IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL 31, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 1985 49 Basics and Advances in Battery Systems John P. Nelson, Senior Member, IEEE, and William D. Bolin, Member, IEEE Abstract—One of the most common components in both the utility and industrial/eommercial power system is the station ‘battery. In many cases, the original design Is marginal or in- adequate; the maintenance and testing is practically nonexistent; but the system is called upon during emergency conditions and is expected to perform flawless ‘This paper will begin withthe basie battery theory starting with the electrochemical cell. A working knowledge of the battery cell {s important to understand typical problems such as hydrogen, production, sulfating, and battery charging. The paper will then lead into a discussion of some ofthe common batteries and battery chargers. While this paper will concentrate primarily on the lead ‘acid type of battery, the theory can be utilized on other types such as the Nickel-Cadmium. ‘A reference will be made to industry standards and codes which ‘are used for the design, installation, and maintenance of battery systems. Along with these standards will be a discussion of the ‘design considerations, maintenance and testing, and, finally, some ‘advanced battery system toples such as individual battery cell voltage equalizers and battery pulsing units. ‘The goal of this paper is (o provide the reader with a basic working understanding of a battery system. Only with that Knowledge can a person be expected to design and/or properly ‘maintain a battery system which may be called upon during an femergency to minimize the effects of a normal power outage, 10 ‘minimize personnel hazards and to reduce property damage. 1. THE artery CELL 'N BASIC chemistry, it was determined that when a chem- ical reaction occurs, there is a net change in potential ‘energy. That change normally appears as heat being evolved or absorbed from the surroundings. However, the potential energy change in some chemical reactions appears as electric energy. ‘One such type of chemical reaction involving electricity is that of electrolysis, A typical electrolysis circuit is shown in Fig. 1 and is composed of the following: + de source such as a battery, + cathode attached to the negative terminal, ‘+ anode attached to the positive terminal, and + electrolytic solution such as sodium chloride Electrons from the de source enter the cathode and are collected by the positive ion, in this case, sodium. The sodium, jon is neutralized by the electron. On the right plate, the ‘anode, electrons are released from the negative ion, in this ‘case, chlorine, The electrons follow the circuit and continue the chemical reaction as shown in Fig. 1. Please note that the Paper PID 9422, approved by the Petoleum and Chemcil Industry Commitee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation a the 1993 IAS 40th Annual Peroleum and Chemical Industry Conference, St. Louis, MO, Set. 13-15, Manuscript leased for plication May 4, 194, "LP. Nelaon ts with NEI Else Power Engineering. Inc, Arvada, CO 10001 USA 'W. D. Bolin is with Oryx Energy Company, Dallas, TX 75221 USA. IEEE Log Number 407571 Weg Regetive fon Sitnaarg epative Too Standard Fig, 2. Batery. ‘common convention for de current flow, Ijc, is opposite that of electron flow). The overall chemical reaction is shown as: 2Nat +2CI” — 2Na + Clay) o where, Nat is the sodium ion, CI~ is the chloride ion, and (9) refers to gas. - ‘As can be seen from Fig. 1, electrolysis requires a de source. In chemistry, the above equation is an oxidation- reduction reaction, The reverse process is also possible where the oxidation-reduction reaction produces electric current. The difference is that the oxidizing and reducing agents must be kept separate and the electron transfer must occur through a wire of “load” (see Fig. 2). Such a device is called a Galvanic or Voltaic cell. (093-8994095808.00 © 1995 IEEEoo IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 31, NO. 2, MARCHJAPRIL 1995 TABLE 1 ‘Tema, Bariny Voutace Ramos ‘Bane Sae Na-of Ces Tie Apliaon 2eVole 12 Ege eae Set WO Voie 120 UPS Sem In Fig. 2, note that the following is present: ‘+ anode which sends electrons to the load, + cathode which receives the electrons, + a wire or “load” to allow the flow of electrons, and + an electrolytic solution such as HSO,, sulfuric acid. In Fig. 2, assume the anode is Pb (lead) and the cathode is PbO> (lead-oxide). The overall equation is shown as: Poa) + 2HSOz + 2H* + PbO2(.) — 2PLSOq,) + 2420 Q where, Pb.) is solid lead, HSO{ is hydrogen sufide ion, 2H* is hydrogen ion, and (5) refers to solic ‘As a result of this action, insoluble lead sulfate, PbSO., is formed at each electrode and adheres to it. In charging (lectrolysis), the electrode reactions reverse so as t0 restore the cell to its original condition: 2PPSOs(2) +2H20 — Pb») + PbO2(s) + HSO; +H*. (3) It should be noted that during battery chemical reaction, ‘water is produced, the electrolyte is weakened and lead- sulfate is formed on the electrodes. This is the result of “discharging” the battery. It should also be noted that during charging, the lead sulfate is removed from the electrodes, the electrolyte becomes stronger and hydrogen ions are produced. ‘The hydrogen ions can combine and form hydrogen gas, one of the byproducts of battery charging. UL. Barrery Basics A. The Battery System ‘As was previously shown, a battery is an electrochemical cell which can be used to deliver current or power to a load. In this paper, the discussion will center around a battery system which is a group of electrochemical cells that supplies de power at a nominal voltage to an electrical load. The number Of cells which are connected in series determines the nominal voltage of the battery system, and the size of the cell is the basic factor in determining the discharge capacity rate. ‘The lead acid battery which is commonly used in a battery system has a nominal cell voltage of 2 V. Table I provides @ list of typical battery voltage ratings. Other battery systems may have a different voltage rating per cell and number of cells in