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    8 views19 pages

    Petrology

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    Sylvan Anugrah
    alterasi

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    LECTURE 1 THE APPLICATION OF PETROLOGICAL TECHNIQUES TO GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1. GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES ‘Tectonic setting, Most high-temperanure geothermal systems in the Philippines are located within 2 region of active oblique plate convergence involving two sets of subduction zones tothe eastand west of ‘the archipelago. Others are found in areas associated with post-colision volcanism, rifting inthe Macolod Corridor and shearing slong the Philippine Fault Zone. Voleanic setting. Most geothermal areas are associated with Pleistocene to Recent cale-alkaline to alkaline volcanie complexes dominated by andesite, sometimes with domes of silicic andesite to dacite. General well stratigraphy. From top to bottom the stratigraphy consists of Pliocene to Recent andesite to dacti extrusves, andesite hyaloclastites and minor basalts; Miocene to Lete Pliocene carbonaceous “4 sedimentary rocks, These are intruded by dikes, Basement may be a massive diorite pluton or a hneterolithologie sedimentary breccia with clasts of intrusive rocks, voleanilastics and serpentinite. Diw37 ‘Topography is very rugged and differences in elevation within a geothermal resource may/vary from 750 smal well... 38 %02500 m, This affects the hydrology of the system such as tne depth ofthe water table (200-800 m from surface) phase separation within the reservoir, the distribution ané type of thermal manifestations (Figure 1), These in turn have a bearing on the hydrothermal alteration patterns and mineral assemblages. Geochemical gradients. There are steep geochemical gradients, Reservoir Cl ranges from 3,000 to 10,000 mg/kg and is usualy associated with high gas contents. Magmatic content based on 50 and 6D of wel discharges ranges from zero 10 90% (Figure 2). hycrotherral sect | hydotenra) | magmate-hystothenral ‘system hycoterrel] system ‘syste sere: B50 seaman vets Be v7 w Toke Sees" bei erties rage cas Figure l: Geochemical model of a typical Philippine geothermal system (Reyes, 1995) 7 Application of petroiogical techniques 8 Lecture 1 2 3 nays g Neat © Rig SE lange 800-400 0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 8D ot00) Figure 2: 6"'0 and D of discharge fuids in Philippine and New Zealand ‘geothermal systems (Reyes, 1995) FACTORS AFFECTING HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION ‘Temperature; Permeability (elated to gas contents and hydrology ofa system); Fluid composition (acid, neutral pH; high or low gas; vapour- or water-dominated: magmatic, meteoric); Initial composition of rocks; Duration of activity (immature, mature); . "Number of superimposed hydrothermal regimes (overprintng of alteration); Hydrology (affected by topography). DATA THAT CAN BE GLEANED FROM VARIOUS PETROGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES (Reyes, 1992) ‘Temperature from: ~ Hydrothermal mineralogy; + Fluid inclusions; ~ Vitrnite reflectance Fluid chemistry'Source of fluids from: + Hydrothermal mineralogy; ‘Neutral pH! alteration assemblage, “Acid alteration assemblage, + Stability diagrams; + Fluid inclusion data; Salinity, *CO, contents, ‘Presence of other gases and Muids Permeability from: + Structures; + Mineralogy; Lecture 1 + Processes fro > Mineralogy ~ Fluid inclu + Rock sau ‘These proces, Stear Conds Boilin Ineurs Neu Form: Influx Forme Geological pr Weath Semper Devite Diage Hydro Magm Conta + The thermal b + Mineral par + Cross-cuttir + Palaeontolo + Thermolum + WAr dating + Rough estima 4. TEMPERAT. ‘Temperature not 0 the rate of ateratic sgeotherme! system Setting up miners Assumptions: ‘A. There has beet ‘minerals reflec B. No large fault C. There is minin D. Thereis litle However, most PE A. The cecurrene inclusion heme the presence of B. The occurrene: ©. Wells with mu sminated; magmatic, Lecture 1 9 Application of petrological techniques + Processes from: ~ Mineralogy: ~ Fluid inclusions; ~ Roek structures. ‘These processes include: Steam-heating; ‘Condensation; Boiling of hot aquifer fuids; Incursion of cool groundwaters; [Neutralisation of acid waters; Formation of vapour-dominated zones: Influx of magmatic fuids; Formation of sealed zones. Geological processes that produce secondary minerals in Philippine geothermal systems: ‘Weathering: Serpeatinisation; Devitrfication of glass; Dingenesis; + The thermal history ofa system can be unravelled using: + Mineral paragenesis ~ Cross-cutting relationships among veins, intrusives: + Palaeontology; + Thermoluminescence; + K/Ar dating of alteration minerals. Rough estimate ofthe thickness of eroded overburden, 4. TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature not only contols, toa degree, the composition of secondary mineral assemblages but also the rate of alteration processes. Figure 3 lists common minerals used as geathermometers in Philippine ‘geothermal systems. Temperatures are often = 20°C. ‘Setting up mineral geothermometers in individual Philippine geothermal systems Assumptions: ‘A. There has been a single field-wide hydrothermal pulse that is presently active and thus secondary ‘minerals reflect present conditions, 1B. No large fault displacements bave occurred since the onset ofthe hyérothermal activity; . There is minimal intemal flow inthe wells that may mask stable well temperatures, D. There is litte variation in rock compositions in the srtigraphic column, However, most Philippine systems are characterised by: A. The occurrence of at least two pulses of hyiirothermal activity as indicated by multi-modal fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures, etrogradation of alteration minerals, crosscutting veins and the presence of multiple intrusive events; B. The occurrence of large normal fault displacements (350 m) after rock alteration; C. Wells with multifeed zones that cause intemal flows are common. Application of petrological techniques 10 Lecture | TEMPERATURE 200 Figure 3: Selocted minerals in Philippine geothermal systems commonly used as ‘geothermometers (Reyes, 1990) Despite these encumbrances, fui inclusions and measured stable temperatures were gathered from more than 100 deep geothermal wells, sampled every 3-5 m, and compared to secondary mineral occurrences, ‘When determining possible mineral geothermometers, alist of hydrothermal minerals and their stable temperature ranges in a geothermal system, such as in Wairakei Figure 4), are first drawn up. From this list, common minerals with specific temperature ranges are selected and used as geothermeters as shown in Figure 3 for the Philippines. [Asa shortcut, the various minerals can be grouped into zones and subzones associated with characteristic ‘mineral assemblages. Such zones are used to give gross approximations of well temperatures, (Often minerals are divided into clay zones and cale-silicatesub-zones because of ~ their common occurrence and abundance; ~ their sensitivity to thermal and fluid composition changes; + the easy megascopic identification of epidote, wairakite, garnet, smectite and actinolive- ‘remolite in the field using alight microscope (Figure 5). Lecture | Further temp ‘be made by. othe the Lecture 1 Lecture 1 n Application of petrological techniques: ly used as (isaac = me : gathered rommore ee ‘mineral occurrences. eerie tras and their stable = rswn up. From this aos othermeters as shown rem - Figure 4: Range of stable emperatares for hyérothermal minerals in igh ih heracteslat Wairakei; mineral occurrences: S = scale material, vein or vug mineral, — P = secondary mineral replacing feldspars, F = minerals replacing sot ferroagnesins, G~ minerals epacig the growmdmsss,M = minerals ae replacing titanomagnetite, «= alteration, v= vein (compiled by Reyes et al., 1994) ct and actinlite- Further tomperatre predictions within the caleslicatesub-zone of Philipine geothermal systems can bemade by = the appearance of hy drogrossula/grossulargamet(>260"C),wairakite(>230°C) and atinolite- tremolite O280°O): ~ the occurrences and crystal morphology of epidote (Figure 6) Application of petrological techniques BR Lecture 1 zone __|sus.zone| MINERAL ASSOCIATION TEMPERATURE RANGE (0) aces om in ae TOT THREES | sms ree Pe TSP ieen eae BT a ay SEE ‘Sire sn wr erin Fagerion aren oer, Figure 5. Mineral zones and sub-zones in various geothermal systems; A. Wairakei (Steiner, 197); B. Neutral pHi alteration in the Philippines (Reyes, 1990); C. Ieeland (Kistmannsdétir, 1982). 