

between rubber and concrete (material
of the road) is less than that between
iron and the concrete.
Q. 24.
Why is it difficult to move a cycle

with its brakes on?
Ans.
Between the tyres of the cycle and the

road, friction is of rolling type in nature.
But when cycle is moved with brakes
on, the wheels cannot rotate but can
only slide. Due to this, the sliding
friction comes into play. As the sliding
friction is greater than the rolling
friction, it becomes difficult to move
the cycle with brakes on.
Q. 19.
Automobile tyres have generally

irregular projections over their
surfaces. Why?
Ans.
It is done in order to increase friction

between the tyres and the road for better
road grip. In case the irregular
projections on the tyres wear out, the
vehicle may skid on applying brakes.
It is because, force of friction between
the road and a bald tyre is much less
than that between the road and the tyre
having irregular projections.
35
EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECT - To find the downward force along the
inclined plane acting on a trolley/roller on account
of gravitational pull of earth and to study its
relationship with the angle of inclination of the
inclined plane.
APPARATUS - An inclined plane, A trolley or roller,
pan, weight box, spring balance, spirit level, strong
thread, half metre rod.
THEORY - If total weight W1 = M1g moves the body
up and total weight W 2 = M2g makes the body move
down, then downward force acting on the body along
the inclined plane,
W=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
W1 + W2 (M1 + M 2 )g
=
2
2
This force must be equal to mg sin

For same body, m = constant
Hence,
W sin
A graph between sin along X-axis and W along Yaxis must be a straight line.
Diagram -
9.
10.
11.
Make the base of inclined plane horizontal

(test by spirit level) and make it stable (by
putting paper pieces if necessary).
Bring the inclined plane to horizontal position
(touching the base). The angle of inclination
is now zero (as indicated by protractor).
Find the weight of the roller by a spring
balance and place it on the inclined plane.
Tie one end of a thread to the roller placed on
the inclined plane and pass it over the pulley.
Pass the thread through the slot in base.
Find the weight of the pan by spring balance
and tie it to free end of thread, keeping the
thread free from board.
Raise the inclined plane and fix it at an angle
of 30. The roller may start rolling down with
acceleration.
Put weights on the pan and increase them till
the roller just moving upward with uniform
velocity only on tapping. Note the total
weights in pan.
Remove some small weights from weights in
the pan till the roller just starts moving
downward with uniform speed only on tapping.
Note the total weights in pan.
12.
Increase the angle of inclination in steps of 5

each, making it 35, 40, 45, 50, 55 and 60
and repeat steps 10 and 11.
13.
Record your observations in table as given

below.
OBSERVATIONS
PROCEDURE
1.
Test the pulley of the inclined plane and see
that it is free from friction. Oil it, if necessary.
2.
Keep the apparatus on table with the slot
portion of the base beyond the edge of the
table.
Lease count of spring balance
=gwt.
Zero error of spring balance (e)
=gwt.
Zero correction of spring

balance (c) = (e)
=gwt.
Observed weight of the roller (wo)
=gwt.

roller (w = mg)
= (wo + c)
Observed weight of the pan (Po)
=gwt.
Corrected weight of the pan

(p)= (po + c)
=gwt.
=gwt.
36
Table for angle of inclination and weights in pan.

Angle of
inclination
Sin
w Sin
= mg
Sin
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1
2
3
4
5
6
30
35
40
45
50
55
0.5000
0.57358
0.64279
0.70711
0.76604
0.81915
60
0.86603
Serial
No.
Weight in pan
when roller moves
Upward
Downward
w1 (g wt)
w 2 (g wt)
(g wt)
(5a)
(5b)
CALCULATIONS
(i) For downward force. In each case, downward
force acting on the body is given by quantity in
column (7) of the table. It must be equal to w sin
as given in column (4). Error (difference) as found in
column (8) is negligible.
Total weight when

Force acting on
roller moves
roller downward
Upward Downward
W + W2
W1
W2
W= 1
2
= w1 + p
= w2 + p
(g wt)
(g wt)
(g wt)
(6a)
(6b)
(7)
Error
Wmg
sin
(8)
RESULT :
1.
Downward force on the body of weight w=mg
comes to be mg sin
2.
Graph between sin and W comes to be a
straight line. Hence, W sin .
3.
Graph between and W is a sine curve.
Graph between sin and W

(ii) For relationship between downward force and
angle of inclination. Plot a graph between sin
(column 3 of table) and downward force (W) acting
on the roller (column 7 of table). Taking sin along
X-axis and W along Y-axis. The graph comes to be
a straight line as shown in Fig. 7.03. It verifies W
sin .
A Graph between (column 2) and W (column) will
be a curve (sine curve) bent downward. It is shown
in Fig. 7.04.
Precautions :
1.
Pulley should be frictionless.
2.
Base should be stable and horizontal.
3.
Thread should not touch the board or table.
4.
Inclined surface should be clean, dry and
smooth (use glass top).
5.
Weights in pan should be increased or
decreased in small steps.
6.
Weights should be noted only when the roller
just starts moving up or moving down.
37
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM AND

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
Introduction
According to syllabus, you will require the
use of simple pendulum at two places; (i) in doing
the experiment to find value of acceleration due to
gravity (g) with the help of a simple pendulum., (ii)
in doing activity-to study the relation between
effective length and time period of a simple
pendulum.
Therefore, you should know construction of a
simple pendulum and should also have complete
knowledge of various laws of physics related to it.
The oscillatory motion of a simple pendulum is
simple harmonic. Therefore, characteristics of simple
harmonic motion should be clearly known to you.
Also you should have complete knowledge about
the acceleration due to gravity. Therefore, first we
shall describe the necessary theory of acceleration
due to gravity and simple harmonic motion and after
that we shall discuss the experiment to determine the
value of g in the laboratory.
Information regarding acceleration due to
gravity
1. Gravitation : In this universe, every object
attracts every other object merely due to its mass.
This attraction is known as gravitation. If an object
has a mass m1 and the other object has a mass m2
and distance between them is r then according to
Newtons Law of gravitation, an attractive force F
acts between them such that
F=
G m1m2
r2
.......(2.1)
Here G is a constant known as universal gravitational

constant.
The value of G in S.1 is
6.67 1011 newton metre2kg2
2. Gravity and Acceleration due to gravity:If mass of earth is M1, mass of any object on its
surface or near its surface is m, and distance between
centres of the object and that of earth is R, then the

force exerted by the earth on the object, according to
eq. (2.1), is given by
F=W=
GM m
R2
....... (2.2)
the force (W) exerted by the earth on an object is

known as the weight of that object. The force of
gravitation due to earth is known as gravity. But
according to the Newtons second law of motion.
W = F = ma
..... (2.3)
Where a is the acceleration produced in the object.

Therefore, a force acting on an object produces
acceleration (a) in it. Force exerted by earth also
produces an acceleration in the object. This
acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity.
It is denoted by g. Therefore, according to eq. (2.3)
W = mg
..... (2.4)
or acceleration due to gravity.
g=
W GM
=
m R2
..... (2.5)
From eq. (2.5), it is clear that value of g

depends only on G.M (mass of earth) and R (radius
of earth). It does not depend on mass of the object.
Therefore, all objects fall towards earth with the same
acceleration due to gravity (g). Thus at a given place
on earth, g is constant for all objects.
Definition of g: The increase
in velocity per
second of a freely falling object due to earths
gravitational force of attraction is known as
acceleration due to gravity.
Value of g, units and dimension: Standard value
of g at sea level at a latitude of 45 is taken as 9.81
ms2. The unit of g in S.1 is metre second2 and in
C.G.S. it is cm second2. Dimensions of g are same as
those of acceleration i.e. [MLT 2)
Change in value of g: At any place on surface of
38
earth, value of g is fixed but in following case it

varies :
i.
Radious of earth is maximum at equator and

minimum at poles, therefore value of g is less
at equator and more at poles.
ii.
On going above the surface of earth, value of

g decreases.
iii.
On going under the surface of earth, also, value

of g decreases.
iv.
Value of g at the centre of earth is zero,

therefore weight of any object on centre of
earth is zero.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

a)
Harmonic motion : If a particle moves in

such a way that it passes through a definite
point after a definite interval of time, then the
particle is said to execute harmonic motion.
b)
Simple Harmonic motion (SHM) : If a particle

moves in a straight line path, to and fro about
a fixed point and if the acceleration of the
particle is directly proportional to its
displacement from that point and is always
directed towards that point then the motion is
said to be simple harmonic motion and that
fixed point is known as the mean position of
the particle.
c)
Characteristics of SHM
(i)
It is a motion in a straight line.
(ii)
At any point of the motion, acceleration of

the particle is proportional to its displacement
from the mean position.
(iii)
Acceleration of moving particle is always

directed towards the mean position.
d)
Some definitions
(i)
Periodic motion : The motion which keeps

on repeating itself regularly after fixed interval
of time is known as a periodic motion.
(ii)
Vibration or oscillation : When a particle

moves to and fro about a fixed point in a
straight line then the particle is said to execute
vibrations or oscillations. The fixed point is
known as mean position. Both these terms are
now used in the same sense, although
vibrations are generally associated with
mechanical systems only.

