Larry A. Samovar Richard E. Porter Edwin R. McDaniel Carolyn S. RoyBrief Contents Preface xvii Intercultural Communication: Interaction ina Multicultural World = Ge Culture and Communication 25 Structure of Culture: Family Lessons 55 Cultural History: Our Antecedents 85 Culture, Life and Death 14 Cultural Values: Guidelines for Behavior 165 Identity and Culture: Situating the Individual 204 Verbal Messages: Language 234 Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence 254 ‘Communication Contexts and Cultural Influences 294 Chapter Review 344 Notes 360 Index 396Contents Pr Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Multicultural World 1 THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY 2 GROWING DOMESTIC DIVERSITY 4 U.S. IMMIGRATION 5 TECHNOLOGY 6 DEFINING THE CONCEPTS 8 Intercultural Communication 8 The Dominant Culture 8 Coultures 9 Society 9 VENTURING INTO A NEW CULTURE 10 Reactions to Culture Shock 10 The Phases of Culture Shock 11 Beyond Culture Shock 12 Work to Main ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 14 Fundamentalism 15 Relativism 15 ETHICS IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 16 Be Mindful That Communication Produces a Response 16 Show Respect for Others Search for Commonaities among People and Cultures 17 Respect Cultural Differences 19 Accept Responsibility for Your Behavior 19STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 20 Individvel Uniqueness 20 Generalizing 21 Objectivity 23 PREVIEW OF THE BOOK 24 [EUGENE Culture and Communication HUMAN COMMUNICATION 25 THE USES OF COMMUNICATION 26 Communication and Identity 26 Communication and Person Perception 26 Communication and Interpersonal Needs 26 Communication and Persuasion 26 DEFINING COMMUNICATION 27 THE COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION 28 Source 28 Encoding 28 Messages 28 Ghannel 29 Receiver 29 Decoding 29 Feedback 29 Noise 29 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION 30 Communication Is a Dynamic Process 30 Communication Is Contextual 31 Location 3. Number of Participants 33 ‘Most Communication Behavior Is Learned 33 Communication Has a Consequence 33 CULTURE 34 Culture Is Shared 35 Culture Defined 36 The Functions of Culture 37 25 ContentsContents The Elements of Culture 37 Religion 38 History 38 Values 39 Social Organizations 40 Language 40 Characteristics of Culture 41 Culture Is Leamed 41 Culture 1s Transmitted from Generation to Generation 50 Culture Is Based on Symbols 51 Culture Is Dynamic 52 Culture Is an Integrated System 54 Ge Structure of Culture: Family Lessons 55 THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF CULTURE 56 Deep Structure Institutions Carry Culture’s Most Important Messages 57 Deep Structure Institutions and Their Messages Endure 58 Deep Structure Institutions and Their Messages are Deeply Felt 58 Deop Structure Institutions Supply Much of a Person’s Identity 58 FAMILY 59 The Importance of Family 60 Definition of Family 60 Forms of Family 61 Nuclear Families 61 Extended Families 61 Transforming Families in the United States 62 Globalization and Families 63 Mass Media 64 Migration 64 Functions of the Family 65 Reproductive Function 65 Economic Function 66 Socialization Function 66 Identity Function 66 COMMUNICATION, CULTURE, AND FAMILY 67 ‘CULTURAL VARIANTS IN FAMILY INTERACTION 68 Gender Roles 68 United States 69 Asian 69 Latino 70Indian 71 The Muslim Community 72 Changing Gender Roles 73 Individooism ond Colletvism 75 Individualism and the Family 75 Collectivism and the Family 76 The Elderly 79 Socil Skills 82 Aggression 83 Decision Making 84 cea Cultural History: Our Antecedents 85 THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY 85 United States History 87 Contemporary Social Issues 90 Russian History 91 Contemporary Social Issues 93 Chinese History 94 ‘Communicating History 96 Contemporary Social Issues 96 Japanese History 97 ‘Contemporary Social Indian History 100 Contemporary Social Issues 103 Mexican History 104 Contemporary Social Issues 107 Islamic Gvilization 108 Muslim Demographics 108 ‘The Age of Ignorance 108 The Rise and Spread of Islam 109 Legacy of History 112 Contemporary Social Issues 113 Ga Culture, Life and Death 114 WORLDVIEW 114 Worldview ond Culture 115 Manifestations of Worldview 115 Constructs of Worldviews 117 Religion as. a Worldview 117 Secularism as a Worldview 118 Spirituality as a Worldview 119 100 Contentsvili Contents RELIGION 120 Religion and the Sacred 120 Religion and Personal Conduct 121 The Study of Religion in the Twenty-First Century 122 