5 S| = versace | teem | a en Lg ‘Temperature also affects the metamorphism of organic material in geothermal areas where carbonaceous sedimentary rocks can be intersected in dogp wells such as inthe Philippines, New Zealand, Mexico and the USA. The reflectance in oil (R.9%) of organic fragments or macerals, especially vitrinite, increases proportionally with temperature. Figure 7 shows a comparison among organie and inorganic ‘geothermometers in sedimentary basins and geothermal systems with increasing reflectance (R.,%) and temperature. The metamorphic Zones in Figure 7 refer to organic material alteration. Lecture } Figure 6 Vitcinte refec Prieto, Salton § these were con the Philippines correlation lin (Struckmayer, below 150°C, ‘maceral compe Fluid inclusior wairakite, K-fe secondary fui temperatures, 1 circumvent any ‘measured in al basically statis temperatures hi bbeas serious a in Figure 8 Fluid inclusion ~ provide « + offen tell The stability © determined ust Lecture and sub-zones in ns, A. Wairakei al pH alteration in 1999); C. Teetand it, 1982). as where carbonaceous «Zealand, Metco and ily virnt, increases organic. and inorganic refleciance (R96) and tion Lecture | B Application of petrological techniques process ae Tene Tame Tare Goins tee ‘auanst aa Fm Toepa TogEae TOR tenis Poegacinte = Ene ryt tT : Seycinetee seat ala Senn Sa ne Staten Soman, eephtcoe Penge, en Epaoe eomeenes Stns nr train ‘romper ee Tiontespes apie Simei Secwase nce Vedgeee Joserasecnet | epnion st et calta ae sdaratiene aang ‘ey, shen ne ———_mrvesntntnesbetae ensnsin Figure 6: Changes in epidote crystal eccurrences and morphology with increase in terpersture (Reyes, ampublished results) Vitrinite reflestance in geothermal systems, suchas in various geothermal areas in New Zealand, Cervo Prieto, Salton Seaand the Philippines have been measured. These points are plotted in Figure 8. Tntally ‘ese were compared tothe regression line for Cero Prieto drawn up by Barker (1979), Analyses from tne Philipines (p) fll slong the Cem Prieto line. The Salton Sea semples() lie along tsown,seepet, comelation line. Above 200°C vitrinite reflectance data from New Zealand geothermal systems (Struckmayer, 1983; Gonzales, 1985) cluster within a narrow range fora given temperature, However, below 150°C, vitrinite reflectance values are scattered due probably tothe role of Kinetic in altering ‘smaceral compositions (Figure 8), SS a non Fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures are commonly measured in anhydrite, quartz, calcite, ‘wairekite, K-feldspar and sphalerite occurring in veins or as replacement material. Both primary and secondary fluid inclusions are studied, although results from the latter often match measured well ‘temperatures, Inthe Philippines, material ftom both cuttings and cores ate collected and analysed, To ircumventany contamination from shallower levels in cutings, homogenisation temperatures are always ‘measured in at least six different crystals from each sampled depth, since fluid inclusion results are basically statistical. Temperature histograms in most Philippine studies tend to show mare scatter at ‘emperanures higher than measured inthe well. Thus contamination froma shallower depths, may often not beas serious as anticipated. An example of fluid inclusion results in Alto Peak, the Philippines is shown in Figure 9. . Fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures = provide a more precise picture of thermal pulses; ~ often reflect stabilised well temperatures, ‘The stability of hydrotherme! minerals as a function of foo, and temperature (Figure 10) can be etermined using thermodynamic data, as used by Giggenbach (19972), Application of petrological techniques 4 Lecture 1 Lecture 1 1 B3]z,| 3 aly aad il iP iLb | [E.. Bas Fal By a” Hid? Bay isfy a = i Figure 9: § itl Hi ! Alto Peak we i \ stentonsod “hehe | ferpueeae Figure 7: A diagram comparing organic and inorganic geothermometry in