cnvoree W Linear Power Supply Basics ‘This chapter is devoted (0 basic power-supply and linear-regulator circuits. “These include half-wave, full-wave, bridge, voltage-doubling, and voliage-tipling Circuits, as well 2s zener and adjustable-shunt (or programmable-cener) regulation circuits. 1.1 Half-Wave Circuits Figure |-1 shows the basic half-wave power-supply citeuit. The cathode of diode CR, is connected to filter capacitor C, and filter choke L;. Another filter ca- pacitor, C, is also used to smooth out the pulsating dircet curreat. Resistance R, is placed across the supply output. (R, is not used in all circuits; instead, the output is connected directly 1 the load circuit.) Resistor R,, if used, is known asa bleeder re- sistor, because it places a small current drain on the supply and helps stabilize the output Ifresistance R, is made up of a single tapped resistor or a series of several re~ sistors, it is possible to take several different voliages from the biceder network. Far ‘example, if the power-supply output is 30 V and the bleeder is made up of six equal- value resistors, the available voltages are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 V, as shown, ‘The circuit output is adirect current but not necessarily a constant voltage. In Practical applications, there is some var amplitude (known as ripple). The output vollage decreases slightly between cycles (negative peak of the ripple volt- age) and then increases at the peak of each half cycle (positive peak of the ripple voltage). ‘Typically the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is expressed as a percentage of the total power-supply output voltage, For example, ifthe power supply produces 100 V of direct eurrent across the bleeder resistor and the ripple is 3 V peak-to-peak, there is a 3% ripple (which would be totally unacceptable for almost any type of lincar supply!). The amount of ripple for any given type of basic power-supply circuit (half-wave, full-wave, ote.) depends on the type of filter.2 SIMPLFIED DESIGN OF UNEAR POWER SUPPLIES, ks & 3) ees : 2s ) i aa aS « ta ES © put ofter 5 owner 20 _ = ] | stp peciter >See Eines = baad Figure 1-1. Basic half-wave power supply 1.2 Full-Wave Circuits Figure 1-2 shows the basic fall-wave power-supply circuit. Both the postive ‘and negative alternations of the AC cycle aze used in a full: wave supply. For this reason, the full-wave circuit requires (wo diodes and a transformer with a center tp. One lead of the transformer secondary is connected to diode CR, the opposite end af the secondary is conrected to diode CR, The center tap is connected tothe com- mon or ground circuit, The total voltage seross the transformer secondary is about twice the voltage that appears atthe supply output. “The filter capacitors charge at arate twice that for half-wave rectification, be- cause current flows through the bleeder resistor inthe same direction on both alter- aE Linear Power Supply Basics 9 nations or half cycles. Consequently, the ripple frequency is twice that of the half ‘wave-tectification ripple frequency. Because the discharge time between pecks of full-wave pulsating direct cur- rent is only half that found in half-wave rectification (there is a shorter time between peaks), the filter capacitors have less time to discharge. This makes it easier to main- tain a relatively high charge and makes the output smoother than that of a half-wave supply. 1.3 Bridge Circuits Figure 1-3 shows the basic full-wave bridge power-supply circuit. The bridge circuit makes it possible to have full-wave rectification using @ transformer without a center tap. Four recifiers are used in the basic bridge circuit. (Also, there are re fier packages that contain four rectifiers connected in the bridge configuration.) ‘When a positive alternation occurs, with the top end of the transformer sec- ondary positive, current flows from the secondary bottom, through CR,, the load or bleeder resistor Rj, and dicde CR, to the secondary top. On the next alter when the bottom end of the transformer secondary is positive, current flows from the secondary top, through CR,, R,, and CR, to the secondary bottom. Full-wave rectification occurs since current flows through the bleeder or load resistance inthe same direction on both half eyeles. This produces both a higher rip ple frequency and! more efficient fikering.4 SIMPLIFIED DESIGN OF UNEAR POWER SUPPLES. 1.4 Basic Power-Supply Design Figure I-4 shows the design schematic for a basic power supply. Notice that the full-wave bridge with orly one filter capacitor is selected. This is generally the ‘most efficient citeuit for linear-regulator applications. For (wo reasons, elaborate fi ters are not needed in present-day equipment. First, the added weight and bulk pro- duced by large filter chokes eannot be tolerated in solid-state/ntegrated-circuit (IC) ‘equipment (unlike ancient vacuum-tube equipment). Second, and more important, & regulator of some type (rener, transistor, IC, three-terminal, etc.) follows the basie power-supply circuit (transformer, diodes, capacitor). Such regulators filter and con {rol the power-supply output much better than any type of filter. "The following paragraphs describe the simplified design approach for this cir cuit, Before actuslly assembling and testing the circuit, read the heat-sink design considerations in Chapter 2 and the test procedures in Chapter 6. Notice that the following design procedures assume that it is necessary to make up the bridge with four separate diodes. As a practical matter, if you can find & Single Bridge-rectifier package with the required voltage and current ratings, use the package instead of individual diodes. 