(iii)
Displacement : While oscillating, distance of

particle from its mean position at any time is
known as its instantaneous displacement.
(iv)
Amplitude : The maximum displacement of a

particle on either side of its mean position is
known as its amplitude.
(v)
Extreme position : The positions of maximum

displacement on either side of the mean
position are called extreme positions. Distance
between mean position and any extreme
position is called amplitude.
(vi)
A Complete vibration or oscillation : Motion

of a vibrating particle from one extreme
position to other extreme position and back
to the first extreme position is known as one
complete vibration or oscillation. If the
oscillation is counted form its mean position
in a certain direction, then the motion of the
particle from mean position to an extreme
position in one direction then going back to
the other extreme position and coming back
to the mean position, constitutes one
oscillation or one vibration.
(vii)
Time period : Time period is the time taken

by the particle to execute one complete
vibration or oscillation. It is denoted by T.
(viii) Frequency : The number of complete

vibrations executed per second is known as
frequency. It is denoted by n or by the Greek
letter (nu)
1
1
and T = or T = 1
T
u
The simple Pendulum and its Time Period

If a heavy point mass is suspended by a
weightless, perfectly flexible and inextensible string
from a rigid support, in a frictionless medium, this
arrangement is known as a simple pendulum.
Rigid
Support
Thread
Metal Bob
39
It is an ideal pendulum because in practice it

is not possible to have a heavy point mass, or a
weightless string or a frictionless medium. Therefore
in laboratory a practical simple pendulum is made
which is closest in its properties to an ideal simple
pendulum.
moving towards 0 and at 0 its potential energy

changes completely to kinetic energy. Therefore its
velocity becomes maximum. It thus completes one
vibration and is ready to repeat the same. Thus the
pendulum keeps on vibrating on both sides of its
mean position.
In laboratory, a metallic spherical bob is

suspended from a rigid support with the help of a
thin, light but strong string. This arrangement is
known as a practical simple pendulum. It is shown
in fig.
Formula for the time period of simple pendulum:

In fig. SO denotes the rest position of the
simple pendulum. When bob is displaced by an angle
from its mean position SA. At that time two forces
act on the pendulum.
Effective length of simple pendulum

In fig. the bob of a pendulum is suspended
from the point of suspension s of a rigid support.
Distance from the point of suspension to the centre
of gravity of the bob is known as effective length of
the simple pendulum. It is denoted by l . Therefore,
we can write:
Effective length of simple pendulum = Length of
string (SP) + Radius of bob (PC).
s
m g mg cos
Different forces acting on the bob in

displaced position.
(i)
Weight mg of the bob acting vertically

downward,
(ii)
Tension T, acting along the thread is shown in

the fig. The weight mg can be resolved into
two rectangular components;
a)
mg Cos which acts along SA. It is equal and

opposite to tension T in the string.
b)
mg sin along AD. It acts perpendicular to T.

It tries to bring the bob back to mean position.
Therefore mg sin is very small ( < 15) then
sin (in radian). Therefore, restoring force
F = mg sin mg But
p
B
C
Why does a simple pendulum oscillate?
In fig (a), SO shows position of rest of simple
pendulum. Therefore, point 0 shows the mean
position of the simple pendulum. When the bob moves
from 0 to A then its potential energy increases because
centre of gravity of bob at A is slightly raised from
its mean position. A restoring force acts which tries
to bring the bob back to its mean position. During
this motion its potential energy changes to kinetic
energy. At 0 its potential energy is converted
completely to kinetic energy. Here it has maximum
kinetic energy, for a moment its restoring force
becomes zero but due to intertia of motion it
continues to move in the same direction and
ultimately it reaches the point B on the other side of
the mean position. At B its K.E. changes to P.E.
therefore for a moment its velocity becomes zero. At
B a restoring force acts on the bob so it again starts
Arc
OA x
=
=
radius SA l
where x = displacement, l = effective length = SA
F =
mgx
.....
l
But F = ma
x
x
ma = mg or a = g
l
l
..... (i)
..... (ii)
40
or a = kx.
where k = g/l is a constant
Thus a x
..... (iii)
Thus acceleration is directly proportional to

displacement. Direction of acceleration is from A to
0 or towards mean position. Therefore motion of
simple pendulum is simple harmonic.
From eq (iii), a = k x i.e. acceleration = kx
displacement or
or
acceleration
= k = g /l
displacement
..... (iv)
Average value of l/T2 can also be determined from

direct calculations.
Therefore, with the help of eq. (vii) value of
g can be calculated.
Produce:
I)
To find radius of bob
i)
Find zero error of the vernier callipers with its

sign.
ii)
Find least count of the vernier callipers.
iii)
Place the hob, between the jaws, along its

diameter and obtain the main scale reading
and vernier scale reading.
iv)
Now place the hob perpendicular to its

previous diameter between the jaws and again
determine the diameter according to above
(iii).
v)
Find diameter of the hob at three different

places according to (iii) & (iv) and calculate
the mean of all the above diameters.
vi)
Zero error (with sign) is subtracted from

average diameter. It gives the value of correct
diameter. Divide the value by 2 to get the
radius of the bob.
2.
To find effective length of simple pendulum.
In simple harmonic motion, we know that
Time period T =2
=2
displacement
acceleration
l
g
...... (v)
Therefore, knowing l and T, g can be calculated.

EXPERIMENT 6
Aim : To determine value of g, using simple
pendiulum.
Apparatus required : A heavy metallic bob with a
hook, thread, stop clock, clamp stand, metre scale,
vernier callipers, a crok cut from the middle to hold
the thread tightly, piece of chalk etc.
Theory : If a simple pendulum is displaced from its
mean position and then released as in (fig. 2.3) then
a restoring force acts on it. This force is directly
proportional to displacement. Therefore, simple
pendulum starts executing S.H.M. Time period of
S.H.M. depends on the value of g at that place and
affective length of simple pendulum. If a simple
pendulum has time period T, effective length l and
acceleration due to gravity at that place is g then
T = 2 l / g
and
g = 4 2l / T 2
..... (vi)
Since g is constant at a given place, l/T2 is also

constant for the given pendulum at that place.
Therefore, graph between l and T2 will be a straight
line, from the slope of the curve, average value of
l/T2 can be calculated and then
Length of thread from point of suspension to

hook and length of hook is found by the metre scale.
Radius of the bob is added to sum of these two
lengths.
Effective length l = length of string from point
of suspension + length of hook+radius of bob.
3.
Arrangement of simple pendulum
i)
Take a strong thread about 2 metre long and

tie its one end to the hook of the bob. With
metre scale mark 80 cm, 100cm, 120cm, 140cm
and 160cm on the thread with ink. Tightly fix
41
the other end of thread between two pieces of

the cork. Take care that neither the bob nor
the thread touches the ground or the table as
shown in fig 2.4. Actual length of the thread
will depend on heights of clamp stand and
table.
ii)
iii)
4.
i.
Now displace the bob about 10cm from its

mean position 0 to one side and leave it gently,
such that the bob moves in a straight line,
Bob should neither move up nor down. It
should not vibrate sideways. Keep in mind
that if bob is displaced by 20cm on one side,
then
The length of string is adjusted so that the 80

cm mark just touches the lower surface of the
cork. Now the point of suspension lies at this
surface. It is clear that length of thread from
point of suspension to hook is 80cm.
sin =
10 1
= = 0.125
80 8
and = sin1 0.125 = 7.180
Make a mark on the floor directly under the

bob in its rest position and draw with chalk
two perpendicular lines, one line is in the
direction of motion of bob.
= 0.125 radion
Therefore, the condition sin is satisfied.
If length of thread is further increased then
To find time period
1. For Radius of Bob

S.No.
Main scale
reading cm. (a)
Coincident vernier
division n
Vernier scale reading

= nxL.C. = (b) cm
Diameter of bob
= (a + b) cm
Average diameter (d) = .. cm

Correct diameter=Average diameter Zero error (with dign)
Correct radius r =
Correct diameter
= . Cm
2
2. For effective length (l) and Time period (T)

Least count of stop clock = second
Length of hook (l1) = .. cm.
42
S.
No.
Length of
Thread cm
(l2)
Effective length
of smiple pendulum
l = l1+l2+r (cm)
Time for 20 vibs

(t in second)
1
2
3
mean t
Time
period
T=t/20
(second)
T2
(second)2
l/T2
(cm s2)
k = mean value of l/T2 = ......... cm s2

Calculations :
By average value of k = l/T2
2
g = 4
l
T2
= 39.4.478 k
= ............... cm s2 = ................ m s2
iii.
Now, the experiment is repeated with 100cm,

120cm, 140cm, length of the thread. The
observations are recorded as follows :
Zero error (cO)= .. cm

Least count of metre scale = . cm.
Graphical Method :
A graph is plotted between T2 on Y-axis and
l on X-axis. Choose the scales for the axes in such
a way that whole graph paper is utilized. In present
case, a straight line graph is obtained as shown in fig.
2.5. Take any point A on the straight line and draw
a line AB paralled to the X-axis and AC parallel to
Y-axis. OC measures l & OB measures T2. Finding the
slope of straight line, value of g can be calculated
from :
X
When the bob starts vibrating properly, then

as it passes through position 0, stop clock is
started and the no. of vibrations are counted,
Bob starts from mean position, moves to one
extreme position, goes to the other extreme
position and again comes back to mean
position. Thus 1 vibration is completed, as
explained in fig. 2.2(b). After 20 vibrations
stop clock is stopped and time is noted down.
Similarly find time for 20 vibrations each for
atleast two more times and find mean of all
these times. Time is calculated with greater
accuracy because in formula for g, term T 2 is
involved. Higher the power of a quantity, more
accurately that quantity has to be measured.
g=
4 2
T2
ii.
Total No. of divisions on the vernier scale (n) =..