Globalization and Religion 122 Conflict and Religion 123 Selecting Worldviews for Study 123 The Elements of Religion 124 Speculation 124 Sacred Writings 124 ious Rituals 125 127 128 Core Assumptions 129 Cultural Expressions of Christianity 129 Christian Notions about Death 132 Judcism 133 Cove Assumptions 134 Branches of Judaism 134 Cultural Expressions of Judaism 135 Jewish Notions about Death 137 Islam 138 Origins 138 Core Assumptions 139 Judgment 141 Five Pillars of Islam 141 Cultural Expressions of Islam 143 Gender 145 Islamic Notions about Death 146 Hinduism 147 Origins 147 Sacred Texts 147 Core Assumptions 148 Cultural Expressions of Hinduism 150 Notions about Death 152 Buddhism 153 Origins 153 Core Assumptions 154 ‘Cultural Expressions of Buddhism — 157, Buddhist Notions about Death 159 Confucianism 160 Confucius the Man 160 Core Assumptions 161 The Analects 161Contents ix tural Expressions of Confucianism 162 Confucianism and Communication 162 Confucian Notions about Death 163 RELIGION AND WORLDVIEW: A FINAL THOUGHT 164 ceed Cultural Values: Guidelines for Behavior 165 UNDERSTANDING PERCEPTION 166 UNDERSTANDING VALUES 167 Cultural Patterns 168 Selecting Cultural Patterns 169 KOHLS’ “THE VALUES AMERICANS LIVE BY” 170 Personal Control Over the Environment 171 Change 171 Time and Its Control 171 Equolity /Egalitorianism 172 Individuality and Privacy 173 Self-Help Control 174 Competition and Free Enterprise 174 Future Orientation 175 ‘Action/Work Orientation 175 Informality 175 Directness, Openness, and Honesty 176 Practicality and Efficiency 176 4 Materialism/Acquisitiveness 176 OTHER CULTURAL PATTERNS 177 HOFSTEDE’S VALUE DIMENSIONS 177 In alism/Collectivism 177 dividualism 178 ivism 179 Avoidance 180 High Uncertainty Avoidance 180 Low Uncertainty Avoidance 180 Power Distance 181 High Power Distance 182 Low Power Di Masculinity Femininityx Contents Long- ond Short-Term Orientation 184 Indulgence /Restraint 185 MINKOV’S MONUMENTALISM/FLEXHUMILITY 187 KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK’S VALUE ORIENTATIONS 187 Human Nature Orientation 188 Evil 188 Good and Evil 189 Good 189 Person/Nature Orientation 189 Humans Subject t Harmony with Nature 190 Master of Nature 190 Time Orientation 191 P ation 191 Present Orientation 191 Future Orientation 192 Activity Orientation 192 192 Becoming 193 Doing 193 HALU’S HIGH-CONTEXT AND LOW-CONTEXT ORIENTATIONS 194 High-Context 194 low-Context 195 THE GLOBE STUDY 196 Globe Study Cultural Dimensions 196 Globe Societies and Geographical Groups 197 FACE AND FACEWORK 201 CULTURAL PATTERNS AND COMMUNICATION 202 189 wed Identity and Culture: Situating the Individual 204 THE ROLE OF IDENTITY 205 DEFINING IDENTITY 206 EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 208 Rocial Identity 208 Ethnic Identity 209 Gender Identity 210Notional Identity 211 Regional Identity 212 Organizational Identity 213, Personal Identity 213 (yber and Fantasy Identity 214 ACQUIRING AND DEVELOPING IDENTITIES 215 ESTABLISHING AND ENACTING CULTURAL IDENTITY 217 IDENTITY IN INTERCULTURAL INTERACTIONS 219 IDENTITY IN A GLOBALIZED SOCIETY 220 THE DARK SIDE OF IDENTITY 222 STEREOTYPING 222 Stereotypes Defined 222 Learning Stereotypes 223 Stereotypes and Intercultural Communication 223 Avoiding Stereotypes 224 PREJUDICE 225 Functions of Prejudice 225 Expressions of Prejudice 226 Causes of Prejudice 227 Avoiding Prejudice 227 RACISM 228 Racism Defined 229 Expressions of Racism 229 Avoiding Racism 230 ETHNOCENTRISM 230 Characteristics of Ethnocentrism 231 Levels of Edhmocentrism 231 Ethnocentrism Is Universal 231 Ethnocentrism Contributes to Cultural Identity Avoiding Ethnocentrism 232 TGEREMEE Verbal Messages: Language FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 235 Social Interaction 236 Social Cohesion 236 Expressions of Identity 236 234 ContentsContents LANGUAGE AND MEANING 237 What Is Longuoge? 