sedimentary basins and ‘geothermal systems; organic geothermometry is based on the reflectance in oil (R,%) of vitrinite ‘macerals and inorganic geothermometry on secondary minerals (‘Heroux etal. (1979); “Barker (1979); 'Struckmayer (1983); “Taguchi et al, (1983); “Diessel and Offer (1975); ‘Stach etal. (1982); “Giggenbach (1997); *Tissot and Welte (1984) eat 5 Figure 8: Vitrnite reflectance data in Philippine, 5 New Zealand, Salton Sea and Cerro Prieto z geothermal systems plored agsinst measured well : Gr {lui inclusion.temperares (da. from Bostick, 1971; Barker, 1979; Sruckmayer, 1983; Reyes, 1984; Gonzales, 1985); explanations: s= Salton Sex; n= Ngawha: b= Broadlands; w = Philippines Sareea sant Temperature (°C) = upflows. Aci alteration Figure 11; Ry vs temperate nd nea sulfides «ie pee can be ive int tree ies sagnant fi oe pes exh wi (eden et a, 198) pense their Characteristic At high tinea sitmblages, temperature ranges and associated water omposions proces is Fodor Examples of minerals in cach alteration suite ae shown in Figre 4 and slteation pes, alteration component ‘Suomblages and alereon processes in Ao Peak are shsm in Figure 13 resort Tate hig FuidmRock rato, Hycrothemal aeration systems maybe sobvided ino two main pes depending agressive ba heave propotons of uid and rock volved nthe hyrotermal proces Figur 1) dissolve au Rockedominated snd “Fhe dominated Figue 13: al processes in Al 2, 1993) TT He AS 300 400 9 sineral sulfides » Iteration types, alteration -wo main types depending veess (Figure 14): Leccure 1 Application of petrological techniques 8 SEE gene \ \ ait iii ‘Figure 12: Using fluid inclusions to define fluid salinities, possible CO, contents and processes {in the Alto Peak wells, the Philippines (Reyes et al., 1993) Fluidvrock ratios are defined rigorously only in closed or stagnant systems. In natural generally ‘open and dynamic systems, the fluid/rock ratio cannot be quantified but’ can still be used (qualitativelyto refer to relative effeets, rather than quantities of fluid and rock invelved in the hyérothermal process, With increasing effective fluid‘tock ratios, the following four major situations can be delineate: In the absence ofa fluid, such asin highly impermeable formations, the primary rock remains; + The presence of a minor, essentially stagnant fluid phase facilitates isochemical ‘ecrystallization, accompanied by hydration: + At high fluid‘ock ratios, the alteration ‘process is increasingly dominated by the Introduction and removal of fluid phase components leading to the replacement or ‘metasomatism of primary minerals; + Atveryhigh flud/rock ratios, insufficiently aggressive environments, the rock may dissolve altogether asin acid environments Figure 13: Alteration types, assemblages and processes in Alto Peak, the Philippines (Reyes et al, 1993) 0 Cg gina page £3, ed Application of petrological techniques 18 Lecture 1 hydrothermal alteration systerns SSS SS [rect conincted Te comintad oF no reactignin | | isocherricelre-| | metesomatism| | rock sssoution Moermecbie | | erystotisction | | ithghpermes-| | isutfcentiy Systemarock | | intow perme-| | uiitysystems | | augressive en. altered Sbilty Systerns Grornents “fluid / rock ratio” > Figure 14: A Giggagram showing types of hydrothermal alteration systems ‘according to « qualitative fluidrock ratio (Giggenbach, 19976) hydrothermal alteration systems fa aoninenn fig corre Teckunaterea] [Tetenorion] [Retesornatisn] [Fooassuten —— K-metasomatism and | | H-metosomatism at} | Na.MgCo-metaso- siicificationin major | | margins of uptiow matisth in recharge uptiow zones. zones zones potassicalteration | | phytic toorgilic alter: | | propylitic alteration a _ILS@ Figure 15: A Giggegram showing various types of metasomatism according to “fluid'rock” ratio (Giggenbach, 19976) ‘Metasomatism during fluid-deminated alteration processes may be subdivided into three sub-processes (Figures 15 and 16): ™ Kemetasomatism accompanied by silicification in major upflow zones, giving rise to potassic alteration; “Hemetasomatism due to rapid cooling along the margins of upflow zones leading to argille and phyllic alteration; = Na, Mg, Ca metasomatism in response to increasing