Vernier constant (C)=S/n.cm.
this condition is obeyed even better.
Observations
1. For the radius of bob
Value of 1 division of main scale of vernier callipers
(S) = .. cm
A
T2
O
C
l
Fig. 2.5
43
Result
that sin
value of g at (Place)
go= . Cm s
vii.
Bob should be small and heavy so that it is

nearest to a point mass.
viii.
While changing the length of thead, clamp

stand should be adjusted so that bob is more
or less at same height from the ground. It will
help to ascertain the instant at which hob
passes through mean position accurately.
ix.
Lower surface of both the cork pieces should

be exactly perpendicular to the plane of
vibrations.
= .m s2
Standard value of g at the place, gs = .... Ms s2
% error =
( g o gs )
x 100
gs
Maximum permissible error
2 T
g
l
x 100 =
+
x 100
g
T
l
()
max
Sources of error
....... (viii)
Here l = Least count of the l-axis in the graph
i.
No support is perfectly rigid. Therefore, while

oscillating it yields a little. Due to this the
actual effective length changes slightly.
ii.
Some personal error may creep in while

stopping or starting the stop clock, personal
error causes inaccuracy. Stop clock should be
started as an when bob has completed 20
vibrations.
iii.
As it is not possible to have a perfectly

inelastic thread therefore value of effective
length changes slightly with time and while
the bob oscillates.
iv.
While deriving formula for determination of

g, it is assumed that the medium offers
absolutely no resistance, but hob vibrates in
air, hence its friction cannot be taken as zero.
Due to this a higher value of time period than
actual is obtained.
T = Least count of T-axis in the graph

go= Experimental value of g.
l = Effective length from graph (corresponding to C,
fig.)
T = Time period from graph (corresponding to B,
fig.)
Precautions
i.
There should be no kinks in the thread and it

should be light and strong.
ii.
There should be no strong wind present at the

place of performing the experiment. Any over
head fan should be switched off.
iii.
There should be no rotational or side ways

motion associated with the bob. During
vibrations clamp stand should not move. It
should be tightly clamped to the table with a
G-clamp.
Discussion
iv.
Length of thread should not be less than 80

cm, otherwise its time period will be too less
and there will be large errors involved in its
measurement.
v.
While oscillating neither the thread nor the

bob should touch the table or any other
surface. The vibrations should be completely
free.
While establishing the formula for simple

pendulum, it was assumed that motion of its bob is
straight line motion, but in reality it is circular motion.
Friction due to air also has an effect on vibrations
whereas in formula friction due to medium is
completely neglected. Otherwise also simple
pendulum is only a nearest approach to an ideal one.
It is clear from the above reasons that with simple
pendulum, a truly accurate value of g cannot be
determined.
vi.
On either side of mean position, bob should

not be at the distance greater than 20cm so
that its path can be treated as straight line
path. It will also help in obeying the condition
In graphical method a graph between l and T2

is plotted. Radius of bob is about 1.5cm. whereas
length of thread is greater than 80cm. Therefore, in
determination of effective length, radius of bob can
44
be neglected or the radius may be determined only

up to one place of decimal with a vernier callipers.
In the formula for g, both l and T are present, but the
power of T being 2, any error in measurement of time
is multiplied by 2, as is clear from eq. (viii).
stop after some time.

23.
Does the amplitude affect the value of time

period of the simple pendulum?
24.
Define time period and state its units.
Therefore, T should be measured with greatest

accuracy and time for 20 vibrations should be
measured.
25.
What is frequency? What is its relation with

time period?
26.
Define effective length of simple pendulum?
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
27.
Can we suspend a piece of stone instead of

the bob to form a simple pendulum?
28.
Can we take a wooden sphere instead of a

metallic bob?
29.
Can a bob of iron be taken for this experiment?
30.
If we take a hollow metallic bob instead of a

solid one, will if affect the result?
31.
How will the time period be affected when the

simple pendulum is taken to (i) moon (ii)
artificial satellite?
32.
What is the effective length of a seconds

pendulum?
33.
Mention any two precautions for this

experiment.
34.
Why is the amplitude of the oscillations kept

small?
35.
Can we use a wire instead of a thread?
36.
Where from the oscillations should be counted?

From mean position or from extreme position?
37.
If the effective length of a pendulum is

doubled, how will the time period and the
value g be affected?
1.
What is the aim of your experiment?
2.
What is acceleration due to gravity?
3.
State S.I. units & dimensions of g?
4.
How does g vary above the surface of earth?
5.
What is the value of g at the centre of the

earth?
6.
At centre of earth value of g is zero, explain

it qualitatively?
7.
On what factors does time period of a simple

pendulum depend?
8.
What is standard value of g?
9.
What is value of g at poles?
10.
What is value of g at the equator?
11.
What is value of G?
12.
What is relation between g and G?
13.
What is seconds pendulum?
14.
What are sequirements of a simple pendulum?
15.
Why is a spherical bob taken?
16.
What is difference between gravity and

gravitation?
38.
What is the relation between the weight of an

object and the acceleration due to gravity?
What is the use of simple pendulum in daily

life?
39.
What kind of motion is the motion of simple

pendulum?
Why pendulum watches becomes low in

summer and fast in winter?
40.
If a tunnel is dug across the earth passing

through its centre and a ball be dropped into
it, will the ball come out from the other end?
41.
Where from does a bob get energy for

vibrations?
42.
At present y our pendulum is executing

vibrations. If all of a sudden the earth stops
rotating on its axis, what will happen?
17.
18.
19.
State one main characteristics of SHM.
20.
What do you mean by amplitude?
21.
If the bob of a simple pendulum is displaced

from its mean position and then released, it
starts oscillating. Why?
22.
Why do the oscillations of a simple pendulum
45
ANSWERS
earth is called gravity.
1.
Sir, the aim of my experiment is to find the

value of g in the laboratory.
17.
Weight of an object = Mass x acceleration due

to gravity or W-mg.
2.
The increase in velocity per second of a freely

falling object due to earths gravitational force
of eattraction is known as acceleration due to
gravity.
18.
Motion of simple pendulum is simple

harmonic.
19.
In S.H.M., acceleration is directly proportional

to displacement.
20.
The maximum displacement of a particle on

either side of its mean position is known as its
amplitude.
21.
The bob when disblaced acquires potential

energy at the exteme position due to which it
comes back to mean position where whole of
its P.E. converts into kinetic energy due to
which it overshosts the mean position and
reaches the other extreme position where its
K.E. is converted into P.E. and thus the bob of
the simple pendulum keeps on oscillaling.
22.
While oscillating, due to air a force of friction

acts on the bobbin a direction opposite to that
of motion. It reduces energy of pendulum and
its amplitude decreases. In the end amplitude
becomes zero and pendulum stops.
3.
The S.I. unit of g is ms2 and its diamensions

or [m0LT 2]
4.
Value of g decreases on moving up from the

surface of earth.
5.
Zero
6.
On an object placed at the centre of earth, due

to gravity of earth, equal forces of gravitation
act from all sides. Therefore, net force of
gravity becomes zero and acceleration due to
gravity also becomes zero.
7.
T depends on i) effective length ii)

acceleration due to gravity.
8.
Standard value of g is 9.81 ms 2 at sea level

at 45 latitude.
9.
Value of g at poles is 983.22cms 2
10.
Value of g at equator is 987.03cms 2
23.
No., amplitude has no relation with time period.
11.
G is symbol for universal constant of

gravitation. Its value is 6.6710 11 Newton
metre2kg2
24.
No, because it is difficult to find its centre of

gravity and therefore its effective length can
not be found accurately.
12.
g = GM/R2, M=Mass of earth, R=Radius of

earth.
25.
No, because wooden sphere is light and

therefore effect of air friction will be more and
its motion will be no longer simple harmonic.
13.
A seconds pendulum has a time period of 2

seconds.
26.
No, because motion of iron bob will be affected

by magnetism of earth and it will not be S.H.M.
14.
Weightless, thin, inextensible and flexible

string, rigid support, a heavy point mass.
27.
15.
There are two uses of taking a spherical bob.
Yes, a hollow bob can be taken in place of

solid bob because both have C.G. at the centre
and it is easy to find effective length.
(i)
Its centre of gravity is at its centre and can be

easily determined and effective length of
simple pendulum can be easily and accurately
found.
(i)
Time period will increase on moon, as value

of g on moon is 1/6 of that on earth.
(ii)
In artifical satellite, g = 0, time period T =

and simple pendulum will not oscillate.
(ii)
For a given volume, a sphere has least surface

area, hence effect of friction of air is less.
28.
16.
Force of attraction between any two masses is

known as gravitational force of attraction while
the force of attrraction between any mass and
Length of seconds pendulum depends on g,

which is different at different places. It is about
1 metre (99.4cm) on surface of earth.
29.
No, because a wire is not weightless and it is
46
elastic. Its length may increase appreciably as

the bob oscillates.
30.
From mean position, because at mean position

velocity of bob is maximum, therefore error in
the measurement of time period is less. Due to
high velocity time to cross mean position is
minimum.
31.
Time period will become 2 times but value

of g will remain same.
32.
A pendulum watch works on the principle of

pendulum.
33.
In summer, increases and in winter decreases.
Therefore T increases in summer and hence

watch becomes slow, in winter T decreases
and hence watch becomes fast.
41.
No, it will start executing simple harmonic

oscillations about its mean position which is
the centre of earth.
42.
The energy is obtained from the work done to

displace the bob from its mean position against
the restoring force mg sinq.
43.
If earth stops rotating the value of g will

increase and time period will decrease and
pendulum will start moving faster.
47
ELASTICITY
Introduction- In this chapter we will describe an
experiment to determine Youngs modulus of material
of a given wire. Youngs modulus of a given material
is a measure of its elasticity so you should know
about the general property of matter called elasticity.
Also you should have knowledge of Searles apparatus.
We now describe them briefly here.
body which opposes this change and tries to

bring the object back to its original state. This
force is known as resorting force. In equilibrium
resorting force is equal and opposite to external
deforming force.
Restoring force acting on unit area of the body
is known as stress.
Background knowledge regarding elasticity :

i)
ii)
Deformation : If an external force acts on an

object, its length volume and shape may
change. This force is called deforming force,
and the change is called deformation.
Elastic bodies : The most elastic substance is

quartz but rubber, iron, steel, glass etc. are
also elastic substances.
iv)
Plastic bodies : Those substance which do

not tend to regain their original shape and
size when deforming forces are removed are
known as plastic substances. When a force is
applied to them, a permanent deformation is
produced for example wax, plasticine, wet mud,
soap, lead etc. are plastic substances.
vi)
Elastic limit : it is the maximum value of

deforming force upto which a body exhibits
property of elasticity and beyond which the
body loses property of elasticity.
Strain : it is the change in dimension (length
or volume) of a body per unit original
dimension of the object.
Stain=
vii)
viii)
Elasticity : it is the property by virtue of

which a body tends to come back to its original
shape and size when deforming force is
removed. Due to elasticity a body opposes all
kinds of changes when the deforming force is
applied.
iii)
v)
If an external force F acts on the body and A

is the area on which it acts then stress= F/A
S.I. unit of stress= Newton/meter2 or pascal
and its dimensional formula is (ML1T2).
Hookes law regarding elasticity : Within
elastic limit stress is directly proportional to
strain. This statement is called the Hookes
law.
Stress
= a cons tan t = E
Strain
Where E is called the modulus of elasticity of

the substance. Its value depends on the
material of the body. Unit of modulus of
elasticity is Nm2 or pascal (Pa). Its dimentional
formula is ML1T2.
The Modulus of elasticity is also called coefficient of elasticity.
ix)
Types of modulus of elasticity : Due to

different kinds of strain produced in a body,
there are three kinds of modulus of elasticity
(a) Youngs modulus (b) Bulk modulus and (c)
Modulus of Rigidity.
x)
Youngs Modulus : Within elastic limit, ratio

of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain of
a body is known as Youngs modulus of the
Change in dimension (length or volume)

Orignal dimension (length or volume)
Stress : When an external force acts on a

body, there is a change in length, volume or
shape of the body. But due to elasticity an
internal force of reaction is produced in the
Extension produced in the wire due to load.
48
material of the body. It is denoted by Y.

