Technical Publications Pune”2 Ge! Electrical Machines - | ISBN 9788184315356 All fights reserved with Technical Publications. No part ofthis book should be reproduced in ary form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” “#1, Amit Reslency, 412, Shaniwar Pe, Pune - 411 030, Inc. Printer : ‘Alt DTPinten Scoe. 10/3,Sichagad Road, Pine 411 041 LEE IT I LE EESTable of Contents 41.2 Magnet and its Properties .. 13 Laws of Magnetism ..... 41.4 Magnetic Field... 1.4.1 Magnetic Lines of Force 1.4.2 Direction of Magnetic Field. 1.4.3 Properties of Lines of Force 1.5 Magnetic Flux (e) 1.6 Pole Strength ... 4.7 Magnetic Flux Density (B)..... 1.8 Magnetic Field Strength (H). 1.9 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets)... 4.9.1 Magnetic Field due to Straight Conductor. 1.9.4.4 Rules to Determine Ditection of Fl Arcund Conductor. 3 1.9.2 Magnetic Field due to Circular Conductor ie. Solenoid 1.10 Permeability 1.10.1 Absolute Permeability (1). 1.10.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum tu. 1.10.3 Relative Permeability jt.) 1.11 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F. or F).. 112.Reluctance (s) 14 Magnetic Circuits ... 1.14.1 Series Magnetic Circuits, 1.14.2 Senes Circuit with Air Gap . 1.14.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits... . ann 1.14.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air a. is1.15 Kirchhoff's Laws for Magnetic Circuit.......... 1-26 1.15.4 Kirehhoff's Flux Law 1-26 1.1.2 Kirchhoff's MME. Law. 1-20 1.16 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Cirouits ......... ses a? 1.17 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing 1-28 1.17.4 Leakage Coefficien! or Hopkinson's Coefficient 24-29 1.17.2 Magnetic Fringing betes 21-29 1.18 Introduction to Electromagnetism ........ 1-31 1.19 Faraday's Experiment..... 1-34 1.20 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction... 1.20.2 Second Law. . x 4-33 1.22 Dynamically Induced E.M-F. 2 1.22.1 Magnitude of Dynamically induced EMF..............0.. 1.22.2 Direction of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. 1.23 Statically Induced E.M.F. .. 1.25 Mutually Induced E.MF. 1.26 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field 1.26.1 Expression for Enemy Stored in the Magnetic Fiel 4.26.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume 1.27 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve . 1.27.1 B-H Curve and Permeability 122. ical 1.28 Magnetic Hysteresis .. 1.28.1 Steps in Obiaining Hysteresis Loop 1.28.2 Theory Behind Hysteresis Effect 1.29 Hysteresis Loss....... 1.29.1 Hysteresis Loss Per Unit Volume 1.29.2 Practical Use of Hysteresis Loop . 1.30 Eddy Current Loss 1.31 R-L Series Circuit 1.31.4 R-L Time Constant . . 1.31.2 Current Decay in R-L Circuit Examples with Solutions Review Questions ...2.1 Introduction .. 2.2 Energy Balance...... 2.3 Laws of Electromagnetism. 2.4 Energy Flow in Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device...... 2.5 Types of Magnetic System... 2.6 Singly Excited Magnetic System 2.6.1 Electric Energy Input. . 2.6.2 Magnetic Field Energy Stored. . . se-cresw aur sT reer 2.6.4 Determining Mechanical Force 2.6.5 Mechanical Energy 2.7 Multiple Excited Magnelic System... 2.8 Analysis of Elementary Reluctance Motor.. 2.8.1 Working Principle. 2.8.2 Torque Developed in Reluctance Motor 2.9 Advantages of Field Energy Method Examples with Solutions .. 34Untroduction 3.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator... 3.3 Fleming's Right Hand Rule .. 3.4 Single Turn Alternator 38.1. Yoke 352Polas 3.6.3 Field Winding (F4- F2) 3.84 Armature 3.6.5 Commutatar. 3.5.7 Bearings 3.6 Types of Armature. 2 winding 3.6.1 Lap Winding. .3.6.2 Wave Winding 3.6.3 Comparison of Lap and Wave Type Winding 3.7 E.M.F. Equation of D.C. Machine... 3.8 Winding Terminologies .. 3.9 Single Layer and Double aver Winding. 3.9.4 Single Layer Winding. ....... 3.9.2 Double Layer Winding 3.10 Closed and Open Windings 3.10.1 Closed Type Winding 3.10.2 Open Type Winding... cow peeeeeeeeeeeees i 3.111 Introduction to Armature Reaction 3-18 - 3.12 Concept of Armature Reaction... 3.13 Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Conductors... 3.13.1 Calculation of Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Amp-Tums . 3.47.4 Expression of Reactance Voltage . 3.18 Methods of Improving Commutation .. ee 3.181 Resistance Commutation H ie aoa 3.18.11 Advantages of Resistance Commutation poses ee oc» SER 3:18.12 Disadvantanes ofResislace Commulation 6, 318.21 Ging Brush Shit Pere ree pe 3.18.22 Interpoles . pee see 3H 4.3.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule 4.4 Significance of Back E.M.F. 4.4.1 Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor... 4.4.2 Back E.MF. as a Regulating Mechanism 4.5 Power Equation of a D.C. Motor .. Copyrighted material4.5.1 Condition for Maximum Power . . . 