237 Language Voriations 238 Accent 238 Slang 240 Conversational Taboos 240 LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 241 The Synergy of Language and Culture 241 Using Languoge 242 Spanish 242 Northeast Arabic English INTERPRETING AND TRANSLATING 245 Interpretation 246 Translation 247 Cultural Considerations in Interpretation ond Translation 247 Working With Interpreters ond Translators 248 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND LANGUAGE 249 LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE 250 Improving Interpersonal Interactions 250 Being Mindful 251 Speech Rate 251 Vocabulary 251 Attend to Nonverbal Behaviors 252 Checking 252 Second Language Benefits 252 sian Cultures 243 4 (GEE Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence 254 THE FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 256 Expressing Internal States 256 Greating entity 257 Regulating Interaction 258 Repeating the Message 258 Substituting for Words 258Contents xi DEFINING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 258 Intentional and Unintentional Messages 259 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages 259 STUDYING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 260 Nonverbal Communication Can Be Ambiguous 260 Multiple Factors Influence Nonverbal Communication 260 The Study of Nonverbal Communication Includes Cultural Universals 260 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE 261 CLASSIFICATIONS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 262 Messages of the Body 262 arance 262 Judgment of Beauty 262 Skin Color 264 Auire 264 Body Movement 267 Posture 268 Gestures 269 Facial Expressions 272 Eye Contact and Gaze 274 Touch 276 Paralanguage 278 2, Pitch, Tempo, Resonance, ronunciation, Tone) 279 Vocal Characteristics (Laughing, Crying, Moaning, Whining, Yawning) 280 tes (“uh-huh,” “Shh,” “uh,” “oooh,” “um,” “mmm, 280 SPACE AND DISTANCE 280 Personal Space 281 Seating 282 Furniture Arrangement 283 Time 284 Informal Time 285 ‘Monochronc (M-time) and Polychronic (P-time) 287 M-time_ 7 P-time SILENCE 288 IMPROVING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS 291 Monitor Your Nonverbal Actions 292xiv Contents ‘Monitor Feedback 292 Be Sensitive to the Context 293 Be Aware of Nonverbal Ambiguity 293 Know Your Culture 293 CGE Communication Contexts and Cultural Influences 294 CULTURE AND CONTEXT 294 UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT CONTEXT 295 Communication is Rule Governed 295 Specify Communication Rules 295 Communication Rules are Culturally Diverse 296 ASSESSING THE CONTEXT 297 Formality ond Informality 297 Informalicy 297 Fommality 297 Assertiveness and Interpersonal Harmony 298 Assertiveness 298 Interpersonal Harmony 299 Power Distance Relationships 299 Egalitarian 300 Hierarchical 300 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN THE BUSINESS CONTEXT 300 The International Busi The Domestic Business Setting 302 COMMUNICATION IN THE MULTICULTURAL BUSINESS CONTEXT 303 Business Protocols 304 Making Initial Contacts 304 Greeting Behavior 304 Business Cultures 306 Brazilian Business Culnere 306 Chinese Business Culture 308 Culture 309 Negotiation and Conflict Resolution 311 Negotiating with Brazilians 312 Negotiating with the Chinese 312 Negotiating with Indians 314 Developing Intercultural Negotiation Skills 315Contents xv THE EDUCATION CONTEXT 316 Culturally Diverse Educational Systems 316 MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 317 Challenges of Multicultural Education 318 Culture and Learning 319 Cultural V Cultural Le aming Preferences 321 LINGUISTIC ISSUES IN MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 322 Linguistic Diversity Language ond Identity 323 Culturally and Lingustcally Diverse Students 324 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION 325 Communicator Characteristics 325 Self-Efficacy Immediacy Communication Strategies 327 THE HEALTH CARE CONTEXT 328 DIVERSE HEALTH CARE BELIEF SYSTEMS 329 Supernatural/Miigico/Religious Tradition 330 Underlying Premises 330 es of Iliness 330 ent of IlIness 331 ion 333 lying Premises 333 Causes of Ilhness Underlying Premises Causes of Illness 336 Treatment of Illness 336 LANGUAGE DIVERSITY AND HEALTH CARE COMMUNICATION 336 Language Diversity 336 Employing Interpreters 337 for Interpret erpreters 337 lecting and Using EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL HEALTH CARE COMMUNICATION 338 Requisites for Effective Multicultural Health Core Communication 338——__ xvi Contents Know Your Own Culture 338 Leam About Diverse Health Care Beliefs 339 Developing Effective Health Care Communication Strategies 340 ‘Avoid Stereotypes 340 Conducting Interviews 341 Communication about Death and Dying 341 Chapter Review 344 Notes 360 Index 396anciterers RATIONALEinstitutions, immigration pattems, growing demographic diversity, and population density. These changes have created a world that requites regular interaction with people of different cultural origins—he they next door, across town, oF thousands of miles away. Whether or not you embrace these “conversations,” they will continue to increase in both frequency and intensity and grow in importance. Huston Smith sue- cinctly summarized