Suppose length of wire is L and its cross
sectional area is A. If radius of wire is r then
its cross sectional area A=r2. Now if mass M
is suspended from the wire such that length of
the wire increases to L+l where L is the original
length and l is the increase in length of the
wire.
Load applied = Mg = F
will be equally affected. Both the frames are joined

with a strip C and a spirit level L is placed between
them in such a way that one end of spirit level is
fixed on F 1 and the other end is placed on the tip of
the micrometer screw gauge. By moving screw M,
this end can be lifted up, on lower end of screw M
is a calibrated circular scale. Also on frame F2 is
attached a main scale. With the frame F 1 is attached
a permanent weight and with frame F2 is attached a
hanger H on which desired weights can be placed.
Increase in length = l
Longitudinal stress = F/A = Mg/r2
Longitudinal strain =
Increase in length
Original Length
l
L
Young s modulus Y =
F / A Mg / r 2
=
l/L
l/L
MgL
r 2 L
Longitudinal stress
Longitadinal strain
If cross sectional area = A = r2=1 and l = L then

Y = Mg = F Y can be defined as follows.
Youngs modulus of a substance is numerically equal
to the force required to double the length of a wire
of the given substance having unit area of cross
section.
This definition is only theoretical and not practical,
because by loading a wire 100% increase in length
of wire is not possible. Generally a wire obeys Hookes
law only upto 1% increase in length. For any
substance Y is a constant. It does not depend on
length, thickness, etc. of the wire but it depends only
upon the material of the wire.
Searles Apparatus : In fig. 6-2 Searls apparatus is
shown. With the help of this apparatus, value of Y
can be determined. The apparatus consists of two
identical wires W1 & W2 suspended from a rigid
support. On lower ends of these wires, two
rect4angular metallic frames F1 and F2 are attached.
In frame F1 standard wire and in F2 experimental wire
is fixed. Standard wire is only for comparison. If
there is a change in temperature then both the wires
Searles Apparatus
EXPERIMENT 7
Aim: To determine Youngs modulus of elasticity of
the material of a given wire using Searles apparatus.
Apparatus Required : Slotted weights of
1
kg each,
2
screw gauge, metre scale etc.

Principle: Let the original length of wire be L and
radius of wire be r. Let a mass M be hung from one
end of the wire and let the increase in length be l.
Longitudinal Stress =
Force
Cross sec tional area
Mg
r 2
where g = acceleration due to gravity Longitudinal

strain = l/L
Youngs modulus Y =
Longitudinal stress
Longitudinal strain
Mg / r 2
l/L
49
or Y =
MgL
Then knowing M, L, r and l
r 2l
(vii)
by experiment, Y can be calculated

Procedure
Bring the bubble of spirit level in the centre

by adjusting the micrometer screw. Note down
main scale reading and circular scale reading.
(viii) Now go on increasing weights in steps pf
(i)
From the standard wire W1 hang a fixed weight

W such that the wire remains stretched.
(ii)
Suspend from the experimental wire W, 4 or 5

weights of
1
kg each and then remove them.
2
Each and every time bring the bubble in the

centre of spirit level and note down the
circular scale reading and main scale reading.
(ix)
After loading the wire upto 3 to 4 kg remove

the load from the wire in steps of
With this the elastic fatigue of the wire is

removed and no twist remains in the wire and
its extension becomes regular.
(iii)
Find length L of experimental wire W 1 with

the help of metre scale.
(iv)
Remove all weights from hanger H and adjust

micrometer screw gauge till the bubble of spirit
level is in the centre.
(v)
Find least count of micrometer screw.
(vi)
Now place a
1
kg wt. on hanger H of the
2
experimental wire W 2. This produces an

extension in the wire and the bubble of the
spirit level moves towards left of the centre.
In this way, two observations are obtained for

each weight a) While loading b) While
unloading.
(x)
These observations are written in a tabular

form and from the table average extension for
1.5 kg (suppose) load is calculated.
(xi)
Experimental wire is completely unloaded and

after allowing the wire to rest for some time,
total length of the wire with metre scale is
again noted down and mean of original length
of wire found as in step (iii)
Reading of Micromenter Screw
Average
reading
a + b
Reading
Reading of
Total Reading
Reading of
Total
2
of
circular sacle reading of Main circular sacle
reading
(cm.)
Main No. of (ii) x (i)+(iii)
scale
No. of (v) x (iv) +
scale divisions L.C.
= a
(cm.) divisions L.C. (vi) = b
(cm.)
(iv)
(ii)
(cm.) (cm.)
(v)
(cm.) (cm.)
(i)
(iii)
(vi)
While Loading
1
kg each
2
and every time bringing the bubble in the

centre of spirit level and note down main scale
reading and circular scale reading.
(A) For increase in Length

S. Weight
No.
M
(kg)
1
kg.
2
While Unloading
1.
0.5
(1)
2.
1.0
(2)
3.
1.5
(3)
4.
2.0
(4)
5.
2.5
(5)
6.
3.0
(6)
7.
3.5
(7)
8.
4.0
(8)
Increase
in
length
for
1.5 kg
l
(cm.)
(4)(1)
(5)(2)
(6)(3)
(7)(4)
(8)(5)
50
xii)
In the end, radius r of wire is found by screw

gauge. For this the radius of wire is measured
in at least 3 different places. These places
should be uniformly distributed over entire
length of the wire. At a given point radius of
wire should be measured in mutually
perpendicular directions.
Result : Youngs modulus of material of experimental

wire
= dyne/cm2
=..newton/metre2
Standard value = ..dyne/cm2 (From tables)
% error =
Observations:
(Observed value standard value) 100

Standard value
1.
Name of the material of wire..
2.
For observation of increase in length of wire

: (see table A):
No. of divisions on main scale =
Pitch of micrometer screw = .. cm
No. of divisions on circular disk = ..
Least count of micrometer screw = cm
3.
Length of experimental wire (L) = cm.
4.
Observations for radius of experimental wire

(see table B) :
MgL
r 2l
Permissible error :- In Formula Y =
Maximum permissible error is as follows
()
Y
L 2 r t
x 100% =
+
+
Y
L
r
t
x 100
Here L, r & t are least counts of metre

scale, screw gauge and micrometer screw respectively
and L, r & t are measured values.
Precautions:
(i)
Kinks should be removed from wire and 4-5
Pitch of screw gauge = . cm.

(B) for radius of wire
S.
No.
Main scale
reading x (cm)
1. (a)
(b)
In one direction
In perpendicular direction
No. of coinciding
circular scale
division n
Circular scale
reading
nxL.C, y (cm.)
Diameter
of wire
(x+y) (cm)
(a)
(b)
Mean diameter d = .............. cm.
No. of divisions on circular scale =
weight should be placed on and then removed

to remove elastic fatigue, so that there is
regular increase in length of the wire.
Least count of screw gauge = . Cm.

Zero error = + .. cm.
Corrected diameter D = Mean observed diameter
zero error (with sign) = cm.
(ii)
After loading or unloading reading of

micrometer screw should be taken after some
time so that any change in temperature during
expansion or contraction is neutralized.
(iii)
Load on wire should be within limit of

elasticity.
(iv)
Micrometer screws should always be rotated

in the same direction.
Corrected radius (r) = D/2 = ..cm.

Calculation :
Y = MgL/r2l
= .. dyne/cm 2
In this formula M= 1500 gram, g= 980 cm/sec2 And

value of l, L and r can be put from the table and
value of Y can be calculated.
51
(v)
Diameter of wire should be measured in 2

mutually perpendicular directions.
Viva-Voce Questions
1.
What is elasticity?
2.
What is aim of your experiment?
3.
What is stress? Is it an internal or external

force? If it is an internal force then how do
you measure it?
4.
What is strain? How many types does it have
5.
(viii) Both wires should be hung from same rigid

support so that if support yields both the wires
are affected equally.
What do you understand by co-efficient of

elasticity?
6.
State S.I. units and dimensions of modulus of

elasticity.
(ix)
7.
What is elastic limit?
8.
What is Hookes law?
9.
How do you define Yongs modulus of material

of a given wire? Is this definition practical?
(vi)
(vii)
To find extension, observations should be

taken in even numbers so that each reading is
utilized. If odd no. of readings are taken one
observation will not be utilized.
Experimental and standard wires should be
vertical and of same metal so that the change
in temperature affects both of them equally.
Length of wires should be about 3-4 metre so

that increase in length can be measured
accurately.
Sources of error :
(i)
Diameters of wire may not be same at all

places.
10.
Why are two wires taken in this experiment?

