spi aX International site for Spirax Sarco Tel: (800) 575-0304 fearen to me | About Us Fax: (803) 714.2222 tions | Training Resources. | Cont Products & Services | Industries & Appl You are here: Hone > Resources b Steam Engineering Tutorials D> Steam inane Punces and Hat Transer & Moat Transfer Heat Transfer Steam ls oftn generatedto provid heat transfortou The printable version of tis page has 2 process: Modes of het wanetar (conduction, " pow buon replaced by Convection, radiation} within or between moda are ‘Tha'Steam sna Gandersate Loop Book seers tet utnscrtamans” OO" Viow te compat cllon of Sts oineating Tuas Use the quick links below to take you to the main sections ofthis tutorial Contact Us Ina steam heating system, the sole purpose of the generation and distribution of steam is to provide heat atthe process heat transfer surface. Ifthe required heat input rate and steam pressure are known, then the necessary steam consumption rate maybe determined. This wil allow the size of te boller and the steam distribution system to be established. Modes of heat transfer Related Content Heat Exchangers Discover the benefits of the packaged heat ‘exchanger system here, Heat Exchangers Browse through a set of diferent types of heat ‘exchanger appleatons Steam Tables ‘A comprenensive set of steamtables are avaliable here. ‘Steam Loads and Heat Loads Calculate the steamtow fequted to produce a cotta heat transfer rate through a heating surface, Whenever a temperature gradient exsts, either within a medium or between media, the transfer of heat will ‘occur. This may ake the form of either conduction, convection or radiation. Conduction When a temperature gradient exists in either a sold or stationary fuid medium, the heat transfer which takes place is known as conduction. When neighbouring molecules in a fuid collide, energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, conduction must occur in the direction of decreasing temperature. This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids the molecular interactions are stronger and more Frequent, as the molecules are closer together. In solids, conduction is caused by the atomic activity of latce Wbrations as explained in Tutorial 2.2 The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fourier’s Law. Where there is a linear temperature distribution under steady-state conditions, for a one-dimensional plane wall it may be written as: at Q=kAT Equation 2.5.1 Where: Heat transferred per unittime (W) Thermal conductivly ofthe material (Nim K or Wim°C) Heat transfer area (mm?) ‘Temperature diference across the material (K or °C) Material thickness (mm) Example 2.5.1 Consider @ plane wall constructed of solid iran with a thermal conductvly of 70 Wim°C, and a thickness of 25 mm. thas a Surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m, with a temperature of 150°C on one side and 80°C on the other. Determine the rate of heat transfer: (150 - 80°C Heat transfer rate = 70 W/m°C x (03 x 0.5)m* x 1 Heat transferrate = 29 400 W (29.4kW)‘The thermal conductviy Is a characteristic of the wall material and is dependent on temperature. Table 2.5.1 shows the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various common metals. Feature Thermal conductivity (W/m) The Steam and bemncinal ALZ5C a “misc " At225°C ———l ron 80 oe 50 Tow carbon seo! st aI 7 oss etal Te 175 19 Tungsten 180 160 50 Plctinur 70 7 72 Abu 70 Fa 30 oid 310 az 310 Silver m0 ae a15 Copper wi 70 38 Table 251 ‘Accomprenensve best practice gute to saving ‘energy and optnsing plant performance, ths book covers all aspects of steamand condensate systems. ‘Qi vour copy today Thermal conductivity (Wim °C) Considering the mechanism of heat transfer in conduction, in general the thermal conductvly ofa solid will be much greater than of liquid, and the thermal conductivty ofa liquid will be greater than of a gas. Arhas @ particularly ow thermal conductivty and ths is why insulating materials ofen have lots of air spaces. Convection ‘The transfer of heat energy between a surface and a moving fluid at diferent temperatures is known as convection. lis actuallya combination of he mechanisms of diffusion and the bulk motion of molecules Near the surface where the fluid velosiy is low, diffusion (or random molecular motion) dominates. However, moving away from the surface, bulk motion holds an increasing influence. Convective heat transfer may take the form of ether forced convection or natural convection, Forced convection occurs when fluid flow is induced by an extemal force, such as a pump or an agitator. Conversely, natural convection is. caused by buoyancy forces, due to the density differences arising ffom the temperature variations in the tid, The transfer of heat energy caused bya phase change, such as bolling or condensing, is also referred to as a convective heat transfer