series for a particular applica- tion, For example, the Nickel-Cadmium battery (Ni-Cad) has ‘2 nominal cell voltage of 1.2 V and requires more individual cells for a particular application when compared with the Fig.3. Load profile curve. oes lead-acid battery system. A typical 24-V Nickel-Cadmium battry-system would require 20 cells. ‘The discharge rate of a battery is normally given inthe term of ampere-hours (Ah) to a particular discharge voltage level. For the lead acid battery, the normal discharge voltage level is 1.75 V per cell, or approximately 87.5% of the nominal cell voltage rating. (For the Ni-Cad battery, the normal final discharge voltage is 1.05 V per cell, or approximately 87.5% of the nominal cell voltage). Depending on the particular application, the final discharge voltage for a particular ampere- hour rating may be higher or lower. However, 1.75 V per cell is typical Batteries are normally provided with an ampere-hour rating based on a particular discharge rate. The most common rate is 8 h, however other discharge times are used. The ampere-hour rating for a particular discharge time is given as follows: fampere-hours = amperes x discharge time. (4) While the application of a battery would be quite simple if the load on the de system were constant, in actuality, dc loads typically vary throughout the time period that the battery is being used. As such, 2 load profile or load du- ration curve needs to be developed to determine the proper battery capacity, Fig. 3 shows a load profile curve. Please note that the Ioad current and time can vary considerably over the discharging cycle. In determining the battery size, the reader should reference ANSVIEEE Standard 485 [5] and the battery manufacturer for the particular application. There are ‘numerous considerations required for battery sizing including life expectancy, load growth, temperature, safety margins as well as the load duration curve. Due to the normal critical nature of the battery system application, all factors need to be considered in the sizing of the battery. B. The Battery Charger ‘The battery charger is an electronic device that changes ac current to de current to restore the charge tothe battery system. ‘Two of the more common battery chargers are: + Controlled Ferroresonance, and + Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). While both of these chargers have particular benefits, the designer needs to review his/her particular design application[NELSON AND BOUIN: BASICS AND ADVANCES IN ATTERY SYSTEMS in determining the proper charger. Some of the most common factors to be considered include: + nominal de output voltage rating, + allowable ripple (filtered or unfiltered output), + output de curent rating, + input ac voltage and frequency rating, + single or three phase input, + charger efficiency and power factor, + charger current limiting capability, + possible float and high-rate voltage settings, and + recharge duration time, In addition, most chargers requie that a battery be connected to it in order to be placed in service. However, there are chargers on the market which do not require a battery for operation while ac power is available. These devices are commonly referred to as battery eliminators which can be extremely useful during battery maintenance. The manufac- turer's literature canbe referenced to determine if the charger has tis capability, However, please note that when using stich a charger with the batery disconnected, de wil be lost during the interruption of ac power. . Industry Standards and Codes While there are numerous references to battery systems, knowledge of the following standards and codes is important: —National Electrical Code: Article 480 discusses the elec- trical requirements for storage batteries. —National Electrical Safety Code: Section 14 discusses the safety requirements for storage batteries in electric supply stations. Of particular importance in the NESC are the following requirements: + Locating the battery system within a protective enclosure of location accessible only to qualified individuals, + Providing proper ventilation to avoid the accu- ‘mulation of sufficient hydrogen gas which could ccause an explosion. + Providing proper floor design around the battery which would include acid resistive material and a catch basin to contain any spilled electrolyte. + Providing proper servicing equipment such as goggles, acid resistant gloves, protective apron nd water facilities for eye/skin washing —Code of Federal Regulations Title 29: “Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Labor” Article 1910.30S references the diffusion and ventilation of gases from storage batteries to prevent the accumulation of explosive mixtures. —ANSI/IEEE Standard 450: “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Large Lead ‘Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and Substations.” —ANSI/IEEE Standard 484: “IEEE Recommended Prac- tice for Installation Design and Installation of Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and Substations.” —ANSI/IEEE Standard 485: “IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and Substations.” IIL. BATTERY SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS. A. Battery Charger ‘The battery charger is equally as important as the battery in the de system. The old adage that “a system is only as strong as its weakest link” holds true with all de systems. AI! t00 often, a battery failure is actually the result of a battery charger failure. ‘The term battery charger failure is used rather loosely in that a failure of the ac system to the battery charger is considered a charger failure, That is not to say that for every electrical outage there is a battery charger failure, which in fact is true. However, a fault or short in the leads to a battery charger or undersizing of an ac source to the charger which blows a fuse or trips a breaker is considered a failure. For example, assume that the circuit supplying a battery ccharger is undersized. This is a condition that may have bbeen an oversight during the design phase. The battery has been in service for several years with no apparent problems. However, an extended power