You are finding Y of which wire?
(ii)
Kinks in the wire may not be completely

removed.,
11.
Is it necessary that both the wires should be

of same material?
Discussion :
12.
Should both wires have same length?
The wire being long, its diameter may not be same

at all places and increase in length being very small,
some error may be present in its measurement.
Therefore value of increase in length l should be
plotted along Y-axis and the load should be plotted
along X axis A straight line should be drawn
according to the best fit.
13.
Why is a long wire taken?
14.
If a thick and short wire is taken then what

will happen to the value of Y?
15.
What is the effect of increase in temperature

on modulus of elasticity?
16.
Why is the twist in the wires removed?
17.
Why is observation for change in length taken

for increasing and decreasing Load?
18.
Out of steel and rubber, which is more elastic?
19.
Of which metal is spring made and why?
20.
What is the advantage of determining Y?
l
From the slope of the line Mg should be calculated,
this value can be put in the formula for Y.

y = MgL/
r 2l
ANSWERS
2.
Sir, aim of my experiment is to find Y of

material of given wire by Searles apparatus.
3.
Stress is an internal restoring force. In

equilibrium, it is equal to external deforming
Extension
Load M
Load Vs. extension graph
force acting on the wire. Therefore stress=

4.
Mg
r 2
Strain is of three kinds (1) Longitudinal strain
52
(2) Volume strain and (3) shearing strain.

10.
One of the wires is a standard wire and other

is experimental wire. To avoid error due to
yielding of support and temperature changes
both the wires are taken identical. Experimental
wire is W2 which has a micrometer screw and
main scale attached to it.
11.
Yes, so that both the wires are equally affected

by change of temperature, Because one end of
spirit level is connected to standard wire, their
error is automatically removed.
12.
Yes, length, material and radius etc. all should

be identical.
13.
14.
15.
A longer wire produces larger extension and

% error in the measurement of extension is
reduced.
Value of Y will remain same because it depends
only on nature of material of wire.
Generally for metals value of Y decreases with
increase of temperature. But for an alloy Invar

which is made from Nickel & steel effect of
temperature is negligible.
16.
Because if during experiment twist in the wire

is not removed then value of increase in length
will be different from the actual one and wrong
observations will be obtained.
17.
Observations for increasing and decreasing

load help us to check that load is within elastic
limit. If load is not within elastic limit,
increasing load will give larger extension and
decreasing load will produce less extension.
18.
Steel is more elastic because for a given load,

it produces less strain.
19.
Spring is made of steel because steel has large

Y, even for larger loads, less extension is
produced and spring remains strong.
20.
It helps us to know the load carrying capacity

of a material.
53
SOUND-RESONANCE
Introduction : In this chapter we will describe two
Wavelength It is the distance between the two
experiments.
nearest particles (in a medium) in the same phase of
i)
To find frequency of given tuning fork with

the help of sonometer.
ii)
To find velocity of sound by resonance tube.

Both these experiments are based on principle
vibration. It is denoted by
Phase: It is that physical quantity which tells us
about direction of motion and position of the
vibrating particle of medium at any instant of time.
of resonance of sound. Therefore you should
Frequency: Number of vibrations per second of an
know about sound, wave velocity, sonometer,
object is known as its frequency.
resonance column and resonant vibrations.
Time period: It is the time taken by a vibrating
Therefore at first we will describe them in
particle to complete one vibration.
brief and then describe experiments in detail.

Amplitude It is the maximum displacement suffered
Information related to sound and wave velocity :
by a vibrating particle on either sides of its mean
Sound It is a type of energy which affects the
position.
organs of hearing of all animals. Whenever a sound
Velocity of transverse waves in a stretched string
producing object produces vibrations then
Suppose a transverse wave is produced in a stretched
mechanical waves are produced in the material
string. If tension in the string is T and mass per unit
medium which carry sound energy from one place to
length of string is m then velocity of transverse wave
another. When these waves reach someones ears then

u=
sensation of sound is produced.

Wave Any disturbance produced in a medium which
without changing its shape moves with a definite
T
m
Let radius of wire be r & density of material of wire

be p then mass of unit length of wire m = r2. then
velocity is known as wave.

u=
1
T
=
r 2 r
But
T
Tension
= Stress, hence
=
2
Cross
Sectional Area
r
of wave about their mean position.
u=
Stress
Density
Transverse waves In these waves, particles of
Velocity of longitudinal waves in a medium
Types of waves Waves are of two kinds i)
Longitudinal ii) Transverse.

Longitudinal waves In these waves, particles of
medium vibrate along the direction of propagation
medium vibrate at right angles to direction of

propagation of wave about their mean position.
u=
54
Where E = Co-efficient of elasticity of medium and

= density of medium.
= density of gas.
Velocity of sound in air at temperature T O C
Velocity of longitudinal waves in a solid

V = Y
Vt = Vo (1 +
t
)
546
Where Y = Youngs modulus.
Where V o = Velocity of sound in air at O oc.
Velocity of longitudinal wave in air and gas
Vt = Velocity of sound in air at t oC
V=
Cp Sp. heat of gas at cons tan t pressure

=
Cv Sp. heat of gas at cons tan t volume
Velocity of sound increases by 61cm/sec for every oC

rise in temperature. There is no effect of pressure on
velocity of sound. But if humidity increases velocity
of sound also increases.
55
EXPERIMENT 8
Aim : To find velocity of sound in air at room
temperature.
Apparatus : Resonance tube apparatus tuning fork
of suitable frequency (256Hz) rubber pad, spirit level,
thermometer etc.
Description : It has about
one metre long glass tube P.
It is connected by rubber
tube T to reservoir C. Rubber
and glass tubes are filled
with water. By moving
reservoir up and down water
level Q in glass tube can be
changed. This changes the
length of air column PQ.
which can be read by vertical
scale S. Air column PQ
behaves as a closed end
organ pipe fig.
When a vibrating tuning fork
is placed at open end P, then
for a definite length of air
column PQ frequency of tuning fork is equal to
frequency of vibrations produced in air column. That
is why this tube is known as resonance tube.
Principle : The resonance tube behaves as closed
organ pipe, length of which can be increased or
decreased. When a vibrating tuning fork is kept near
the open end P and water level is at point Q then a
loud sound is heard, because when tuning fork sends
a wave of compression down it is reflected back as
rarefaction During this time tuning fork also
completes vibration and send down a rarefaction.
Both rarefactions interfere constructively and produce
loud sound.
Modes of Vibrations of air column
It is clear that during the time tuning fork

completes one vibration the sound wave travels
distance PQ four times.
Inside the tube due to incident & reflected
waves, stationary waves are produced. At the open
end P, always an antinode is formed and at the closed
end (as Q), always a node is formed. In case of first
resonance at open end, antinode is formed and at Q
node is formed slightly above the open end. If this
distance is e then to get actual value of l end
correction is applied.
Let length AB = l
Wave length =
end correction = e
for first resonance
/4 = l1 + e or = 4 (l1 + e)
............... (i)
because distance between node and nearest antinode

is /4.
Now second resonance is obtained at roughly thrice
the length of first resonance.
At second resonance
3
= l2 =e
4
From (ii) & (i)
or
.................... (ii)
3
= = l2 l1
4
4
= l2 l1
2
= 2 (l2 l1)
Positions of nodes and antinodes

in resonance tube
56
= ............ ms1
But V t = n = 2n (l2 l1)

Velocity at 0C is Vo = V t = 0.61t.
Vo = Vt 0.61t where V t is in ms1
= 2n (l2 l1) 0.61t
= 2n (12 11) 0.61t = ............ ms1
Here V o is in ms-1 and t is in C
Mean end correction =e= ........... cm = .......... metre.
To find end correction
Result : velocity of sound = .... ms 1 at room

temperature........ C.
From eq. (i) & (ii) end correction e can be

calculated as follows:
So velocity of sound in air at 0C = ..... ms1
From (i) & (ii).
% error = ...........%
l2 3l1 = 2e
End correction = ................. cm
According to Lord Rayleigh
Probable errors :
e = 0.6r where r is internal radius of the tube.
1.
Air may not be completely dry in the

resonance tube, hence result may have an error.
The velocity of sound in wet air is greater
than in dry air.
2.
While performing the experiment temperature

may change, which may charge Vt.
3.
It is not possible to know exactly the position

of resonance.
Method :
1.
Set the apparatus vertical with the help of

base screws and spirit level.
2.
Fill water in reservoir and raise it to such a

height that water level reaches surface of open
tube.
3.
4.
5.
Strike the tuning fork on rubber pad and bring

it near the open end of resonance tube Take
care to see that tuning fork does not touch the
tube when you hold it properly then a clear
sound will be heard.
If very low sound is heard then water level
should be slowly brought down till a clear
sound is obtained. Read the water level with
the help of metre scale. This is the position of
first resonance.
After this determine the position of second
resonance by lowering down water level 3
times the position of first resonance and as
before find the position of second resonance.
6.
Note down temperature of air in resonance

tube with the help of a good thermometer.
7.
Note down internal diameter of resonance tube

with the help of vernier callipers.
Observations : Frequency of tuning fork
Precautions :
1.
Experiment should be performed in calm and

quiet environment.
2.
Tuning fork should be struck on rubber pad

gently.
3.
Tuning fork should have less frequency so

that error is minimum.
4.
Position of resonance should be noted

tangential to the curved surface of water
meniscus.
Discussion :
In experiment of resonance tube, a sharp
resonance is not obtained, so it is difficult to
find the exact position of resonance, therefore,
velocity of sound cannot be found accurately.
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1.
What are you doing?
2.
What is the instrument known as ? why?
Temperature of air inside resonance tube ..... C
3.
What do you understand by resonance?
Calculation :
4.
In this experiment when does the resonance

take place?
= ........ Hz.
Vt
= 2n (l2 l1)
= ........... cms1
57
5.
What kind of waves are produced in the air

column?
6.
Can air column be considered an organ pipe

in this experiment?
column.
4.
When frequency of tuning fork is equal to

fundamental note or first hormonic.
5.
Stationary transverse waves.
6.
Air column acts as a closed organ pipe.
7.
In case of first resonance l1 = /4 and in case

of second resonance l2 = 3/4
7.
What are the lengths of air columns in first

and second resonance positions?
8.
What are nodes & antinodes?
9.
Can any other liquid be taken in place of

water?
9.
Yes, any liquid can be used but it should not

be volatile.
10.
In a given medium on what factors does

velocity of sound depend ?
10.
Velocity of sound depends on density &

elasticity of medium.
11.
What is effect of pressure on velocity of sound?
11.
12.
What is effect of temperature on velocity of

sound?
Pressure of air has no effect on velocity of

sound.
12.
Velocity of sound increases by 0.61ms 1 for

1C.
13.
Increase of humidity produces an increase of

velocity.
14.
Humid air has less density and velocity of

sound is inversely proportional to density
therefore velocity of sound increases due to
humidity.
15.
Tuning fork should be of low frequency (about