1.4.1 Power Transformer In present-day equipment, 7, is usually a step-down transformer. Typically, tho primary voltage is 110-120 V (or 220-240V) and the secondary is between 12 ‘and 50 V. If the transformer is used with a full-wave bridge reetifier and a single capacitor filler, the DC ovtput of the supply is about 1.3 times the transformer sec- a ac ‘output to load a vies * 6-¢ output m1 secondary votioge ‘Translormer power (or VA) rating>|.3 x 4¢ output power Load resistance =output voliage/output current Power supply resistance = (no-lood V—fullloed V)/eurrent working voltage >| 3Xoutput voltoae ,eapacitence (in kF)=200,000/Iead resistonce X mos rirple ‘Secondary volioge * required 4c output/i.3 4-¢ power output = cutput voltage Xload current CR, ratings = see text Figure 1-4. Design schemati for basic power surply Linear Power Supply Basics 5 ‘ondary voltage (e.g.,T, secondary of 10 V produces about 13 V DC outpub). In addition to voltage, wransformers are rated as to power capability—usvally ‘a voltampere (VA) rating rather than a true AC-power rating. As a rule, the trans- Former power rating should be at least 1.3 times the DC-output power of the com- plete circuit (eg, if 10 W of DC power is required, the transformer should be capable of at least 13 W). 1.4.2 Load Resistance and Power-Supply Resistance ‘These two terms are often confused. Neither value can be measured directly ‘but must be calculated on the basis of voltage and current. Load resistance (or effective load impedance) is fourd when the output volt- age across the load is divided by the load current. For example, with a DC output of 10 V and a load current of 2 A, the load impedance is 5 obims, Power-supply resistance (oF internal irpedanco) is found when the change in ‘output voltage is divided by « change in load current (see Chapter 6). In addition to this basic method, itis also possible to calculate the internal resistance using a small load and a full Joad (instead ofthe full Toad and no load described in Chapter 6). The difference in voltage is divided by the difference in load current. For example, ifthe small-load voltage is 28 V with 0.5 A and the full-load output is 25 V with 2 A, the power-supply resistance is (28 ~ 25y(2~(.4) = 3/15 = 2 ohms. 1.4.3 Diode Characteristics There are four basic characteristics that must be considered for any ype of diode: maximum reverse voltage, forward voltage, reverse current, and forward Maximum reverse voltage (also known as peak inverse voltage, or PIV) is the amount of reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without breakdown. Data sheets often ist wo values for reverse voltage: average (or normal) and peak (or maximum) reverse voltage. As a guideline for full-wave bridge rectifiers, the average-reverse voltage rating shouldbe about twice the DC-cutput voltage. Inany event, the reverse- voltage rating must be greater than either the secondary-output voltage or the DC-output voliage. Forward voltage (or ferward-voltage drop) is the amount of drop across the diode in the forward-bias condition (dicde conducting). Ideally, the forward-voltage ‘drop should be zero. Typically, the drop is about 0.5 to 1.0 Y. (Notice that the diodes drop the secondary-output voltage, but this is offsei by the vollage buildup ‘across the capacitor.) Reverse current (or leakage current) is the amount of current flow when the diode is reverse-biased (diode not conducting), Ideally, reverse current should be zero. Typically, reverse current is less than a few mieroamperes (at most a few mil- Tiamperes).6 SIMPUFIED DESIGN OF LINEAR POWER SUPPLIES Forward current is the maximum current capacity ofthe diode in the forward bias condition, As a guideline for full-wave bridge rectifiers, the forward-current rating of each diode must be greater than the DC-output current and should be about twice the DC output current, 1.4.4 Capacitor Characteristics Capacitors used in full-wave bridge supplies are electrolytics, because & high ‘capacitance value is required. The voltage rating of the capacitor should be at least 1.3 times the DC-output voltage. The capacitance rating is selected on the basis of allowable ripple and load resistance, as shown by the equation in Fig. 1~4. For ex- ample, assuming a load resistance of 50 ohms, and a maximum permissible ripple of 5%, the capacitance values should be 200,000/(50> 5), or 800 pF. 1.4.5 Design Example: Basic Power Supply ‘Assume that the circuit in Fig. 1~4is toprovide an output of 28 ¥ at 400mA (or 04), with aripple of not more than 3%. A line supply of 110-120 V isavailable. With a required 28 V output, the T, secondary should be 28/1.3 V, of 21.5 V. aan output of 11.2 W (28 Vx 04 A), the voltampere (or power) rating of T, should be 11.3% 1.3, or 14.56 W, rounded off to 15 W. The load resistance is 28/0 4, or 70 ohms. ‘The diode characteristics should be as follows: ‘+ Maximum reverse voltage is 28 x 2, or 56 V. In simplified design, any re~ -verse-voltage rating above about 30 V should be satisfactory. ++ Forward-voltage drop should not exceed 1 V. + Reverse current should not exceed 100 yA. + Forward current is 0.4 2, or 0.8 A (800 mA). Notice that these characteristics are for individual diodes. As discussed, it is possible to use a bridge-rectifier package instead of the four diodes. In that case, the ata-sheet ratings for the package must be considered as the ratings for individual diod “The capacitor C, should have a voltage rating of 28 x 1.3, or 36.4 V. Any working voltage of about 36 V should bo satisfactory. With a load resistance of 70 ‘ohms and a maximum ripple of 3%, the capacitance value of C, should be 200,000) (70 x 3), oF 952.3 MF (any value between 900 and 1000 uF should be satisfactory, ‘with 1000 jF providing the best ripple rejection). 