outage occurs resulting in a deep discharge of the battery. Upon restoration of ac power, the battery charger is required to recharge the battery according to its original design capacity. Ifthe circuit breaker supplying the circuit to the battery trips, a battery charger failure has occurred. Granted, the charger itself has not failed, but the battery charger system has. If not immediately corrected, the problem can lead to long term battery problems. : Now this is an extreme example of a “battery charger failure,” but is a failure since the charger should have power ‘and should be charging the battery. It is important to look at every aspect including power supply during the battery charger design. ‘An actual example of a battery charger failure resulted during construction of a 138-24.9 kV, 10/12.5 MVA substation in southwestern Wyoming. Although the details are sketchy, it ‘appears that the contractor of the substation made a wiring feror to the battery charger which resulted in its failure. (Many battery chargers have taps for several voltages and must be properly wired prior to installation, Voltage taps at 120/208/240 V and even 277 and 480 V on a single- ‘phase unit are often times available). This battery charger was apparently placed on the wrong voltage tap. Due to the battery charger failure, the battery was totally discharged—far more than a normal deep cycle. Unfortunately, the battery size was marginal, at best, and the battery was apparently permanently damaged. To further complicate the problem, a second, and possibly third, failure ofthe battery charger occurred. In either ‘case, the battery was not properly inspected and tested upon recharging. Approximately two years later, a large bird created a fault on the open 25-kV bus of the substation, and the fault was sensed by both transformer differential and overcurrent backup relays. However, the circuit switcher protecting the transformer failed to trip. Later inspection and testing of the battery showed serious loss of life had occurred on the batterya TEBE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 31, NO. 2, MARCHUAPRIL 1995 ‘and that the battery had insufficient capacity to operate the trip coil on the circuit switcher. The total damage was in the hhundreds of thousands of dollars, resulted in the total loss of a 138-24.9 kV transformer and ended up in the clearing, of the remote 138 kV transmission line breakers when the transformer failed catastrophically. ‘A simple check list can be used when specifying a battery charger. While the size of the battery will provide definite Constraints on the battery charger, the following should all be considered: *+ ac voltage source and voltage level, + three-phase or single-phase source, * battery voltage and capacity, + normal de continuous load current, + emergency load current, battery discharge levels and recharging times, + ambient temperature, and * altitude. During the design phase, serious consideration should be given to all of the above listed constraints. Although there are differences from manufacturer to manufacturer, most battery ‘chargers are designed for approximately 50°C maximum am- bent temperature and 1000 m altitude. Deviations in excess of these values must be taken into consideration. Applications of battery chargers in high temperatures should be avoided since the ambient temperature for the battery charger is usually the ‘same as the battery. Ifthe battery charger ambient temperature is high, then usually the battery temperature is also high. And, the battery should be applied in temperatures, if possible, very near to 25°C. ‘However, in the event that a battery charger is applied in a high temperature environment, it should be sized accordingly. Derating of 4% per ambient degree above 50°C is not uncom- ‘mon. Therefore, between 50°C and 60°C, the battery charger would need to be derated by 40%. ‘Altitude is a problem that can also affect the battery charger application while not adversely affecting the battery. Typical battery chargers are rated for altitudes up to 1000 m with erating of approximately 2% per 100 m above 1000 m. For example, a battery charger at 1000 m will have no derating, bat will have a 20% derating at 2000 m. In sizing the do current rating of the battery charger, the following should be considered: + recharge time T’ in hours, + de continuous load current Z in amperes, * the Ah of recharge in ampere-hours, + temperature correction C1 (check with manufacturer), altitude correction factor C2 (check with manufacturer), charger conversion factor typically 1.10 (check with man- ufacturer), and * the battery charger rating A in amperes. ‘The following equation includes the above factors: A= (11x Ah)/T+L) x 1/C1x1/02A. (S) ‘An example of the above equation is as follows: + Recharge time T is 8 h. + Continuous load current L is 5 A. ‘+ The maximum ampere-hours of discharge is 150 Ah. ‘+ The maximum ambient temperature is 55°C resulting in C1 = 080, + The altitude is 1500 m resulting in 02 = 0.90. Using (5), the following current rating is found: A= (1-1 x 150)/8 +5) x 1/0.80 x 10.90 A 35.6 A. A standard battery charger should be specified which would bbe approximately 40 A. However, without the derating for temperature and altitude, the charger rating would only be 25.6 A. Therefore, the battery charger should be current limited to approximately 26 A, but rated for over 35.6 A. Although the ccharger has more capacity, the derating and current limitation is desired to avoid damage to the charger. In order to properly specify a battery charger, there are ‘numerous options normally available. Many of these options will aid in the care and maintenance of the battery system as well asthe battery charger. Some of the more common options, and sometimes standard equipment, are the following: Loss of ac alarm—Although most causes for loss of ac are due to temporary power failures affecting the entire plant, it is quite possible that a fuse or breaker operates on the battery charger circuit. Without properly alarming, the loss of ac can result in a loss of the de system. Low de voltage—While numerous conditions can exist creating a low de battery voltage, one of the