process. ‘The equation for comection is expressed by Equation 25.2 which Is a derivation of Newon's Law of Cooling & = haat Equation 25.2 Where Q = Heattransterred per unittime (WW) A. = Heat transfer area of the surface (m") h = Convective heat transfer coeficient ofthe process (Wim? K or Win#"C) AT = Temperature diference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or “C) Example 2.5.2 Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m ata temperature of 20°C. ‘Aluid lows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50°C. ‘The convective heat transfer coefficient (is 1 600 WiC. Determine the rae ofheat transfer Heat transfer rate = 11.600 W/m2%C x (0.4 x 0.9) m? x (50 - 208C Heat transfer rate = 17 280 W (17.28 kW) Radiation The heal iansfer due tothe emission of energy fom surfaces inthe form of electromagnetic waves known as thermal radiation. inthe absence ofan intenening medium, ere is a net heat ransfer bebveen two surfaces of diferent temperatures. Ths form of heat wanster does not rely on a material medium, and is acuallymosteffcientin a vacuum, The general heat transfer equation In most practical situations, its very unusual for all energy to be transferred by one mode of heat transferalone. The overall heat transfer process will usually be a combination of two or more diferent mechanisms. The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface used in the design procedure and forming a par of heat exchange theoryis: Q = UAAT Equation 25.3 Where: = Heattransferred per unit time (W (Wis) U = Overall heat tanster coefclent (Win Kor Win*"C) A = Heattransfer area (m*) ‘AT = Temperature aiference between the primary and secondary ud (K or“) Note: . Gal be a mean heat ransferrate (@y) if AT is a mean temperature dference (AT 44 oF AT ay) The overall heat transfer coefficiont (U) This takes into account both conductive and comectve resistance between two fluids separated bya solid wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient isthe reciprocal ofthe overall resistance to heat transfer, which is the Sum ofthe indivdual resistances, The overall heat transfer coeficient may also take Into account the degree of fouling in the heat transfer process. The deposition of a flm or scale on the heat tansfer surface will greatly reduce the rate of heat transfer. The fouling factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused by fluid impurities, rust ormation or other reactions between the fuid and the wall. The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer process, the Physical propertes of the fluids, the fui flowrates and the physical layout of the heat transfer surface. {the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has been determined, the design of a heat exchanger is by necessity an erative procedure, A starting point for this procedure usually involwes selecting typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of various types of heat exchanger. ‘An accurate calculation forthe individual heat transfer coefficients is a complicated procedure, and in many cases itis not possible due to some of the parameters being unknown. Therefore, the use of established 'ypical values of overall heat transfer coefficient willbe suitable for practical purposes Temperature difference AT Newton's law of cooling states that the Neat wansfer rate is related to the instantaneous temperature difference between the hot and the cold media. In a haat transfer process, this temperature diference will vary either with position or with time. The general heat transfer equation was thus developed as an extension to Newlon's law of cooling, where the mean temperature diference is used to establish the heat transfer area required fora given heat duty Mean temperature difference AT 4 ‘The determination of the mean temperature diference in a flow type process Ike a heat exchanger will be dependent upon the direction of flow. The primary and secondary fluids may flow in the same direction (9aralle fowico-current fow), in the opposite direction (countercurrent flow). or perpendicular to each other (crosstiow). When saturated steam is used the primary fluid temperature can be taken as a constant, because heatis transferred as a result of a change of phase only. The result is that the temperature profile, is no longer dependent on the direction of flow. However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the highest rate of heat transfer ‘occurs at the inlet and progressively decays along ils travel fo the outlet. This is simply because the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the rise in secondary temperature ‘The res.lling temperature profile ofthe steam and secondary Mud is typically as shown in Figure 2.5.1Product temperature ise | ‘ : Inet Outlet id passing though a heat exchang Fig.2.54 Product tomporature rise (LMTD) ‘The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and Is best represented by a logarithmic calculation. For this purpose the mean temperature difference chosen is termed the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference or LMTD or AT uy ‘An easier (but less accurate) wayte calculate the mean temperature difference is to consider the Arithmetic. Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD or AT ayy. This considers a linear increase in the secondary fluid temperature and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory approxmation of the mean temperature difference to be used in Equation 2.5 3. The AMTO temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2 Steam temeratue ts 4 Product temperature ris Ine Outer Thad passing bough a heat exchanger Fig. 2.5.2 Product temporature rise (AMTD) The arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD): To +; la +t. am ={% 2) .(% z wan ES 7 where Tp = Primary fluid in temperature Tye = Primary uid out temperature Taq = Secondary uid in temperature T 2 = Secondary uid out temperature For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation may be simplified to: atm (HEE) 2 Equation 2.5.4Where: T, = Steam temperature ("C) T4 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C) 2 = Secondary fuid out temperature (°C) Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD normally provides a satisfactory analysis of the heat transfer process, which Is easy to manipulate in manual calculations. However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which accounts for the non-linear change in temperature of the secondary fuid The log mean temperature difference (LMTD): 1, Th) (h- Te Mwe- = ) »(R] For steam, where the temperature of the primary fuid (steam) remains constant, this equation may be simplified to: T2-Th we (E¥) 3 - Ta Equation 25.5 Alia = Where T, = Steam temperature (°C) 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C) Tz = Secondary fuid out temperature ("C) In = Amathematical function known as ‘natural logarithm’ Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.55 assume that there is no change in the specific heat capacity or the overall heat transfer coefficient, and that there are no heal losses. In realty the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature variations. The overall heat transfer coefficient may also change because of variations in fuld properties and flow conditions. However, in most applications the devations will be almost negligible and the use of mean values will be perfectly acceptable. In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its surroundings, but the insulation will not be 100% efficient. Therefore, the energy transferred between the steam and the secondary fuid maynt represent all of the heatlost rom the primary fuid Example 2.5.3 Steam at? bar gis used to heat water from 20°C to 50 The saturation temperature of steam at2 bar gis 134°C. Determine the arithmetic and the log mean temperature diferences: At = 134. 20 4 90 su 09 8 | et ee) * Ty ~ WUGETH ~ Toes (ss) "(or ty = 9024 In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is because the secondary fluid temperature rise is small in comparison with the temperature difference between the hwo fluids Example 2.5.4 Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10°C to 120°C using steam at 4.0 bar g The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0 bar gis 152°C.Determine the arithmetic and tog mean temperature differences ATi, =152 - 10 120 ATi °C hy = 20210 0 toto of BED) © gf HB)” nG88875) 19 1g2 = 120 2 Aig = 73.8°C Because the secondary fluid temperature rise is large in comparison with the temperature diference between the two fluids, the discrepancybetween the two results is more significant. By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area would be almost 15% smaller than that required. Barriers to heat transfer ‘The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a flm of ar, ‘condensate and scale on the steam side, On the product side there may also be baked-on product of ‘scale, and a stagnant fim of product. ‘Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant fm, whilst regular cleaning on the product ‘side should reduce the scale. Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat transfer by reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be possible. This layer may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation ofthe boiler, and the removal of water droplets carrying impurites from the boiler ‘oepns Eumeay [2 Filmwise condensation ‘The elimination of the condensate fim, is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give up its ‘enthalpy af evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These may then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate, The condensate fim may be between 100 and 150 mes more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and 500 to 600 times more resistant than ‘copper. Dropwise condensation IW the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous condensate fm is formed, ‘dropwise’ condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can be achieved during dropwise condensation, are generally much higher than those achieved during flmwise condensation ‘As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation, heat transfer ‘coeficients may be up to ten times greater than those for flmwise condensation. In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal resistance it produces is offen negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining theappropriate conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very dificult o achieve. Ifthe surface is coated with a substance that inhibits weting, it may be possible to maintain dropwise ‘condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as Silicones, PTFE ‘and an assortment of waxes and fatly acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in a heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted, However, these coatings will gradually ose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film condensation wil eventually predominate. {airs such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer, Air may be between 1 500 ‘and 3000 times more resistant fo heat flow than steel, and @ 000 to 16 000 more resistant than copper. This means that a fim of air only 0.025 mm thick may esist as much heat transfer as a wall of copper 400, mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships depend on the temperature profiles across each layer. Figure 2.54 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process. These bartiers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also greally reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer. The more resistant the layer to heat low, the larger the temperature gradients likely tobe. This means that to achieve the same desired product temperature, te sieam pressure may need to be significantly higher. ‘The presence of air and water flms on the heat transfer surfaces of elther process or space heating applications Is not unusual, occurs in al steam heated process units to some degree. To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations, a high heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the fllms on the condensing surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency, and its removal from the ‘supply steam will increase heating performance. ‘2omyins Bugeay (E12, Perea) Der Fig. 2.5.4 Tomporature gradients across heat transfer layors Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient (U value) ‘The five main most commonly related terms associated withthe subject ofheat tansfer are: 1. Heat fowrate aw 2. Thermal conductivty —k (W/m*C) 3. Thermal resistivly —¢ (°C/W) 4, Thermal resistance R (m?"C/W) '5, Thermal transmittance U (Wim?*C) ‘The following tex in this Tutorial describes them and how they ae related to each other ‘The Waditional method for calculating heat transfer across @ plane wall considers the use of an overall heat transfer coefcient U, or more correct, the overall thermal transmittance between one side ofthe wall and the other. U values are quoted for a wide range and combination of materials and fluids and are usualy infuenced by ‘empirical data and operating experience. Tne prevously mentioned fms of condensate, air, scale, and product etther side of the metal wall can have a significant effect on the overall thermal transmittance and because ofthis, itis worth considerng the whole issue of heal transfer across a simple plane wall and then a multi-layer barrier. Heat transfer by conduction through a simple plane wall‘Agood way o statis by looking at the simplest possible case, a metal wall with uniform thermal properties ‘and specified surface temperatures. Steam sido surface temperature Ty —— Product side surface temperature Te Fig. 2.5.5 ‘Conductive heat transfer through a plane wall T and T 2 are the surface temperatures either side of the metal wall, of thickness LL; and the temperature difference between the two surfaces is AT. Ignoring the possible resistance to heat flow atthe ho surfaces, the process of heat flow through the wall ‘can be derived from Fourier’ law of conduction as shown in Equation 2.6.1 ‘The term ‘barrier refers toa heat resistive film or the metal wall ofa heat exchanger. 