temperatures in recharge zones leading 10 propyltic alteration (Giggenbach, 19976) Lecture 1 6. PERMEAL Sources of per ~ Faults wit + Fractures - Lithologie ~Clastsmatr Paleosals. Fault inteseetic Philippines are c have an advanta to infer faults di Lecture t sed) ‘ock dissolution ‘sufficient ve ene ronments. ated {Go-metoso- Tin recharge itic alteration alll amatism » led into three sub-processes tes, giving rise 10 potassic ‘ones leading to argillie and + recharge zones leading 10 Lecture } 19 Application of petrological techniques s-eRsT KAPOAN Figure 16: Cross-section showing the various processes found in hydrothermal system (Giggenbach 19976) 6, PERMEABILITY Sources of permeability in Philippine geothermal systems are the following: = Faults with dips of 60° - 90° (mostly normal, rarely reverse faults); + Fractures or joints due to intrusions and along edges of plugs and domes; ~Lithological contacts; += Clast:matrx or fragment:fragment contacts in breccia, especially hyaloclastites; - Paleosols. Fault ineesections are the major sources of permeability in Philippine systems, Most wells in the Philippines are drilled directionally because of rugged topography in most geothermal sites. These wells have an advantage, to, in intersecting more faults that may provide permeable zones. Evidences used ‘o infer faults during or after drilling, as shown below, should be used together: Application of petrological techniques 20 Lecture 1 = Permeable zones detected during well completion tests; Bit walks during drilling, = Drilling losses with or without subsequent blind drilling; “Intense to complete alteration of rock samples; + Abundant veins: {Presence of mylonites and fault-comminuted rock samples; «Presence af acid alteration below 200 m. “Types of faults according to their role in the geothermal reservoir and the type of fluids they channel: = Conduits for bot aquifer uid; = Channels for cooler, often dilute groundwaters; = Pathways for acid solutions, = Conduits for magmatic ids Rock characteristic indicative of possible aquifers: Presence of sheared rock and its association with abundant veins, drusy minerals and high alteration intensity, Minerals indicative of good permeability in Philippine geothermal wells: = Quartz, adularia, anhydrite, Wairakte ite, hyalophane, abundant pyrite, abundant calcite (often 230"C; persistence of matrix dolomite or siderite at>180°C 7. PROCESSES Characteristic mineralogical and fluid inclusion Space candle cen, hylogeal = ‘processes, as listed in Table !. Figure 17 shows —e. Jone ne poi tmozesaten ‘Rene pa fd ales. tempest ‘These are characteristic of certain well conditions § proce : 5 4 TuERMAL mIsTORY : — i 4 By dating fossil in the sedimentary formations found in most geothermal systems and by dating aes Intrusives using K-At dating methods, it was {ound that in most Philippine eecthermal areas, the Upper Miocene to Eatly Pliocene sedimemary formations are fected by hydrothermal | Sica RNG Ogee alteration, indicating that hydothernal systems ‘were initiated after the Pliocene (Figure 18). “knother method used in dating thermal events is Figure 17: Pattems formed by ploting homo- thermoluminescence, 25 in the Palinpiaon _evisation vs freezing point Nid inclusion {geothermal region inthe Philipines, illustrated Tttperarues,chareterisi of cain well in Figure 19. conditions or processes Lecture 1 Table 1 and their a Lecture 1 ‘pe of fluids they channel: sinerals and high alteration site, abundant calcite (often sceofprehnite, pumpellyite, silite-smectiteat>230"C; saat Chenen es z i Ree Oana ‘ormed by ploting homo- 1g point fluid inclusion ucteritis of cerain well Sr processes Lecture | a Application of ptrological techniques ‘Table 1: Examples of processes or conditions in geothermal wells/systems in the Philippines ‘and their associated mineralogical, fluid inclusion ‘and discharge or downhole water compositions (Reyes, unpublished resulss) Pree Vinersogical Fie ‘Cine TT Contenaton uta —— (CO, HCO, waters |Kaotinie + Maras ~ Chalondony + Very tte wates + CO, o. [smectite + CeletsDolomite/ankere HSt0$0,vaes [Kaolin > Opal» Pycte + Maessie [+ Aluite + Chaos ative Sur 2 Boting of nor saguier Maids Dray quartz. wake