most common is due to the loss of the battery charger. The low dc voltage should be set sufficiently high to allow time for corective actions prior to serious problems, but not so high as to result in nuisance alarms. Depending on the system rating, a value of approximately 120-122 V would be reasonable on a 60 cell, lead acid battery that is normally floating in a range of 130-132 V. Battery ground fault indicator and alarm—Most critical de systems are ungrounded. AS a result, a single ground fault will normally not result in a tipping of a breaker or the blowing of a fuse. However, a second ground fault on another pole will result in the loss of one or more circuits from the de system, will possibly result in high currents, and should be avoided. A battery ground fault indicator is normally used 10 detect the battery ground, then proper measures can be taken to locate and remove the ground before a second ground occurs. Both indication and alarming are recommended High de voltage—Although not common, battery chargers hhave occasionally “run away" into an overvoltage condition. Such a condition can result in damage to connected equipment, severe gassing from the battery, loss of water to the battery, and ultimately a battery failure. The high voltage alarm should bee set above the high rate equalizing charge to avoid nuisance alarms. High rate equalize timer—Most batteries require a high rate equalize charge on a periodic basis. While a selector switch from float t0 equalize is available on most chargers, it does require that a person retum the selector switch back to float. As usual, people are not perfect and an equalize rate ‘can be left in the “on” position for an indefinite period of[NELSON AND BOLIN: BASICS AND ADVANCES IN BATTERY SYSTEMS time resulting in possible damage to the battery. The use of ‘an equalize timer will reduce the probability of this occurring. Since the equalize time can vary considerably, a 72 h high- rate equalizer timer is recommended and should cover 95% (of mote of the high rate time periods required over the life of the battery. If a longer period is required, most likely an engineer or technician will be monitoring the battery for a specific reason. If, for instance, the battery requires a 100 h high rate charge, the time can be set for two increments of approximately 50 h. The timer is first set at 72 h. Prior to the timer automatically turning off, the timer is reset for the total time of 100 h. Miscellaneous equipment—Other equipment as required by the installation may include: * input ac breaker for switching, * output de breaker for switching, + de Voltmeter, and + de Ammeter B, Battery Size The need to adequately and properly size the battery is ex- tremely important and cannot be overemphasized. ANSVIEEE Standard 485, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and Substa- tions,” [5] is an excellent guide for sizing a battery. While the calculations can be performed by hand, computer programs ave normally used for the more complicated calculations in battery sizing. The batery manufacturer can be contacted for assistance in choosing and sizing the proper battery. While this paper will not go into a detailed analysis of battery sizing, itis important to review the application for the battery, and size it accordingly. The authors’ experience hhas been primarily in the aplication of batteries in generating and substation applications. The most severe duty cycle in such an application is normally the result of high current for a short period of time (0.1-2.0 5), followed by a low to moderate current for an extended period of time (4.0-8.0 h) and completed with a relatively high current fora short period of time (0.1-6000 s). ‘An example of such a scenario is as follows: ‘Time period I: A major fault occurs between a transformer and main breaker. Minor damage occurs. The backup over current relays operate which in tum trips a high side circuit switcher and low side breaker (see Fig. 4). + Lockout relay # 10 A for 0.5 +. + Circuit switcher—20 A for 0.133 s. + Circuit breaker—10 A for 0.10. ‘Time period II: From the time of fault, repsirs take approx- imately 8 h during which time indicating lamps, annunciators, land emergency lights are being powered by the battery + Indicating lamps « twenty, 5 W lamps: 0.80 A for 8b. + Annunciator—1.5 A for 8 h + Emergency lights—750 W: 6 A for 8 h Time period II: After the repairs have been made, the substation needs to be re-energized. First, the transformer needs to be energized. Then, the main breaker is closed in 119k Source ‘enaetormer SPR # Foutt * me et Fig, 5. Example of substation baery load profile order to energize the station service transformer which powers the battery charger. + Close Circuit Switcher—20 A for 2.0 s. + Close Circuit Breaker—10 A for 5.0 s (assume de charging motor) ‘While this is a very basic example of @ duty cycle for @ simple substation, it does show the concept of the duty cycle (ee Fig. 5). Several points should be noted: ‘+ Normally time period 71 is assumed to be a one-minute time interval even though the current draw is only for a few cycles. + Time period 72 will be 8 h. ‘+ Time period 3 is similar to time period 1 and is assumed to be I min. + In this example, the 8-h continuous load is assumed to be present during the initial and final time periods ‘+ Ttis unlikely that both the circuit switcher and low side breaker will be closed simultaneously. Therefore, the larger of the two loads, the circuit switcher, is assumed at period T3, ‘+ Itis important to note that there is a large current draw at the end of the duty cycle, High-current, one-minute discharges at the end of the duty cycle can present capacity problems. However, without the capacity in the battery at that time, station service power cannot be restored which is required to repower the substation battery charger.Several other factors need to be incorporated in sizing the substation battery Battery temperature: Under ideal conditions, the battery should be maintained at a temperature near 25°C. This can be normally be accomplished with heating and air conditioning. ‘The battery capacity is reduced significantly at lower tempera- tures (see Figs. 6 and 7). Inthe above example, the substation power was lost due to a power outage. Since most substations ae electrically heated, the operating ambient temperature of| that substation battery room could get quite cold in the winter time, Therefore, during the sizing ofthe battery, the minimum operating temperature of the battery room must be estimated and taken into consideration in the battery sizing calculations. During an 8-h outage, the battery room could easily drop to 10°C, of less. Frequency of use: Is the battery normally operated in the float condition or will it see a number of dep discharge cycles? The type of battery design is important where some batteries are not designed for numerous deep discharges and others are. Minimum operating voltage: The capacity of the battery needs to allow for operating above the minimum accept- able voltage. For example, a nominal 120 Vde system in 2 substation should successfully operate to a lower limit of approximately 105 V. If the discharge of a particular battery will drop below this value, a larger capacity battery should be chosen. Future load growth: While this is normally a difficult figure to obtain, a number needs to be estimated and used forthe battery sizing. Although many installations “will never see any additional loads," new loads always seem to appear cover the life of the installation. Design margin: A design margin based on unknown quan- tities should be added in the battery sizing calculations Depending on the accuracy of the numbers used in the battery design caleulations, a margin of at least 10-25% should be used Life margin: When a battery is frst installed, it is common for the battery tobe as much as 10% below its rated capacity, ‘Over the first year or two, the battery capacity will increase to ils rated level. Then towards the end of the battery life, the capacity will begin to drop. At 80% capacity, the battery should be replaced. In order to allow for these variations of battery capacity over the life of the battery, a life margin of 25% should be considered, ‘While the design factors in the sizing of the battery may appear high, itis important to realize the application of the buttery system and consider the consequences for a battery failure. In most cases, the small cost for the added margins are well worth the added cost to the battery system . Battery Installations During the design of the battery system, care should be taken to assure the proper installation of the battery system. First, the necessary codes and regulations must be followed. Second, the installation needs to be designed to minimize access by ‘unauthorized personnel. And finally, the installation must be designed for ease of maintenance. 135%; 125% Tin te tase 7 Sai 108% 96% asx in esx of Rated 775/250 Amperes 55% 45% 35% ase! + Zag "0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 “i Teo So Fig. 6. Typical low temperature drain for lead ac battery. $1002 5 Tore | 4 5 corto | ‘ i © 60x 5 te 3 40 ; 3 20 roe Rea aS So EO < Seta OB Biectrlyte Temp Fig, 7. Typical low temperature deratiag for Ni Cad bate. ‘The following considerations should be made during the design and installation of the battery system: Location: The battery should be located in an area isolated from normal foot trafic. A battery room is ideal, but a caged oF otherwise protected area is acceptable. Ventilation: Calculations should be made to determine the amount of hydrogen gas that is produced under worst case ‘conditions. Since hydrogen is an explosive gas, OSHA has sated that accumulations of hydrogen gas must be limited to less than 1%. Therefore, sufficient ventilation is required to ‘meet the criteria. ‘Temperature: The battery should be maintained at a con- stant temperature, preferably at 25°C. If other ambient temper- atures are anticipated, the manufacturer should be consulted, especially at higher temperatures where loss of battery life can ‘occur. Care should also be taken to maintain all bateres at the[NELSON AND BOLIN: BASICS AND ADVANCES IN BATTERY SYSTEMS same temperature. This can be difficult on multi-step or tiered. battery racks where batteries near the floor are often times at a lower temperature than the batteries higher on the rack. Maintainability: The installation should be such that the battery can be easily maintained. Multi-step systems can be difficult to maintain if the top battery row is to far from the front of the battery. Furthermore, special curbs or catch basins should be used which are not cumbersome for the maintenance personnel. Finally, acid resistant paint should be used on the floor, if appropriate, which can be readily cleaned. There are numerous examples of substations that have been built with improper battery system installations. Usilities are requiring sophisticated protection schemes on most industrial substations which require protective relays, one or more pri- mary interrupting devices and one or more secondary circuit, breakers. The device that is normally given the least amount of consideration is the battery system. Typically an outdoor enclosure is designed which incorporates a relay panel and a “maintenance free” lead acid battery. (In one case, dry cells were used!) The ambient temperatures run from —40°C to a high of over 40°C. The battery in these enclosures will see the minimum lower temperature because there is no heater in the enclosure and may see temperatures well in excess of the ambient 40°C, possibly higher than 50°C. Serious problems, from such a design includ ‘loss of life on the battery due to the high operating temperature, + inadequate battery capacity at lower temperatures, deratings of battery charger, possible gasing problems even on “maintenance free” lead acid batteries, and + premature failure of the battery system and possible sub- sequent catastrophic failure of major electrical equipment. In short, care should be taken to incorporate the proper location for the installation of the battery system. TV. BATTERY TESTING AND MAINTENANCE Since the battery system is usually a critical component in 4 plant or substation, itis imperative that it be properly tested ‘and maintained. Many catastrophic failures