256 Hz) because then a larger length of
resonance is required. Therefore percentage
error in measurement will be less.
13.
What is effect of humidity on velocity of

sound?
14.
Why does velocity of sound increase due to

humidity?
15.
In this experiment should you take a low

frequency or high frequency tuning fork?
ANSWER
1.
Sir, I am finding velocity of sound in air with

the help of resonana tube.
2.
It is known as resonance tube, because this

experiment is based on resonance in air
58
EXPERIMENT 9
Aim : To find frequency of given tuning fork with
the help of a sonometer.
Apparatus Sonometer, tuning fork, rubber pad
weights, rider, screw gauge, etc.
Description of apparatus : It has a hollow wooden
box B which is known as sound box or resonance
box. Its length is about 1 metre. On its ends are
placed two wooden wedges C and D. They are known
at both ends of the string nodes are formed and in

between them an antinode is formed. String is fixed
on bridges, therefore nodes are formed on bridges
because practicles of string at bridges cannot vibrate.
when the string vibrates in one segment, the vibrations
of the string are known as fundamental vibrations.
Note produced from such virbations is called
fundamental note. Distance between two succesive
nodes is equal to /2 Let the length of string between
the bridges be l then l = /2 or = 2l
Fundamental mode of vibration

as bridges. One of them (D) is kept fixed and the
other (C) is moved. Therefore C is known as the
movable bridge. Near the fixed bridge a wire is
attached to a peg P and the other end of the wire
passes over the bridge and reaches the other end of
box and then passes over a frictionless pulley Q. On
other end of the wire a hanger H is attached on which
weights can be placed.
By moving the bridge C length of the vibrating
string can be changed. A metre scale is also fixed on
the box. With the help of metre scale length of
vibrating wire can be measured. On sound box some
holes are made which maintain a contact between the
air inside the box and external atmosphere, Advantage
of sound box is that when wire is set into transverse
vibrations then air is set into forced vibrations. When
resonance is produced, a loud sound is heard.
but velocity V = frequency x wavelength = n

V = 2nl or 2nl =
1
T
or n =
2l
m
1
But T = Mg n = 2l
T
m
Mg
r 2
..... (ii)
where m = r2
Here Mg is the weigth suspended from the hanger r=
radius of string and = density of string.
Knowing M, l and r from experiment frequency of
fundamental note of vibration of transverse waves in
the string can be calculated.
See fig 7.1 & sec 7.3
When wire between the two bridges is plucked and

then left to vibrate, transverse vibrations are produced
Principle When a wire stretched between two
in the string whose velocity is V =
bridges of sonometer is plucked in the middle and
T / m ..... (i)
where T = Tension in the string, m = Mass per unit

length of the string.
Transverse vibrations in the string get reflected at its
fixed ends and produce stationary waves. Therefore
left, almost free vibrations are produced in it. These

vibrations have frequency.
n=
1
2l
T
m
.........(i)
59
Here l is the length of the wire between the two
mobile bridge, such that frequency of
bridges. Tension in wire is T and m is mass of unit
vibrations of wire is same as that of tuning
length of wire. If mass of weights placed on hanger
fork. In this position resonance is produced
is M and radius of sonometer wire is r and its density
and amplitude of vibrations becomes
is then
maximum.
T = Mg, m = r2
where g = acceleration
4.
To find the position of resonance exactly a

rider is placed at the central point of the
due to gravity.
bridges (rider is a small piece of paper). Now

According to formula (i)
n=
1
2l
Mg
1
=
m
2l
mobile bridge is adjusted so that when
Mg
vibrating tuning fork is placed on the box
r 2
then rider falls down immediately. Reason for

falls down immediately. Reason for fall of rider
When vibrating tuning fork is placed on the
is that wire vibrates with maximum amplitude
sonometer box then forced vibrations are produced
& an antinode is formed at the centre. With
in the wire. If length of sonometer wire between the
the help of sonometer scale find length
bridges is adjusted so that frequency of free vibrations
between the two bridges and note down
of string and frequency of tuning fork becomes same
weights, placed in the hanger.
then resonance takes place and amplitude of

vibrations becomes maximum. In this condition
5.
Now repeat the experiment with different
frequency of vibrations of string is equal to frequency
increasing weights. Similarly repeat the
of tuning fork.
experiment with different decreasing loads.
METHOD
6.
Find radius of sonometer wire at three different

places with the help of a screw-gauge. At each
1.
At first hang a weight of about 2 kg from the
place the radius should be measured in two
hanger. Now remove it and hang a weight of
mutually perpendicular directions.
about 0.5 kg.

2.
Density of material of wire is determined by
Strike tuning fork gently on rubber pad so
some other small experiment or from standard
that its arms start vibrating tuning fork on box
table.
near the stretched string. Wire starts vibrating.

3.
7.
Adjust length of the wire by moving the
8.
Write down all observations in the observation

table.
60
Observations
3
Load increasing
S.
No.
Mass of
weights +
hanger
M
(gram)
Position
of I
bridge
cm
(a)
Position
of II
bridge
cm
(b)
(from table)
Load decreasing
Length of
vibrating
wire l1
(ab)
(cm)
Position
of I
bridge
a (cm)
Position
of II
bridge
b (cm)
Length of
vibrating
wire l 2
(ab)
(cm)
Average
Length of
vibrating
wire =
M
l
l1 + l 2
2
(cm)
For radius wire

Pitch of screw-gauge = . Cm.
Mean
M
= .......
l
Total no. of division on circular scale n = .

Least count =
Pitch
= ................. cm.
n
Zero error = cm
Mean observed diameter = .. cm.
Correct diameter D= Observed diameter zero error (with sign) = ..cm.
Radius of wire r = D/2 = cm.
S.
No.
Main scale reading

in cm (a)
Calculation
n=
1
2l
Circular scale reading

No. of Divs. on
circular scale
(n1)
Mg
1
=
m
2l
Mg
Standard frequency of tuning fork. = Hz.
r 2
Frequency of tuning fork = . Hz

In this formula value of
n1 xleast count
(cm) (b)
M
is obtained from
l
Total reading
= observed diameter
= a + b
(cm)
% error =
(observed value s tan dard value )

100
s tan dard value
Note : On every tuning fork standard value of

frequency is written.
observation table.
Precautions :
Result: Frequency of given tuning fork.

Hz
(i)
Weights should be placed in the hanger within

elastic limit so that wire does not get a
61
permanent deformation.
(ii)
Sonometer wire should be of uniform

thickness.
(iii)
Strike the tuning fork gently on the tuber pad

to make it vibrate.
(iv)
Pulley should be frictionless. Some oiling

should be done to make it frictionless.
(v)
Rider should be light.
Source of error
(1)
Formula of frequency of sonometer wire is

true only for a perfectly elastic wire. But
experimental wire is not perfectly elastic.
Therefore some error will always be there.
1
l
12.
What kindof graph is obtained between n & ?
13.
What is resonance?
14.
What is a harmonic?
15.
What kind of vibrations are produced in a

turning fork.
16.
Can you have a tuning fork of one arm?
17.
What are dimensions and unit of frequency?
18.
Why is it called a sonometer?
Answers
1.
This instrument is used in measurements

related to sound.
2.
It means tuning fork makes 250 vibrations per

second or its frequency is 250 Hz.
3.
Vibrations are transverse and stationary.
4.
In fundamental mode, nodes are produced at

the bridges and antinode is in the middle
between them.
5.
Two fold.
6.
With this distance between bridges can be

measure accurately.
Put this value in the formula to get more correct

value of frequency.
7.
Because these are relative frequencies of notes

of diatonic scale of music.
Viva-Voce Questions
8.
No, because elasticity of rubber is less than

that of iron.
9.
Because air reaches the box from the holes

and the air inside the box remains in contact
with atmosphere and resonance is very sharp
and loud.
10.
When a vibrating tuning fork is placed on

vibrating box then its vibrations produce
forced vibrations in air.
11.
When frequency of tuning fork becomes equal

to the frequency of air column then resonance
is produced.
12.
Straight line
14.
the notes whose frequencies are multiples of

fundamental note.
(2)
Some friction is always present on the pulley.

