Orbit Analysis Vibration Institute Annual Training Seminar June 21, 2012Orbit Analysis Ray.D. Keim, PLE. Dustin Pavelek, P.E, Keim Engineering, LLC Kelm Engineering, LLC Friendswood, TX Friendswood, TX ray@kelmengineering.com doavelek@ketmengineering.com Introduction Orbit analysis Is a useful tool for any vibration analyst that deals with rotating machinery, especially those machines that are equipped with permanently installed proximity probes for vibration measurement. The process is essentially an extension of time waveform analysis as it uses time domain data from two orthogonal probes plotted on an X-Y graph with consideration for the physical location of the probes as installed on the subject machine. This paper will discuss the construction of orbit plots, uses of the orbit for analysis, examples of field data, and some of the pitfalls that may be encountered when applying this analysis technique. Orbit Construction ‘A massive amount of information is contained in vibration data measured from a rotating machine. Orbit plots are a way to present some of this data to highlight some of this information that may provide details about the nature of the vibration. if an analyst has the ability to examine the path a rotor takes as it vibrates in its bearings, the analyst can have @ better understanding of what Is causing the vibration, This is exactly what the orbit plot provides; a map of the path the rotor travels on while vibrating. Orbits plots, or Lissajous patterns if you are a fan of electrical engineering terminology, are generated by plotting the scaled vibration signals from two vibration probes mounted at the same axial position on 2 rotating machine,” The two measurements fully define the vibratory motion of the rotor at the axial position of the probes. Figure 1 illustrates how the vibration signals observed by each of the two proximity probes on the machine are combined to produce an orbit plot. The proximity probes output a voltage proportional to the physical gap between the probe tip and the target surface. This voltage has both a DC component and an AC component. The AC component represents the vibration of the rotor. For an orbit plot, the DC component is ignored and only the AC component of the signal is considered. This makes the orbit plot always centered around the origin in a normal orbit plot.Rotation Direction nae Locations Rotation Direction Figure 1: Orbit Construction (Reproduce fom Fundamental at Rotating WlachneryDiagnaetis by Donald Bantly and Charis Hatch) Phase Reference To get the most out of orbit plots, itis necessary to have a phase reference measurement from the shaft as it rotates. This can come from a Keyphasor® probe looking at @ keyway or key on the shaft or some sort of optical or laser tachometer triggered by a target on the shaft. This phase reference, or trigger, allows the user to extract frequency content from the orbit plot. Most software packages capable of displaying orbit plots indicate the phase reference by displaying a blank spot in the orbit path followed by a bright spot or a dot when tracing the path of the orbit in the direction of rotation. This “Blank-Bright” convention comes from the use of analog oscilloscopes to view orbit plots. The X and ¥ probes were wired to the horizontal and vertical channels on the oscilloscope while the phase reference was wired to the Z-axis input. When the phase reference (normally a keyway) passed by the proximity probe, a negative voltage pulse would be the output from the probe. This negative pulse resulted in the “Blank-Bright” mark on the oscilloscope display. While most analysts do not use an oscilloscope during thelr day-to-day tasks, the convention of “Blank-Bright” has remained the convention, Figure 2 shows a typical orbit plot from a machine and shows the “Blank-Bright” mark that Is applied by the analysis softwere to indicate the location of the rotor when the trigger fires.sat 1 L Blank-Bright trigger indicating forward precession Aa oo Figure 2: Phase Reference on an Orbit Plot Certain conditions can affect the “Blank-Bright” mark on an orbit. This standard convention holds true when the orientation of the probes is configured correctly, the direction of rotation is configured correctly, and the vibration is characterized as “Forward Precession.” Forward precession means that the shaft is vibrating or whirling in the same direction as the rotation. Reverse precession means that the shaft is whirling in the direction opposite of the shaft rotation. This is shown in Figure 3. Note that in both the Forward and Reverse precession diagrams, the shafts are rotating clockwise. With forward precession, the path of the orbit is also clockwise but in the reverse precession diagram the path Is counter-clockwise, see eee Whid Direct ‘Whirl Direction a “nN Rotation Rotation Reverse Precession | Phase Reference Sigure 3: Forward and Reverse Pracession Diagrams 4The orbit plots corresponding to forward and reverse precession will look the same except for the “*Blank-Bright” for forward precession vs. the “Bright-Blank” for reverse precession. It is important to note that if the analysis software is setup with the X and Y probes switched or the rotation direction entered incorrectly, an orbit with forward precession will appear as reverse precession when looking at the trigger mark. Also, if a negative trigger pulse is configured as positive, the same incorrect result will be displayed. Figure 4 shows examples of orbits indicating both forward and reverse precession. ani Rotation Forward Precession |_| Figure 4: Orbit Plats for Forward and Reverse Precession Orbit Compensation Two types of compensation can be used with orbit plots. The first is vector compensation and applies to 1X orbit plots. This is essentially the same as the compensation used with Bode’, Polar, or Time Waveform Plots and involves subtracting the 1X slow roll