have occurred due to the simple fact a battery problem occurred and it was never detected. (Think of that cold, wintry day when your car failed to start due to a dead battery!) The earlier example of the battery charger failure resulted in permanent damage to the battery. That failure resulted in the loss of a major 138-24.9 KV transformer when a bird caused a flashover on a 25-kV bus. The protective relays sensed the fault and attempted 10 trip the 138-KV circuit switcher. However, the battery, which ‘was marginal in size, had been damaged as a result of the deep discharge when the battery charger failed. In short, it ‘was like the car battery on a cold wintry day. It did not have the capacity to trip the circuit switcher. The result was the total loss of a 10 MVA, 138-24.9 kV transformer and major damage to the 25-kV bus. ‘The plant electrician adamantly insisted that the battery should have caused the circuit switcher to wip. The battery and charger were “inspected” weekly and records showed ea that the battery was at rated voltage before and after the fault. However, voltage alone is not sufficient! The battery must be able (0 provide current at rated voltage. When a subsequent Joad was applied to the battery in this example, the battery vollage immediately dropped. The pretest voltage ‘was approximately 48 Vdc and dropped immediately to 23, ‘Ve with load. It was determined thatthe minimum operating voltage forthe circuit switcher was approximately 28 Ve. The result was thatthe circuit switcher failed to wip. roncally, the circuit switcher was originally suspected to have failed! ‘This illustration should act as an example to those people who have battery systems. The system should be period- cally tested and maintained, Maintenance should include the following: + Inspection ofthe battery and battery charger. Included in the inspection shouldbe a visual inspection, cleaning, and Periodic checking for tightness of hardware and fittings Testing for the specific gravity of the elecrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a relatively weak solution of sulfuric acid in the lead acid battery, the specific gravity can be ‘measured to determine the concentration of sulfuric acd While individual applications will vary slightly on the actual application ofthe battery system, the following are common values of specific gravity + 1275—Heavily cycled batteries such as those used form electric industrial trucks. + 1.260—Automotive service + 1.245—Partly cycled batteries + 1.210—Standby or emergency service batteries such as used in electric substations. Specific gravity curves can be used to determine the amount of capacity remaining in a battery cell as a function of specific gravity. The specific gravity of the electrolyte will decrease as the battery is discharged. *+ Load testing ofa battery should be periodically performed to test the discharge characteristics of a battery. Care must be taken to follow the battery manufacturer's recom- mendations on such a test. Load testing on some battery systems such as the lead-caleium type batteries should be limited throughout the life of the battery due to some “ss-of-ife” caused by load testing. Also, specific gravity and individual cell voltages should be monitored during the load test to catch individual weak cells prior to cell reversal. + Records should be kept on all testing and maintenance. [As the battery ages, the degradation of the system can be monitored through such records and corrective actions can be taken prior to failure of the system. \V. BATTERY ADVANCES A. Battery Cell Equalizer ‘Most battery systems utilize multiple battery cells in series and, sometimes, in parallel. For example, 48- and 120-V battery systems will normally consist of 24 and 60 cells in seties, respectively. One battery charger is normally used25 TBEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 31, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 1995 y os) nea] Battery Cell Battery Charger Current Cell Charging Current Shunt Current Through BCVE 8. Operation of batery cll voltage equalizer (BCVE), ‘and will charge the entire battery system. While the intent fof the charger is to charge each individual cell equally, voltage variations can and do occur from cell to cell for a ‘number of reasons. Probably the most common reason is that of chemical cell inefficiencies. manufacturers try to produce matched cells, slight variations can occur which result in different charging characteristics. Therefore, the batteries in the system can have charging voltages which can be higher ‘and lower than the average intended charge. ‘The voltage variations on individual cells over the life of a battery will increase as more efficient cells will tend to have a higher voltage, and less efficient cells have a correspondingly lower voltage. Periodic equalizing charges are recommended by battery manufacturers to increase the charge to the lower voltage/inefficient cells and this has a tendency to equalize the voltage on all cells. However, the equalize charge has a tendency to stress the individual cells and can result in further deterioration of some cells, ‘The theory behind the battery cell equalizer [10] isto assure that each individual cell in a battery system is constantly charged at the appropriate battery voltage. The individual battery cell equalizer is an electronic device that will by- pass current from a cell that requires less float current, or force more current into the cell to maintain the cell's optimum voltage level. Therefore, both undercharging and overcharging are eliminated on individual cells (see Fig. 8) ‘The apparent benefits of the individual battery cell equalizer + reduced sulfation from undercharging individual cells, reduced water consumption from overcharging individual cells, jereased life expectancy from proper charging, imination of need for “equalize” charge, * simplicity in battery maintenance: faulty cells can be quickly determined due to voltage variations greater than normal, and + adding new cells to old battery systems: new cells nor- mally require less float charge than older cells. B. Battery Pulsing System Another device which has been recently