Therefore tension in the wire is always less
than the suspended weights. Therefore result
will be inaccurate.
Discussion
For more accurate result plot M on X-axis and l on
Y-axis. A Straight line graph will be obtained. Find
M
from the slope of this line.
l
1.
What is a sonometer?
2.
On a tuning fork, 256 is written, what does it

mean?
3.
What kind of vibrations are produced in the

wire of sonometer?
4.
Where are nodes and antinodes produced in

the sonometer wire?
5.
What will be length of wire, if tension is made

4 times its initial value?
6.
Why are the edges of the bridges made sharp?
7.
Why tuning forks have frequency 256, 288,

320. 512 only?
8.
Can a rubber wire be used in this experiment?
9.
Why holes are present in the sound box of the

sonometer?
15.
Transverse.
16.
No.
10.
How does air produce reasonance?
17.
11.
When does rider fall? What is the use of this

experiment?
Dimensions are ML. T1 and S.I. u nit is Hz

and C.G.S. unit is no. of vibrations per second.
18.
With its help frequency of note of a tuning

fork can be determined.
62
CALORIMETRY AND COOLING

1 Introduction : In this chapter, we will discuss the
experiments on specific heat of solids and latent heat
of melting. These experiments are related to
calorimetry. After that we will also discuss the method
to obtain cooling curve by experiment. Therefore,
first of all we will discuss in brief physical principles
related to calorimetry and cooling.
2 Calorimetry :
(i)
Specific Heat capacity : When an object is

heated its temperature rises. From experiment
it is seen that amount of heat given to an
object is directly proportional to mass of
object & rise of temperature. If temperature of
m gram of a body is raised by then amount
of heat required = Q where Q m, Q
or Q = cm ........ (i) where c is a proportionality

constant which is known as specific heat capacity.
Magnitude of specific heat capacity depends on
nature of object. If m = 1 & = 1K then according
to eq (i) c = Q.
Hence specific heat capacity of an object is
numerically equal to the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of substance through
1K or (1C).
If mass of an object = m and specific heat capacity
= c then to increase its temperature by the amount
of heat required = Q where Q = mc
c = Q/m
Units & dimension of specific heat

capacity : From definition,
Specific heat capacity =
joule
Unit of specific heat capacity = kg kelvin

S.I. unit of specific heat capacity
= jule kg1 kelvin1
Value of specific heat capacity of water
Heat : Heat is a form of energy, S.I. Unit of

which is joule, C.G.S. unit of heat is calorie.
1 calorie is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
through 1C (from 14.5C to 15.5C).
Calorie is a very small unit of heat therefore in practice 1 kilocalorie is used, 1
kilocalorie = 4186 joule = 4200J (approx) 1
Calorie = 4.2 J.
(ii)
In S.I. units, heat is measured in joule, mass in kg and

temperature in kelvin.
Heat
Mass temperature
= 4200 Jkg1K1
Earlier the name of specific heat capacity was
specific heat only.
Dimension of specific heat capacity
( Heat )
( mass ) ( Temperature )
( ML2T 2 )
= ( L2T 2 1 )
( M )
(iii) Thermal capacity or Heat capacity is amount

of heat required to raise the temperature of given
object through 1K or 1C.
If mass of object is m and specific heat capacity is
c then amount of heat required to raise its temp. by
1C is equal to
thermal capacity = m c 1 = mc
S.I. unit of mass is kilogram & S.I.
Unit of specific heat is joule kg k1
S.I. unit of thermal capacity
= kg x J kg1 K 1 = JK1 = joule kelvin1
According to definition dimensions of heat
capacity (Thermal capacity)
Heat
= mass Sp. heat

ML2T 2
= L2T 2 1
M
Here it should be noted that amount of heat

required to raise the temp. of given object by 1K or
63
1C is known as heat capacity or thermal capacity

whereas amount of heat required to raise the temp, of
1 gram of that substance through 1C is known as
used for measuring temperature, calorimeter is an

instrument used for measuring heat energy. This
instrument does not measure heat energy directly but
it has to be calculated by the principle of calorimetry.
specific heat capacity. Therefore S.I. unit of heat

capacity is joule/kelvin & that of specific heat
capacity is joule/kg/kelvin.
iv) Water equivalent
of a body is that amount of
water which requires same amount of heat as the

given body to raise its temperature by 1K or 1C.
Suppose specific heat = c for an object of mass m,
therefore, amount of heat required to raise its temp.
Calorimeter
by 1 K or 1C is
Q = m x c x 1 = mc joule
If Q joules of heat increases the temperature of W kg
of water through 1C then
Q= Wc 1 1 = Wc 1 joule
Where c1 is specific heat of water
or Q = Wc 1 = mc
Water equivalent = mc/c 1
In S.I. c = 4200J/kg/K.
In S.I. water equivalent
mc ( joule kg 1 k 1 ) kg
W=
4200 ( joule kg 1 k 1 )
= 0.24 10
mc kg (approximately).
In C.G.S.c = 1 therefore in C.G.S.W. = me gram.
Construction : It is a cylindrical vessel

generally made of Copper. This vessel is kept in a
wooden box, space between wooden box and vessel
is filled with some insulating material like cotton
wool etc. (fig 8.1) Insulator prevents loss or gain of
heat. Heat losses due to conduction are avoided by
insulator. Wooden box has a wooden lid which
minimizes heat losses due to convection. Outer surface
of calorimeter is highly polished to reduce heat losses
due to radiation. To measure temperature of liquid
filled in calorimeter, a thermometer is used. Stirrer
helps to maintain same temperature throughout the
liquid. Calorimeter can be made from any good
conductor of heat.
EXPERIMENT
Aim : To find specific heat of a given solid by
calorimeter.
Apparatus : Regnaults apparatus, calorimeter, thread,
thermometer, physical balance etc.
v) Principle of calorimerty : If two bodies at different

temperatures are bought in thermal contact with each
other then heat starts flowing from higher temperature
to lower temperature. Flow of heat continues till hot
object loses heat and cold object gains heat.
Principle : When a hot solid is dropped into cold

water, then hot solid loses heat & cold water gains
heat. If there are no heat losses by the process of
radiation etc. then.
If there is no loss of heat, then from the law of

conservation of energy.
This equation can be used to find specific heat of

unknown solid.
heat lost = heat gained.
Method :
This is the basic principle of calorimetry used in all

calorimetric measurements.
First of all mass of experimental solid is determined

with the help of a physical balance. Experimental
solid should be insoluble & heavier than water, it
vi) Calorimeter - Just as thermometer is an instrument
Heat lost by solid = heat gained by water etc.
64
should also not react with water. Now it is suspended

in steam chamber by means of a thread (fig.) While
solid is getting heated, a calorimeter along with stirrer
is dried & weighed. It is filled with water. The quantity
of water is taken in such a way that the solid gets
During experiment, temp. of experimental solid falls

by (2 ) K whereas temperature of calorimeter,
stirrer and water increases by ( 1)K now heat lost
by solid = m1 c (2 ) joule
Heat gained by water = x c 2 ( - 1) joule
Heat gained by calorimeter & stirrer
= m2 c1 ( - 1) J
Total gain in heat energy
= (x c 2 + m2c1) ( 1) J
from principle of calorimetry
Heat gained = heat lost
m1 c (2 ) = (x c 2 + m2c1) ( 1)
Steam Boiler
fully immersed in water, calorimeter is again weighed
with water. Mass of water is found by taking difference
of above two weighings. Initially temperature of water
is determined by a sensitive thermometer th 2.
Solid is heated in steam chamber to a steady state. Its
temp. is noted down when it becomes constant. Now
the screen B is raised & calorimeter is brought under
steam chamber fig. Now lid of calorimeter is removed
and hot solid is slowly dropped in it and lid is
closed. Calorimeter is shifted to its original place
and mixture of hot solid and water is properly stirred.
After this the final temp. of mixture is noted down.
or c =
From this equation knowing m 1, 1, 2, x and c2 we

can calculate the value of c.
Result : Specific heat of material of given solid =
........ joule/kg/K.
Precautions :
1.
Sufficient amount of water should be taken in

calorimeter, so that solid is completely
immersed in it. Also solid should be dropped
slowly in it.
2.
Thermometer should be sensitive otherwise

error in result will be large.
3.
Inspite of taking many precautions, some heat

is lost by radiation. Therefore it is essential to
apply radiation correction.
Observations & Calculations :

Suppose that
Mass of solid = m1 kg.
Mass of calorimeter & stirrer = m2 kg.
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer & water = m 3 kg.
Mass of water = (m3 m2) = x kg (say)
( x c2 + m 2 c1 ) ( 1 )
m1 ( 2 )
Discussion : Heat loss by radiation cannot be fully

prevented and nor can it be fully corrected. Therefore
very accurate results cannot be obtained.
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Initial temp. of water = 1C = (273 + 1) K

Temp. of hot solid = 2C = (273 + 2) K
1.
What is the aim of your experiment?
Final temp. = C= (273 + ) K
2.
Describe the construction of a calorimeter?
Specific heat of calorimeter and stirrer = c1 joule/kg/

kelvin.
3.
State characteristics of Regnaults apparatus.
4.
Describe the principle of this experiment.
Specific heat of water = c2 joule/kg/kelvin (known

quantity)
5.
What is basic principle of calorimetry?
6.
Describe the method of your experiment in

brief.
Specific heat of solid = c (to be found)
65
7.
What is modern name of specific heat?
8.
What is heat capacity?
9.
What is modern name of latent heat?
10.
Why was the name specific heat changed?
11.
State difference between specific heat & heat

capacity.
specific heat capacity is very small, therefore it quickly

attains the temperature of the object placed in its
contact. Also it does not wet glass.
VIVA VOICE QUESTIONS

1.
What is the aim of your experiment ?
2.
What is latent heat?
12.
What does water equivalent indicate?
3.
13.
State two important precautions to be used in

this experiment.
Why is it called specific latent heat now a

days?
4.
What is the principle of this experiment?
14.
What is the value of specific heat of water ?
5.
What is latent heat of fusion of ice?
15.
Why is mercury used in thermometer? state

one reason.
6.
State its value in S.I. system.
7.
What is the relation between calorie & joule.
8.
Define 1 calorie.
ANSWER
7.
Modern name of specific heat is specific heat

capacity.
9.
State any two important precautions of this

experiment.
9.
It is specific latent heat.
10.
10.
In physics the word specific indicates the

value of physical quantity for a unit mass.
Therefore meaning of specific heat would be
heat per unit mass which makes no sense.
Because amount of heat depends on
temperature difference, whereas heat capacity
is amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of given object through 1C. If
you add word specific to it then it will mean
amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of given object through 1C.
Therefore specific heat capacity is a better
name than specific heat. But by convention
specific heat is still followed.
How many calories of heat is required to

convert 100 gram of ice at 0C to water at
10C.
15.
Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg-1K-1
16.
Mercury is taken in thermometer,
because it is a good conductor of heat and also its
ANSWERS
3.
Because latent heat is defined for a unit mass.