vector from the 1X vibration vector measured at a higher operating speed. The analyst applies vector compensation to remove and shaft runout measured at a slow speed to determine the actual 1X orbit characteristic due to synchronous vibration. This is illustrated in Figure 51X Orbit __1XSlow Roll Vector Orbit = 1X Compensated Orbit _| Figure $: Orbit Vector Compensation ‘The second type of compensation used in orbit analysis is called waveform compensation. This would apply to unfiltered, or direct, orbit plots. in this case, the digital representation of a slow roll waveform tally subtracted on a sample by sample basis to remove any unwanted information from the direct, orbit at operating speed. This can be especially useful when using proximity probes on a machine with poor surface finish on the shaft target area under the probes. Scratches on the shaft target area will result in jumps in the measured distance between the probe tip and the target. Software capable of waveform compensation will use the phase reference to digitally subtract out these imperfections, leaving only the actual shaft vibration and any noise left in the signal. An example of waveform compensation is shown in Figure 6.Unfiltered Waveforms i | rm | | 4 Slow-roll -«-} Waveforms 1 ieee net + Resulting Waveforms Figure 6: Orbit Waveform Compensation Orbit Frequency Content Now that we have examined how to generate an orbit plot from proximity probes and looked at how a phase reference or trigger will appear on an orbit plot, we are ready to start analyzing what the orbit is telling us. From Figure 1, we saw that the orbit plot is really a combination of two time waveform plots. The skilled analyst knows that it is possible to evaluate the frequency content in a vibration signal by looking at the time waveform plot. The same is true for an orbit plot. ‘The presence of a phase reference or trigger mark on an orbit plot tells the analyst how many times the shaft rotates as it travels through it vibration path or orbit. if the analyst can determine how manycycles of vibration the probes see in a rotation, the frequency of vibration can be determined directly from an orbit plot, One method of determining this is to use "Loop Rules.” When the non-synchronous {not 1X) components of vibration have a high enough amplitude, the orbit play may contain loops. if a single timing mark is present, the analyst can determine the vibration frequency from the following formal # of Loops + 1 Vibration Frequency Number Rotations No. Rotations = No. Timing Marks. Internal:Add External: Subtract Figure 7 provides two examples or orbit plots from machines with super-synchronous (! frequency content. The plot on the left has two internal loops. Using the loop equation, we see that for internal loops, we add 1 to the number of loops and divide by the number of rotations. By inspection, there are two loops per 1 rotation so the vibration frequency is 3X or three times the running speed of the machine. For the orbit on the right, there are five external loops and from the above equation, we subtract one from the number of external loops to get a vibration frequency of 4X. Figure 7: Frequency Determination using Loop Rules What about when there are multiple timing marks? This makes it difficult to correctly apply the loop rule equation to get the right answer. Fortunately, the frequency content can still be determined. This, ‘can be accomplished by inspection. Figure 8 shows an orbit plot from a machine with a dominant 1/4X vibration. It can be noted that for the shaft to travel one complete “lap” around the orbit path, it willpass four timing marks. This means the one full cycle of vibration occurs in four rotations of the shaft so the vibration frequency must be % as high as the rotational frequency. Figure & Orbit Plt for 1/4 Vibration One additional note about the presence of loops in the orbit plot is worth mentioning. internal loops Indicate a dominant forward precession. For a brief time in the orbit cycle, the precession will become reverse. When the loops are external, the dominant mode is reverse precession. Two orbit plots with identical frequency content and amplitude are shown in Figure 9. The plot on the left contains dominant forward precession components and the plot on the right contains dominant reverse precession components.Figure 9: 1X and 1/2X Vibration with Forward (left) and Reverse [right Precession Up to this point, we have examined the orbit plot with 1X and integer multiples (2X, 3X, .., nX) or sub- multiples (1/2X, 1/3X, .», 1/9X) of the running speed. Real life machines aren't always cooperative in giving the analyst nice, clean orbit plots like this. Some machine faults will result in vibration at other frequencies. Figure 10 shows how the orbit plot will change from exactly 1/2X vibration to slightly less than 1/2X (0.48X in this case} vibration as one might see in a machine with a sub-synchronous instability. ‘The orbit path will be skewed or smeared compared to the integer sub-multiple orbit and the phase reference marks will appear to rotate along the path of the orbit Figure £0: 1/2X left) and 0.48X Orbit Plots 10Orbit Shapes The shape of the orbit plot can provide very useful information to the analyst. The unfiltered (direct) orbit plot will include all the frequency content in the vibration signals. Since the channels are simultaneously acquired with generating orbit plots, any restrictions to motion will be apparent when the signals are combined to produce an orbit plat. The classical example of this presented by many authors and in training materials is the change in the orbit shape with misalignment of increasing. severity. This is shown in Figure 11, Increasing Severity tte Figure 11: Changes to Orbit Shape with Increasing Misalignment Severity Other restrictions to shaft motion can be evaluated from the direct orbit plot. Figure 12 shows the