developed to extend the life of a battery system is an electronic device (12) that places a higher voltage than standard with a fast rise and shor tem pulse. ‘The purpose of the device is to extend the life on all lead based batteries including: + lead antimony, + lead calcium, + ead gel-type, and + lead acid Independent tests have indicated thatthe device will also perform on the Nickel-Cadmium type batteries. ‘The theory behind the battery pulsing system isto minimize the formulation of lead sulfation on the battery plates. Such sulfation, if not removed from the plates, can be detrimental to the battery and can adversely affect its lite Normally, battery sulfation deposits have been removed by the use of a high voltage and current charge. This has been found to remove only small portions ofthe sulfation deposits, and can result in overheating and warping ofthe battery plates This in tum can lead to shorting of the battery plats. The pulsing system removes sulfation by using a slightly higher voltage with a fast rise time and short time pulse. ‘According to the manufacturer, the short term pulse charge voltage is 1.1 to 1.3 times the theoretical cell voltage which has a 1 MV/s rise time and a duration of between 1 and 2 ms. With this pulse rate, the electrolyte solution is not allowed sufficient time to respond, and plate saturation of the charge occurs with minimal curent flow. By allowing the pulse frequency to increase to 5000 Hz, sufficient energy is put into the battery to remove the sulfation with no damage to the battery. The pulse frequency isin the range of 5000 He and has a 0.2-ms rise time and 2-ms pulse width, The pulse is designed to operate so fast that the electrolyte so- lution cannot respond and results in “cleaning” the battery plates. The pulsing system was tested on an older battery in an clectrical substation, The battery system had been in service for approximately 12 years and had not been well mainisined. The pulsing system was installed on the 120-Vde, Ni-Cad battery in November 1991 after a load test had been conducted in August of the same year with satisfactory results. The battery showed only small amounts of sediment on the bottom of the jars. At the manufacturer's recommendation, the pulsing system was installed on the high rate of operation for 22 days. Preliminary data has shown an increase in individual cell voltages, and an increase in output capacity of 34%. Further testing is planned to confirm the preliminary results. However, the long-term results of extended battery life will most likely take many years. It has been decided to leave the pulsing system on the ibattery indefinitely at @ low rate One author's company has utilized the pulsing system on lead acid batery systems which were marginal and have had excellent success. Again, the long-term effects will be ‘monitored of other systems need to be monitored prior to ‘making any final conclusions.i — Fig. 9. Standard banery protection, Fig. 10. Internal fat with standard batery protection. Fig. 1. Cemer banery fuse protection. ‘Due to the impulse, it appears that the battery cell equalizer and the pulsing system cannot be simultaneously used. Further analysis will be necessary to determine the compatibility of the two pieces of equipment. C. Battery Protection The discussion of battery system protection is quite leng- thy and it is not the intent of this paper to cover that subject in great detail. However, there are some areas of battery system protection that warrant discussion, especially discussion as presented by R. L. Nailen in the paper “Battery protection—Where do we stand?” 11] Fig. 9 shows a simple battery protection system where two fuses, FI and F2, are used in accordance with 240-20.(a) of the National Electrical Code [6]. The code requires an ‘overcurrent device in each ungrounded leg. And, the common industry practice for installing battery systems is to utilize ‘an ungrounded system. In that case, the frst ground on the system will not cause a fuse to blow or a circuit breaker to ttip. (However, it is important to have a battery ground detection alarm so thatthe first battery ground can be detected and corrective actions taken). ‘As Nailen pointed out in his paper, there have been cat- astrophic battery failures as a result of faults within the battery system as shown in Fig. 10, While such faults are rare, such conditions as battery rack failures, earthquakes and maintenance tools have created faults within the battery system such thatthe fuses would not sense the fault. (Insulated maintenance tools and protective bus bar coverings can be used to further minimize the probability of these types of faults). By placing a fuse midpoint in the battery system as shown in Fig. 11, 2 greater portion of the batery system is protected. For example, a fault as shown in Fig. 12 can be cleared by fuse 3, While fuse F3 can be shown to protect the battery system in the same manner as using fuses Fi and F2, a question ‘may arise as to the fact that the battery is not protected in accordance with NEC section 240, Therefore, while fuse F3 provides adequate protection, the use of fuses FI and F2 ara . Fig. 12. Intemal fal protection. Fig. 13. Hybrid basery protection with fuss. 7 Pole Fig. 14. Hybrid batery proteton with ciruit breaker, may still be warranted. Especially as shown in Fig, 13 where a fused disconnect is utilized, ‘Now for those applications where a circuit breaker is used in place of fuses Fl, F2, and F3, a two-pole breaker should be used in place of FI and F2, and a single-pole circuit breaker should be used in place of F3 (see Fig. 14). Note that in all de applications of fuses and circuit breakers, the fuse and/or circuit breaker must be properly rated for de applications. DC ratings on fuses and circuit breakers are normally different from the ac ratings, and many ac devices do not have a de rating. The manufacturer of the device should be contacted if there are any questions concerning the application and rating of the protective device. D. Cable Lock Washers ‘The typical hardware for connecting battery wiring has been with the one-sided slot lock washer. The use of this washer has resulted in problems