2 AT Q-kaS Equation 25.4 where Q = Heat transferred per unit time (WW) ‘A = Heattransfer area (m") k= Thermal conductivity of the barrier (W/m K or Wim"C) AT = Temperature diference across the barrier (K or *C) X= Barrier thickness (m) Itis possible to rearrange Equation 2.5.1 into Equation 2.5.6, gent 74 quaton2.5s where ©. = Heattranstered perunittime (49 A = Heattransfer area (m*) AT = Temperature difference across the barrier (°C) j= Barer thickness /materal thermal conductty m2°C Ww A Itcan be seen from their definitions in Equation 2.55 that “cis the thickness ofthe barier dhided by is inherent property of tyermal conduciviy. Simple artimetc cites that i the length 8 ofthe baer increases, the value °/& wil incease, and ithe value ofthe barier conducivty (K)inceases, then the value of “/kwill decrease. Acharacterstc that would behave inthis fashion is that of thermal resistance. the length of tie barr increases, te resistance to heat fow increases; andiftne conduc of te barrier material increases the resistance to heat fow decreases. Itcan be concluded thatthe term “kin Equation2.5.6 relates to the thermal resistance of a barrier of known length ‘The results of simple electrical theory parallel the equations appertaining to heat flow. in particular, the concept of adding resistances in series is possible, and is a useful tool when analysing heat transfer through a multi-layer barrier, as willbe Seen in a later section ofthis tutorial Equation 2.56 can now be restated in terms of thermal resistance, where Thickness Conduaivity °- « [ware ee [| Resistance R = as shown in Equation 25.7 ._, aT =A= QAR Equation 25.7 Where: = Heat transferred per unit time (W) A. = Heattransfer area (m") AT = Temperature diflerence across the barrier (°C) R= Thermal resistance ofthe bartier (m?"C /W) Thermal resistance denotes a characteristic of a particular barrier, and will change in accordance to its thickness and conductity In contrast, the barrier’ ability to resist heat low does not change, as this is a physical property of the barrier material. This property is called ‘thermal resistivly; it is the inverse of thermal conductivly and is shown in Equation 2.5.8, 1 K Equation 2.5.8 Where: hermalresistivty (m°C JW) hermal conductivity (W/m°C) Equally, them al conductivity le If the thermal resistance is z fram Equation 2.5.6), and k * Then themal resstanceis = xr = thiésness x themal reactivity + Rolating the overall resistance to the overall U value The usual problem that has to be solved in heat transfer applications is the rate of heat transfer, and this can be seen from the general heat transfer formula, Equation 2.5.3, Q = UAAT Equation 25.3 Where: Us The overall ermal transmittance (W/m °C) By comparing Equatons 25.3 and 2.5.7, itmust be true thatQ-uaar= ast and therefore, 1 u-l R Equation 25.9 Therefore, U value (thermal transmittance) is the inverse of resistance. Heat flow through a multi-layer barrier ‘As seen in Figure 2.5.4, a pracical application would be the metal wal ofa heat exchanger tube or plate which uses steam on one side to heat water on is other. tcan also be seen that various other barriers are present slowing down the heat flow, such as an air fim, a condensate flm, a scale fim, and a stationary fim of secondary water immediately adjacent othe heating surface. These films can be thought of as ‘fouling’ the flow of heal through the barrier, and consequently these resistances are considered by heat exchanger designers as Touling factors’. All oftrese films, in adaition to the resistance of the metal wall, constitute a resistance to heat flaw and, as inan electical circuit, these resistances can be added to form an overall resistance. Therefore: 1 the overall U isthe inverse of the sum of the resistance asshown in Ecuiation 2.5.10 as Uae 1 Ra + Ro + Ra + Rs + Rs + Re Equation 2.5.10 Where: Ry = Resistance ofthe air flm Ry = Resistance ofthe condensate flm Rg = Resistance af the scale film on the steam side Rg = Resistance af the ofthe metal wall Rg = Resistance ofthe scale film on the waterside Re = Resistance of the product film A ‘As resistance is °//kas shown in Equation 25.6, then Equation 25.10 can be rewritten as Equation 2.5.11 1 Tt LL hh Te Equation 2.5.11Wheret vf Thickness of air film 1 Thermal conductivity of air 6, Thickness of condensate fin ke Thermal conclictivity of condensate ~ Thicknass of scale film on steam sce ks” —“Thenmal conductivity of scale af __ Thickness of metal wall a> Trarnal conch a meal conductivity of metal Thickness of scale film on water side f= Tienes of scale fl on water se Ke7 Thermal ‘conductivity of scale mi Thickness of water fil 0 Thermal conductivity of water Material Thermal conductivity Wim"t Air 0.025 Condensate 04 Scale Dito! Water 06 Steel 0 Copper 400 Table 25.2 ‘Typical thermal conductivities of various materials ‘The thermal conductivties will alter depending on the film material (and temperature). For instance, air roughly has thiry times greater resistance to heat flow than water. For this reason, its relatively more important to remove air fom the steam supply before it reaches the heat exchanger, than to remove water in the form of wet steam. Of course, itis