eye of a single-stage centrifugal compressor in a recycle gas service in a polymer plant. The gaseous hydrocarbon in the process polymerizes under certain conditions and can result in a hard plastic buildup inside the compressor. This polymer buildup not only increase vibration amplitude due to the change in the balance state of the rotor, but also restricted shaft motion as apparent in the flattened orbit plot. ee Figure 12: Flattened Orbit Plot due to Restricted Shaft Motion aPedestal Orbits Not every machine is equipped with proximity probes. In fact, the typical analyst will spend the majority of their time diagnosing machinery problems using accelerometers installed using magnets on the bearing housings of a machine. Fortunately, the use of the orbit plot is not restricted to data collected from proximity probes. When a two-channel analyzer is used to collect data simultaneously from accelerometers mounted on a bearing housing, a Pedestal Orbit can be generated. If a phase reference is available or can be installed temporarily, many of the analysis methods discussed in this paper will still apply. The pedestal orbit can be especially useful on machines where vibration is highly directional or where resonance Is suspected. Pedestal orbits also allow the analyst to view the orbit as a non- integrated signal, An example of a double-integrated (displacement) orbit plot from accelerometer ‘measurements is shown in Figure 13 along with the time waveforms and spectra. Figure 13: Padestal Orbit Example (One note of caution here that itis important to remember is that the path shown in a pedestal orbit is the path of the bearing housing (or pedestal) and will not exactly reflect the motion of the rotor inside the bearings. This same note of caution can be applied to the traditional orbit plot since proximity probes are providing relative motion between the probe and the target. So, if a machine has relatively weak pedestals, the vibration amplitudes from proximity probes may appear to be fairly low while housing measurements may show unacceptably high amplitudes. This is often the case on relatively large draft fans or equipment with deteriorating foundations. Field Data Collection Many of the pitfalls associated with vibration data collection and covered in training classes apply to orbit analysis. Incorrect data collector setup for the frequency content of interest will lead to misleading orbit plots. In addition to worrying about the frequency content, the analyst must use care to verify that the data collector and analysis software are correctly configured in terms of probe orientation and rotation direction. If this doesn’t complicate things enough, the trigger used must be correctly 2configured to provide a negative or positive pulse to match the data collector setup. As with all the analysis tools, garbage in will lead to garbage out, Transient Events ‘The orbit plot can be useful in identifying how a machine responds to changes in speeds, loads, time, or other process parameters. Many current software packages for vibration analysis will allow the user to view orbit plots successively to determine how the shape/frequency content is changing over time, This can be used by the analyst in the same way a cascade or waterfell plot of vibration spectra are used to see changes in vibration characteristics. Figure 14 shows an example of how orbits were used to evaluate a steam turbine generator during a vibration excursion that included a hard rub that resulted in significant damage to the machine. - igure 14: Progression of Orbit Plats during a Vibration Excursion Advanced Orbit Analysis One interesting application of the orbit plot Is the creation of rotor Operating Deflection Shapes. For a machine where X-Y probes are used in multiple axial locations, the resulting orbit plots can be stacked and spaced to scale with the machine. Ifa phase reference is available, itis possible to construct an ODS of the rotor long the path of the orbits by tracing through the phase marks on the orbits. Additional marks can be applied to the orbit plots spaced equally along the path of the orbit plots. Connecting the dots on the neighboring orbits will generate to shape of the rotor during operation. Figure 15 shows an Bapplication of this technique to simultaneously sampled orbit plots on a large turbine-generator. While a similar plot may be generated using advanced software developed for ODS/Modal analysis, this technique allows an analyst to evaluate an operating deflection shape with minimal effort and with no advanced software. Figure 15: Rotor ODS Plot Generated from Orbits Summary Orbit analysis is a useful tool to keep In your Analyst Toolbox. It is common for an analyst to look at data from multiple sources and to look at the data in more than one way when trying to diagnose a sick machine. Having the ability to collect good data and analyze that data in the form of an orbit plot will put any analyst in a better position to come to the correct conclusion about what Is causing that alarm in the control room. In this paper, the construction of orbit plots from vibration data have been discussed along with the methods used for manipulating plots to present relevant information. Additional discussion was included for the use of compensation methods for orbit analysis and how frequency analysis can be conducted using orbit plots. A discussion of the use of @ phase reference in orbit plots was included as well as the effect of data collection on the orbit display. Examples of real-life data from field data collection were presented along with discussion of how the analyst used the orbits for diagnosis of machine problems. 4References 1. Bentley, D. €., Hatch, C.: Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics, Bently Pressurized Bearing Press (2002). 2. Vance, J.: Rotordynamics of Turbomachinery. J. Wiley and Sons Inc. (1988) 15