with nonuniform compression on the ‘current carrying connection to the battery cell. To address this problem, a uniform beveled washer with multiple groves is available and has been successful used in battery applications. When the connection is made according to specifications, the ‘washer is uniformly flatened to provide a tight connection, ‘The use of this washer should reduce the need for maintainance of repeated torquing of the battery connections, E, Maintenance Free/Sealed Cell Batteries ‘There are battery systems on the market that are labelled “maintenance free” and/or “sealed.” The marketing tactic for such a battery is to sell the user on a battery that requires no ‘maintenance and does not vent hydrogen to the atmosphere. While gases are normally minimized in these batteries by special designs such as the gelled electrolytes and other processes, hydrogen gas is till produced. Some systems utilize ‘recombination system to recombine hydrogen and oxygen2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL, 31, NO. 2, MARCWAPRIL 1995 back into water which is then returned to the electrolyte. However, in all cases, it appears that a pressure regulated valve {is used to vent hydrogen to the atmosphere if the hydrogen build up is sufficient. Thus, the term valve regulated cell has come into existence. The terms “maintenance free” and “sealed” may both seem attractive to the end user. However, both terms are “myths” and do not exist! First, there is no substitution for proper and systematic main- tenance, even with the so-called “maintenance free” battery ‘The maintenance functions previously discussed should still be used on such batteries: + cleaning, + inspection, + load testing, and + torquing, ‘Second, there is no such thing as a “sealed” battery. There is a pressure regulated valve that will vent hydrogen. Fur- thermore, if the battery sees severe duty such as extremely cold or extremely hot temperatures, large amounts of gas can bbe produced and vented to the atmosphere, In such a case, premature failures can result due to the “drying out” of the cell. ‘VI. ConcLusion Perhaps one of the most neglected electrical components is the battery, Consider the number of automobile batteries in existence and how few are ever properly maintained, Then consider the number of industrial and utility grade battery systems which are similarly neglected. In all probability, ‘numerous battery system presently exist which cannot perform as expected. Do you have one of those systems? It is important to take into consideration all aspects of the battery system during its design, installation and operation. ‘A proper design of the battery system will help assure the adequacy of the battery system throughout its life. However, the system needs to be periodically inspected, tested, and ‘maintained. Even the “maintenance free” batteries should be Periodically maintained and tested. Finally, new devices on the market may help extend the life of the battery system. In conclusion, we must maintain an understanding in the basics and advances in hattery systems, REFERENCES (1) ALCAD Stand-by Banerles Catalog, ALCAD Ine, Non Haven, CT 0673, [B} ANSI C2. Motion teil Safe Code New Yr NY: IEEE, 1993 Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replace ment of Large Lead Storage Bateres for Generating, Stations and Substations, ANSVIEEE Standard 450, 1987 [4] IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Instalation of. Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating Sttons and Subsatios, ANSWIEEE Standard $88, 1987 [5) IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead Storage Bates, for Generating, Stations and Substations, ANSWIEEE: Standard #85, 1983, [6]. ANSUNFPA 70, Naonal Electrical Code 1993, National Fie Protection Associaton, Quiney, MA. (71 C&D Strion Battery Installation and Operating Instracions, C&D Batery Company. Plymouth Mecting, PA. Is) CER 2, Code of Federal Regulations Labor, Pars 1900 t 1910, by National Archives and Records Administration, Warhngto, DC. (9) “Staion Lead-Acid Banery Systems Section 0.0," Reference Manual by Exide, Exide, Horsham, PA. (10) B. Lindémark, “Individual cellvotge equalizers ICE) for reible a 02) 03) 04 butery performance” presented at Intle'91 Cont, Now 191. RL. Nailer, “Butery protection —Where do we stand?” IEEE Trans Ind. Applicat, vl. 200.4, uy/Aug. 1991 “Powergh'sPulsi™," Lieratre by Powerght Products, Inc, Rock wall TX. M. J, Sieako and R.A. Plane, Chemistry. New York: MeGraw-Hil 1961, pp. 275-296. RD, Soilea, Je, "A diagnostic esting progam for large lead acid storage battery barks,” IEEE PCIC Paper no. PCIC-32-B, Sep. 1992 John P. Nelson (5°3-°76-SM'R2) was born in Casper, WY, on February 2, 1947, He recived the BSIEE. degree from the Univenity of lina (Champaign Urbara, in 1970, and te MS.EE. de zee from the University of Colorado, Denver, in 1975, He was employed with the Public Service Com pany of Colorado from 1969 to 197, during which time he was assigned 10 the Elciic Engineering Department Engineering Services Deparnent, td ‘he Fuel Supply Developmen Division. From 1979 to 1984, be was with Power Line Model, Ine, Evergreen, CO, whete he wat 1 principal and Vice Prsieat aid mas active inthe sign and contraction fof elecucal substations. He founded and x President and CEO of Nelson Engineering, Ine, which later was renamed NEI Electric Power Eaginering. Inc, Arvada, CO, and which i involved inal aspect of electne power engineer. "Mr, Nelsons «registered engincerin numerous sates and has writen sev cral papers which have been previously published inthe IEEE Traxsacrons fos Inousray AruicaTONS, He is act in the Petroleum and Chemical Industry Commitee of the Industry Applications Society Wiliam D. Botin (M0) was born in Dallas, TX, ‘on December 30, 1949, He recived the BS, degree In eecuical enginering from the Universi of Texas, Arlington, 'AS an elecieal engineer for Oryx Energy Com pany, Dallas, since 1978, he ie responsible for ‘Sommunicaion apd power systems for marine fo tility engineering. He as writen Severs echnical papers_on power systems, sebmenble pumping Systems, and commancaion applications. He Rods two paca on power cogeneration