these circumstances when, in The Worlds Religions, he wrote, When historians look back on [the twentieth] century they may remember it most, ‘not for space travel or the release of nuclear energy, but as the time when the peoples of the word fist came to take one another seriously.” His reflections on the past cen- tury remain equally valid for our current globalized society “The second premise is that people now have a greater appreciation of the truism that culture and communication work in tandem. In equally subtle and profound ways, your eultural hackground and life experiences largely determine your worldview, your perception of others, and how you choose to engage with others in that world. APPROACH (Out approach is underpinned by the belief that all forms of human communication require some type of action. Stated in different terms, your communicative actions affect you as well as the people with whom you interact. Whether you are generating, fof receiving words or body movements, you are creating and producing messages that influence someone else. Any study of communication must include information about the choices chat are made in selecting your messages, as well as a discussion of the consequences of those choices, Hence, this book advances the view that engaging in. intercultural communication i pragmatic (you do something), philosophical (you make choices), and ethical (your selected actions have consequences). PHILOSOPHY ‘A dual philosophy has guided the preparation of this edition. First, we hold chat it is advantageous, if not a requirement, for the seven billion of us sharing this planet's limited resources to improve our intercultural communication skills, Globalization thas created a world so small and interdependent that we must rely on each other— ‘whether we want fo or not. As simplistic as it may seem, what occurs in one place can now have a major impact on people in countless other parts of the world. Sec- fond, many of the obstacles to understanding others can be mitigated through motiva- tion, knowledge, and an appreciation of cultural differences. Our objective is to provide you with all three. ‘We believe that writing about culture and communication involves personal dect- sions and a specialized point of view. As scholars and authors we have developed that point of view and a mutual philosophy about intercultural interaction. We contend that the first commandment of any civilized society should be: Allow people o be dif- ferent as long as those dissimilarities do mot create hardships for others. At times you will find that we have openly stated our personal positions, and for those convictions we ‘make no apologies. Concurrently, we have made a concerted effort to check our own ‘ethnocentrism. For those instances where it unintentionally surfaces, we apologize.NEW FEATURES As with our earlier efforts, this new edition contains numerous changes, including new content, updated materials, and revisions. Throughout preparation of this eighth edition, we have kept in mind the constructive comments made by users and reviewers of the previous editions of Communication Between Cultures. In response to several reviewers’ suggestion, we have increased the number of photographs and replaced many of the older ones. In another significant change, new content on how to acquire and improve intercultural communication skills has been incorporated throughout the book, Additional new features include the following: + While continuing to address globalization, introductory sections also focus on US. domestic intercultural issues. Data from the 2010 census is used to illustrate the dramatic changes in U.S. demographics, and projections of population changes are employed to demonstrate the increasing criticality of intercultural communication. ‘+ The technology section has been expanded to address the role of contemporary information technology in the increasing interconnectivity of people worldwide, enabling the reconstitution of cultures, abetting the polarization of some segments of society, and fostering social and cultural changes * Communication and culture are now treated in a single chapter, which also includes new material on interpersonal communication. * The dynamic nature of the contemporary world order and evolving cultural pat- tems within the United States demanded that we increase the scope of our analysis to demonstrate how globalization and social changes are having impacts on tradi- tional family structures. * We feel strongly that history provides a map of where a