Now a days word specific is used for those
quantities which are defined for a unit mass.
For example e/m for electron is known as
specific charge.
5.
80 cals./gram.
6.
336 103 joule/kg
7.
1 Calorie = 4.18 joule
10.
To convert 0C ice to water at 0C amount of

heat required = 80 100 = 8000 Calorie. Now
to heat water upto 10C amount of heat
required = 10 100 = 1000 Calorie. Therefore,
the total of 9000 calories of heat is required.
66
EXPERIMENT 11
Object : Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
a Metal by Searles Apparatus.
Observation : Let,
(i)
The area of cross-section of the rod = A
Apparatus Requred : Searles Apparatus and

thermometer, water steam etc.
(ii)
Distance between E and H = d cm
(iii)
Temperature at E= 1 C
(iv)
Temperature at H = 2C
(v)
Initial temperature of water = 4C
(vi)
Final temperature of water = 3C
Thermometers
Calculation : In steady state, the quantity of heat

flowing in t seconds from the end A to the end B of
the rod is given by :
Q=
Searles apparatus.
Thus,
The rod is enclosed in a wooden box and is covered

with non-conducting material like cotton or wool in
order to prevent radiation loss.
or
(1)
First of all water is circulated through copper

tube.
(2)
Then steam is allowed to pass through the

chamber.
(3)
In the beginning, temperature rises in all the

thermometers.
(4)
(5)
After sometime the thermometers record

individual constant temperatures. These
temperatures are recorded. They correspond to
steady state.
Then the amount of flow of water through the
copper tube for a known duration of time
(using a stop watch and beaker) is noted.
...... (i)
This whole quantity of heat is obsorbed by m gm of

water flows through the copper tube C, in t second.
Description of the apparatus : One end A of the

conducting rod AB is kept in a steam chamber and
steady stream of water flows in a copper tube C
encircling the other end B and fitted with thermometers
4 and 3 at the tube ends. Two holes drilled in the
middle part of the rod at distant d apart contain few
drops of mercury and are fitted with other two
thermometers 1 and 2. Mercury is used for fair
contact of the thermometers with the rod.
Procedure :
KA(1 2 )t
d
Q = m 1 (3 4)
=m(
4)
.....(ii)
From eqns. (i) and (ii),
KA(1 2 )t
= m ( 3 4 )
d
K=
m ( 3 4 )d
A (1 2 )t
Terms on the right hand side being experimentally

determined the thermal conductivity K, can be
evaluated.
Sources of error :
(i)
Steady state is an ideal condition and is

difficult to achieve in the experiment.
(ii)
Correction for radiation loss is essential.
Precautions :
(i)
The flow of steam through the chamber should

be started only after allowing water to circulate
through the copper tube.
(ii)
the flow of water through copper tube must be

continuous, slow and steady.
(iii)
Steady state should be maintained during

collection of water in the beaker.
67
EXPERIMENT 12
Aim : To draw cooling curve for hot water.
2.
Temperature of water is found with the help of

thermometer th2. Let the temp. of surrounding
be o.
3.
Now water is heated in another vessel to a

temp. about 30C more than room temp.
4.
Hot water is filled in calorimeter C & lid is

closed with thermometer & stirrer in it.
5.
Hot water is stirred with stirrer S & temperature

is noted by thermometer Th1 when temperature
of water is about + 30C then stop watch is
started & temperature of water is noted after
every minute and observation are taken till
temp. of water falls to about 5C above the
room temperature.
6.
Draw a graph between time & temperature A

free hand, smooth curve is drawn.
Apparatus : Cooling apparatus, stopwatch two

sensitive thermometers, hot water etc.
Description of apparatus : The apparatus is
shown in fig C is a thin walled calorimeter. Its outer
surface is blackened (to reduce heat losses due to
radiation).
Observations
Cooling Curve apparatus

Calorimeter is filled upto 2/3 rd with water & heated.
When temperature of water becomes 30C more than
room temperature then the calorimeter is suspended
in a double walled vessel A. A stirrer S used to stir
hot water & bulb of thermometer Th1 all are dipped
into water. Thermometer is used to read temp. Cold
water is circulated in vessel A to keep the
surroundings at a constant temperature. Thermometer
Th2 is used to find temp. of this water. An ebonite lid
is used to cover the mouth of A.
Temperature of surroundings o = ........C
Principle : If temperature difference between hot

object & surrounding is not large then rate of loss of
heat is directly proportional to temperature difference
between body and surrounding. Temp. of hot body
decreases with time. If a graph is plotted between
temp. of object and time then the cooling curve is
obtained Temp. of hot object at first falls very fast
but after some time rate of fall becomes slow & in the
end rate of fall becomes nearly zero. Such a curve is
known as cooling curve.
Graph: Plot temperature on Y-axis & time on X-axis

after taking a suitable scale. On joining these points
cooling curve is obtained as shown in fig.
Method :
Result : Cooling curve is shown in fig.
1.
Precautions :
At first cold water at room temp. is circulated

through the space between the two walls of
vessel A.
Cooling Curve
1.
Thermometers should be sensitive.
68
2.
3.
Water should be stirred continuously so that

temp. of water should be same throughout the
bulk of water.
In outer vessel water should be circulated at
constant temperature.
4.
Temp. of hot water should be initially about

30C above the room temperature.
5.
Lid of calorimeter should be kept closed.
6.
Why do we stir water with a stirrer?
7.
State precautions taken in this experiment.
8.
What do you underst4and by cooling curve?
9.
Why cooling rate is high initially?
10.
Will hot water take more time in cooling from

60C to 55C or in cooling from 35C to 30C?
Answers
Sources of Error :
2.
Rate of cooling is fall in temp. per second.
1.
3.
Rate of cooling can be calculated as follows

dQ = msd
Although precaution is taken to read temp.

quickly, but even then temp. may decrease
very fast and to note down temperature exactly
at a given time may be difficult.
2.
Temp. of surroundings should not change

during experiment.
3.
It is not definite, how much should be the

temp. difference between hot water and the
surroundings.
4.
Heat loss must be only due to radiation but

heat losses take place due to other modes
also.
Discussion : To check cooling curve, a graph should

be drawn between dq/dt and ( o). If a straight line
is obtained then cooling curve can be considered as
correct.
Viva-Voce Questions
4.
dQ
d d
dQ
dQ / dt Rate of loss of heat
= ms
=
=
dt
dt
dt dt / ms
ms
thermal capacity
(i)
Temp. difference between body &

surrounding should not be large,
Maximum allowed temp. difference =
30C.
(ii)
Heat loss should be only by radiation.
(iii)
Actually object should be placed in

vaccum. It is not possible in practice.
Because if other objects are present near
by, then object will receive radiations
from them also.
6.
So that at any instant the temperature of entire

water remains same.
8.
Initially rate of cooling is large & then it goes

on decreasing with time.
1.
What is Newtons law of cooling?
2.
What do you understand by rate of cooling?
9.
3.
What is the relation between rate of cooling

and rate of lose of heat.
Because initially there is large difference of

temperature between hot body & surrounding.
10.
It will take more time to cool from 35C to

30C, because here the excess of temperature
over the surroundings is less, so rate of cooling
will be smaller.
4.
What are the conditions for Newtons law of

cooling to be applicable?
5.
Why is water circulated in a big vessel?

Experiments: Vernier Callipers Experiment 1.1

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8

it is the least distance which can be measured by that

Apparatus Required : Vernier callipers and sphere or

If the value of one division of main scale is x and the

Description of the Apparatus : Vernier callipers was

measure the length or the external diameter of an

Least count of vernier

Value of 1 main scale division

Zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if

To find this error, bring both the jaws together and

error is said to be the negative.

To get the correct reading, the zero error with its

Bring both the jaws together and see whether

Fix the cylinder (or sphere) in between the

Now find the vernier scale reading. For this,

Find the total reading by adding the main

From this, subtract the zero error with its proper

Repeat the experiment and note the readings

Method 1. Count the total number of divisions n on

1. For the least count of the vernier callipers -

Find the value of one main scale division x.

Total number of divisions on vernier scale n = 10

2. Table for the zero rroorPositive or negative = + (suppose)

Mean zero error =

Ver nier scale reading

0.04 + 0.04 + 0.03 0.11

Total reading = Main

3. Table for the diameter of the cylinder S.N.

Ver nier scale reading

1.43 + 1.44 + 1.43 + 1.42 + 1.43

Result : Diameter of given cylinder = 1.39cm.

Total reading = Main

To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinder,

the readings should be taken at different places along

Proceed in similar manner as in steps 1 to 5

APPARATUS- Vernier Callipers, a small rectangular

Repeat above steps for the other edge of same

THEORY- (i) For measuring dimensions. Same as

Repeat above steps for other face of same

Repeat steps 1,2 and 3 above for both edges

Make calculations for each dimension

Take mean of different values of same

Multiply the three mean dimensions to obtain

Calculate the density of the block material by

(ii) For volume

Known mass of the block, m = .....g

Vernier constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D. = (1 09)

Zero error (e) = ..... cm.

Mean zero correction (c) = e= .... cm.

Rectangular metallic block

Table for the length ( l)

Vernier Scale Reading

5. Table for the breadth (b)

Vernier Scale Reading

6. Table for the thickness (t)

Mean corrected breadth of the block

Mean corrected thickness of the block

Vernier Scale Reading

Density of the block material.

calorimeter and open them till each of them

To measure the internal diameter and depth of a

Note the position of the zero mark of the

Note the number (n) of the vernier scale