stil sensible to remove wel steam at the same time, ‘The resistance of air to steel is roughly two thousand times more, and the resistance of air to copper is. roughiy twenty thousand times more. Because of the high resistances of alr and water to that of steel and copper, the effect of small thicknesses of air and water on the overall resistance to heat fow can be relatvely large. There is no point in changing a steel heat transfer system to copper if air and water flms are stil present; there willbe litle improvement in performance, as will be proven in Example 2.8.5. ‘Air and water films on the steam side can be eradicated by good engineering practice simply by installing @ ‘separator and float tap set in the steam supply prior the control valve. Scale flms on the steam side can also be reduced by iting strainers in he same line. Scale on the product side is a litle more difficult to treat, but regular cleaning of heat exchangers is sometimes one solution to this problem. Another way to reduce scaling is {0 run heat exchangers al lower ‘steam pressures: this reduces the steam temperature and the tendency for scale to form from the product, ‘especially ifthe productis a solution like milk, Example 2.5.5 Consider a steam to water heat exchanger where the air film, condensate film and scale on the steam side | 0.2 mm thick, on the water side, the water and scale fms are 0.05 mm and 0.1 mm thick respectively. ‘The thickness ofthe stee! walled heating surface is 6 mm. Material Thermal conductivity W/m"C Ai 0.025 Condensa oF Seale Otto Water 06 Stee! 50 Copper 200Table 2.5.3, ‘The resistance of the barriers including sto tubo From Equation 2.5.6 41.Caleulate the overall U value (Us) from the conditions shown in Table 2.5.3, Equation 25.11 Where: xy Wf = 0008 29, = 00005 rf, = 0.0004 : 4 = “f= 0.00012 24, = 000008 mel = 0.0002 Uy ee 7 0,008 + 0.0005 + 0.000 4 + 0.00012 + 0.00008 + 0.0002 Uy 1 ane Uy 08 Wim? 2. Remove the air and the condensate from the steam supply Now consider the same heat exchanger where the air and condensate have been removed bya separator inthe steam supply, Calculate Up us 4 2 © DooUs + COUN T2 + LONE + 0.02 4 Us = aaop8 00008 Us = 1250 WimC Itean be seen from Us that by iting a separator in the steam supplyto this heat exchanger, and assuming that al air and condensate has been removed ffom the steam, the thermal transmittance is more than 14 times greater than the original value. 3.Remove the scale on the steam and wator sides Now consider reducing the scale on the steam side by fiting a strainer in the steam line, and reducing the scale on the water side by operating ata lower steam pressure. vu. 1 * © Goo0T2 + 000008 1 “= 3008 Us = 5000 W/m" ‘The thermal transmittance has increased another fourfold by eradicating the scale. 4. Revert tothe original conditions but change from steel tube to copper tube of the same thickness.ye ‘Conductivity Mater Thicknoss ‘2’ mm wey Air oz ozs Condensate 02 04 [Seale stoam side 02 a5 {Copper tube 50 4000 0.000015, Water 0.05 06 0.00008 ‘Scale water side O41 05 0.0002 Table 2.5.4 The resistance of the barriers Including copper tube 4 Ug = ———___ DOOE + GODT + U.GI0F + U.N TZ + OOINUS + ULUDOZ 4 Us = a3 noose Ug = 108.7 wim2"C Itcan be seen that the greater conductivity offered by the copper over the steel has made very ile diflerence to the overall thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger, due to the dominating effect of the alr and other fouling factors Please note that, in practice, other factors will influence the overall U value, such as the velocities of the steam and water passing through the heat exchanger tubes or plates, and the combination of heat transfer by convection and radiation ‘Also, itis unlikely tha the fing ofa separator and strainer will completely eradicate the presence of ar, wet steam, and scale from inside a heat exchanger. The above calculations are only being shown to highlight the effects of these on heat transfer, However, any attempt to remove such barriers ftom the system will generally prove successful, and is wrtually guaranteed to increase heat transfer in steam heating plant and equipment as soon as this is done Rather than having to calculate individual resistances of lm barriers, Tables exist showing overall U values for different types of heat exchange application such as steam coll heating of waler or oil. These are documented in Tutorial .10, Heating with coils and jackets’. U values for heat exchangers vary considerably due to factors such as design (‘shell and tube’ or ‘plate and ‘frame’ constuction), material of construction, and the type of fuids involved in the heat ansfer function, What do | do now? 1m The printable version of this page has now been replaced by The Sleam and Condensate Loop Book 1 View the complete collection of Steam Engineering Tutorials Contact Us