culture has been and a blueprint for its future. Accordingly, history is now a standalone chapter. A “Country Statistics” table has been added for each national history. Also, every topic contains a new section, called “Contemporary Social Issues,” which discusses ‘current social conditions and how they may affect the future. All of the history topics were updated, and Islamic history was extensively revised * Worldview and religion remain salient issues in contemporary society. Continuing media focus and growing misconceptions mandated we offer a more in-depth ‘examination of Islamism. Our expanded discussion of secularism was prompted by the increasing numbers of people moving away from organized religion. * Four new taxonomies were added to the cultural values chapter. An older value cataloguing explains thirteen values central to the U.S. dominant culture. Two new value dimensions complementing Hofstede’s work have been included. Also included is a comprehensive overview of the GLOBE Study-research on personal values, insttutionalized values, and managerial leadership across 61 societies © The role of identity in intercultural communication has been updated with new examples and references. The discussion of stereotyping, prejudice, racism, and ethnocentrism has also been revised. * New content has been added to the language chapter. How culture is reflected through language usage is illustrated by examples from six different languages. There is a new section discussing how various conversational topics are taboo in diferent cultures. The treatment of translation and interpretation was also revised and expanded, Prefacexx Preface + In addition to revising and updating the content of the nonverbal chapter, we included a new section on improving nonverbal communication skills «© Aware of the time instructors now need to utilize material from the plethora of current multimedia offerings, we have condensed the chapters on business, educa tion, and health care into a single unit treating intercultural communication in contexts. In this new chapter, Brasil, China, and India, all growing world eco- nomic powers, are used as models to explain culture's impact on negotiations and conflict resolution in the business context. + As with each previous edition, all retained material has been updated, new exam- ples integrated throughout, and a host of new references were used. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS No book is the sole domain of the authors. Many people contributed to this new edi- tion, and we would like to acknowledge them. We are especially pleased with our publisher for the past forty years. While we have experienced and survived numerous changes in ownership, editors, and management, and even cofporate name changes, the professional focus and dedication of the company have remained intact ‘We begin our specific expressions of appreciation with a sincere “thank you" to Rebekah Matthews, our Senior Assistant Ealitor. From inception to completion, she offered us direction and support. Whether our problems, questions, or grumblings were major or minor, Rebekah always responded with great wisdom, good humor, land infinite patience. Also, we wish to recognize the hand work and conteibutions of Colin Solan, editorial assistant; Jessica Badiner, media editor, Margaret. Bridges, senior content project manager; Kalpana Venkataraman, content project manager, PreMediaGilobal; and Gurpreet Saran, program marketing manager. Also, many thanks to Alan Heisel for writing the Instructor's Resource Manual. We also extend cour sincere thanks to the reviewers of the previous text. Their suggestions contributed significantly to any improvements found in this edition, ‘We need to convey out gratitude to Carolyn Sexton Roy, friend and personal copy editor. As a historian Carolyn has had a keen interest in people and culture for many years, and she brought that passion to this edition, We are especially grateful for the time she spent on the final preparations of the manuscript. On countless occasions she fine-tuned entire chapters so that our message would be clearer and more succinct. Finally, we express our appreciation to the tens of thousands of students and the many instructors who have used past editions. For forty years they have enabled us to “talk to them’ about intercultural communication, and, by finding something Useful in our exchange, they have allowed us 0 produce yet another edition of Communication Between Culeues. Lary A. Samovar Richard E. Porter Eduin R. McDaniel Carolyn S. Roy