1.5 Voltage-Doubling Circuits Figure 1-5 shows the basic voltage-doubling circuit. Using such circuits, itis possible to increase an available AC voltage without a transformer. As shown, the basic voltage-doubling circuit requires two rectifier diodes and wo capacitors, les Rona ingly be 7 oR, a L 7) a é tes a CR © out ® Figure 1-5. Basic voliae-doubling circuit ‘When the AC-line alternation is such that terminal | is negative and terminal 2 is positive (es in Fig. 1-S(a)), current flows from terminal 1 in the dircetion of the at- ‘ows. The current path from terminal | includes CR, and C, before a return to pesi {ve terminal 2. Capacitor C, is charged uring this current fow with a polarity as __ During the next alternation, when terminal 1 is positive and terminal 2 is neg- ive, current flows as shown in Fig. 1-S(b). As a result, current flows from terminal 2toward C,,and charges capacitor C, to the peak of the AC voltage. Current contin- tes through diode CR, to the positive terminal 1. Capacitors C, and C, are charged to the peak values of the AC-line voltage on alternate half cycles. The DC-ouiput voltage is about double that of the AC voltage. as secre are, in effect, in series (and the polarities edd to increase the total voltage) 1.6 Voltage-Tripling Circuits Figure 1-6 shows the basic voltage-tipling circuit. With such circuits itis possible to triple an available AC voltage without a transformer. As shown, the basic voltage-tripling circuit requites three rectifier diodes and three capacitors,8 SIMPLIFIED DESIGN OF LINEAR POWER SUFPUES oR, ~ ° CRs 18 aes jon Figure 1-6. Basic voltage-inpling circu ‘When the AC-tne alteration such that terminal 1 is postive and terminal 2 is negative, current flows from terminal 2 through CR, to terminal 1. Diode CR, is ferward-biased under these conditions, permitting capacitor C, to be charged to the AC-line voltage. Daring the next alternation, when terminal 1 is negative and terminal 2 is pos- itive, CR, #8 reverse-biased and does not conduct. Instead, CR, is Forward-biased and permits current flow toward terminal 2 through Cy, The charge that is already across C, adds 10 the AC-line voliage and places a charge across Cy. This charge is proportional tthe line voltage added to the charge already across C,. ‘During the next cycle, when terminal I is again positive and terminal 2 is neg- ative, C, is again charged as before. At the same time, CR, conducts and charges Cy. ‘When CR, conducts, the charge across C, is composed of the line voltage plus the existing charge across C,, Because the C, charge is already double voltage, this is added tothe line voltage and produces a tiple voltage across C, 1.7 Basie Regulator Circuits ‘The amount of voltage that can be taken from « basic power-supply circuit is determined by the voltage available at the source (Line or transformer), less any volt- ‘age drop through the rectifiers and filter. This voltage drop is determined by the amount of current flowing through the power-supply components (rectifiers, et). ‘As more current is drawn from the power supply, the voltage drop across the com- ponents increases and the output voltage is reduced. When less current is drawn from the supply, the output is increased because the components have a minimum voliage drop. “The variation of voltage output with respect to the amount of current drawn from the supply is known as voltage regulation or simply regulation. Such regula- tion is expressed as a percentage, with the value being determined as follows: (no-load voltage) ~ (full-load voltage) Tull-load vollage % regulation = x 100, Linear Power Supply Basics 9 ‘This equation applies to voltage regulation and takes into account the propor tions of voltage increase and decrease with a change of load on a power supply. The smaller the difference between full-lad and no-load voltages, the betier the regulation, 1.7.1 Filter-Capacitor Regulation Filter capacitors (such as C, in Fig. 1-4) provide some measure of regulation for the basic power-supply circuit. Should the ourput voltage drop, the capacitors discharge and serve to keep the voltage constant. The regulation provided by the fil {er capacitor is sufficient for a few applications. However, in most cases, the power supply output must be maintained at some critical voltage or current, ‘This requires some form of linear or switching regulater. 1.7.2 Linear and Switching Regulators A number of solid-state circuits and devices have been developed to provide both voltage and current regulation. There are two basic approaches to such regula- tors: linear and switching, This book concentrates on the linear regulator, both dis ccrete-component and IC, as well as on combination diserete/IC circuits, ‘The most common method for lincar voltage regulation invelves zener diodes. ‘Zeners maintain the voltage drop across their terminals at a constant value, no mat- ter what current is being drawn (within limits). The basic zener is also used as « voliage reference in other linear-regulator configurations,