anhycrite, — |Vapowilled Fl eens with iui Idle andr hyalophane wit or [led ons have smc horoeerisetion| [not associated lite epicote empeances (1) Pate foened when loins T, ws Ty (ce making ca fsmpereaes af sown in Fegre 17 1a water newton undant gotten veins as clots on Bimodal T,: ear2er0 , asociatt [Downe fd a as Feplacement of jnsthiow Th; pane exkibted by heminty stows 2 femomisnesians ad magnet; pong Tavs Tm fbssrease in Cl ana [Abindant Mach mineral suck 0, associated frrnicalte, vermiculite al, han crease in cit, ake, Mack chlorite, g; eased wel fei; A>undane montroilont; bunds cle Siete andlor Tg) ISS fone may be present, Overlap of fees <2700 m snd highcemperatie minerals reuse S710 ict SE Se i id Hota foe ese users hy poem yer") ere sect kw date vem uci | acs mo guts of r= Faleune caveat neseent | 0020 “et Hot eth. tei ar us TEM aah ae Ce of EE ‘aren hah ris ouch eet nies. (es emt eyo penee, Stonfet By ar este oF ute ane STON, $1. TSTOWE 7 aa . ima | Reet ese card “ Tita er Figure 18 Stratigraphic column and thermal events in Palinpinon, the Philippines, showing ages bosed on paleontology and K-Ar dates (PNOC-EDC unpublished data, 1990) Application of petrological techniques 2 Lecture 1 The relative history of & sogoweow hydrothermal system can_ be Nasu unrevelled using crosscutting __flteration ore (0.6%) relationships among veins and mineral peragenesis, together with fluid inclusion and measured downhole ‘temperatures, In Poihipi, New Zealand, for example, this method has been used 10 ‘determine changes in temperature and fluid type (Figure 20). 9. PRESSURE ‘The effects of pressure on 250% (Present) hydrothermal alteration actions involvigg only minerals and Figure 19; Esitmated thermal history of Palinpinon, aqueous solutions can generally ‘the Philippines, based on thermoluminescence beneglected. (Takashima and Reyes, 1990) 10, HOW ARE PETROLOGICAL DATA USED IN THE STUDY AND OPERATION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS? Petrologies) findings and [SELECTED ‘interpretations are widely used during, ‘operations work in geothermal systems in various stages of exploration and ‘exploitation, Enumerated below ere several immediate uses of petrology in Philippine geothermal systems, often used together with findings from other geoscientific and engineering isciplnes (Reyes, 1991). During surface geoscientific studies, petological techniques are employed te: + Analyse rock samples to determine lithologies and stratigraphy; = Analyse thermal manifestation deposits and alterationassemblages to describe the general type of fluids harboured by a system of thermal manifestations and 2lso to define the thermal history of an area, Relic be — Active —p— Active Figure 20: Mineral paragenesis inthe Poihipi sector During drifting, petrological findings ofthe Wairakei geothermal system, New Zealand are employed (Reyes and Giggenbach, 1999) vance (cae 8 Apne protic wchice | PURAGAN we 2esetly aitve ee . le E ox. Bow NL ot ene) = 20% (0.98) - \ ven st (Present) NeCiwrseqie story of Palinpinon, sess ‘moluminescence 8 Seeoeeeey +s, 1990) © Smapoenn ome Figure 21: Example ofa preliminary petrological ousput submitted to PNOC-EDC management right after sy] 1¢ ‘ellis dvilled. The main data shown are probable temperatures, permeable zones, acid fluid incursion, cold water input, pour zone locations and possible magmatic influx (Reyes, unpublished results) ~ Toassistrig personnel and management in deciding the depts at which to set the production casing shoe, when to change the well tack or the well drift angle, and witen to stop drilling: + To assist in anticipating or defining drilling problems such as stuck pipes caused by swelling clays ‘or sloughing of rock formations, short bit lives duc tothe rock type or extremely high temperatures, degeneration of drilling mud duc to very high temperatures; ~ Asan “early waming device” in cases where a magmatic-hydrothermal zone is intersected, which harbour highly acid waters, high gas eontents, noxious gases and extremely high temperatures, LL ‘The outcome ofa well ean be predicted (Figure 21), during drilling and/or before well measurements and

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