4.6 Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor... 4.6.1 Types of Torque in the Motor Bia ei 62 ‘oui : 4.7 Types of D.C. Motors... 4.8 D.C. Shunt Motor 48.1 Voltage and Current Relationship... 2.60. .s. see esses eee se sees eee he 12 SGD Serie Nr i seated cSaeeatnnanncainash 4B 49.1 Voltage and Current Relationship. Fe POET TOOT 4-13 4.10 D.C. Compound Motor... 4,10.1 Long Shunt Compound Motor 4.40.2 Short Shunt Compound Motor 4.11 Torque and Speed Equations. 4.11.1 Speed Regulation . 4.14 Characteristics of D.C. Series Motor. 4.15 Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load ?... 4.16 Characteristics of D.C. Compound Motor... 4.17 Applications of D.C. Motors ..... 4.18 Effect of the Armature Reaction on Performance of a D.C. Moto! 4.19 Necessity of Starter... 4.20 Three Point Starter. 4.20.1 Functions of No Volt Coil. 4.20.2 Action of Over Load Release. 4.203 Disadvantage. . 4.20.4 Calculation of steps of starter Resistance 4.21 Four Point Starter. 4.24.4 Disadvantage ......... 4.22 D.C, Series Motor Starter. 4.23 Factors Affecting the Speed of a D.C. Motor... 4.24 Ratings of a D.C. Motor... 4.25 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Moto! 4.25.4 Flux Contol........... 4.25.1.1 Advantages of Flux Control Method 4,25.1.2 Disadvantages of Flux ControlMethod. -. 2. ee4.25.2 Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control . .. veveeee 4-40 4.25.2.1 Potential Divider Control 4-4" 4.25.2.2 Advantages of Rheoslatic Control... . a 4-42 4.25.2:3 Disadvantages of Rheostetic Control a. 4-42 4.25.3 Applied Voltage Control... sss es eeereee Deepa ien eR? 4.25.3.4 Advantages of Applied Votage Control 4-43 4,253.2 Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Contol 4-43 4.26 Speed Control of D.C. Series Motor a QBS ERC CONAN i i RA 4.26.4.1 Field Divertor Method 4-85 4.26.1.2 Armature DivertorMethod. 4.26.1.3 Tapped Field Method. z z x z 4-46 26.1.4 Series -P; Fi wr 4: i 4.26.3 Applied Voltage Control. . 4.27 Ward - Leonard System of Speed Control ‘i Example with Solutions Review Questions .... 5.1 Introduction 5.2.1 Copper Losses ........ 5.2.3 Mechanical Losses ..............--..+ 5.3 Efficiency of a D.C. Machine. 5.3.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency . 5.3.2 Current at Maximum Efficiency 5.4 Testing of D.C. Motors 5.4.1 Direct Method of Testing 54.2 Indirect Method of Testing ...............0006 55.1 Advantages . . . 55.2 Disadvantages. 5.6.1 Advantages... 56.2 Disadvantages. 5.7 Retardation Test or Running Down Test.5.7.4 Determination ot. aR LER Ra HEL NAR SANE REE RS 5-15 5.1.2 Determination of Moment of Inertia ()......- 000... cc eee eeeee etree eee B16 5.8 Hopkinson’s Test 5.8.1 Advantages... . 5.8.2 Disadvantages 5.9 Field Test... Examples with Solutions... Review Questions. : fs “ etytor ent) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Principle of Working... 6.2.1 Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers ? 6.3 Construction. 6.4 Types of Transformers 6.4.4 Core Type Transformer . 6.4.2 Shell Type Transformer. 6.4.3 Berry Type Transformer 6.4.4 Comparison of Core and Shell Type. 6.5 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer. 6.6 Ratios of a Transformer 6.6.1 Voltage Ratio. 6.6.2 Ideal Transformer 6.6.3 Current Ratio. 6.6.4 Volt Ampere Rating 6.7 Ideal Transformer on No Load 6.8 Practical Transformer on No Load 6.9 Transformer on Load .... 6.10 Effect of Winding Resistances 6.10.1 Equivalent Resistance 6.11 Effect of Leakage Reactances 6.11.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance. . 6.12 Equivalent Impedance........ 6.13 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load 6.13.1 Unity Power Factor Load, 008 2 = 1... 6.13.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos Oz ....sseseeeseees PT REEL OSA SU eas6.13.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos 2 . . . 6.14 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer . 6.14.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit i 6.15 Approximate Voltage Drop ina Transformer. 6.16 Voltage Regulation of Transformer... 6.16.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation . 6.16.2 Zero Voltage Regulation a ceseceeaes 6.16.3 Constants of a Transformer. BR 6.17 Losses in a Transformer 6.17.1 Core or Iron Losses. . . 6.17.2. Copper Losses .... 6.18 Efficiency of a Transformer. 6.19 Condition for Maximum Efficiency.............. 6.19.1 Load Current lan at Maximum Efficiency. . 6.19.2 kVA Supplied at Maximum Efficiency 6.20 Parallel Operation of Transformers ....... 6.21 Conditions for Satisfactory Parallel Operation . 6.21.1 Explanation of Conditions ........ 6.22 Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers 6.23 Paraile| Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios 6.24 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios .. 6 - 54 6.25 Polarity Test .... 6.26 Indirect Loading Tests on Transformer 6.26.1 Open Circuit Test (0.C. Test) 6.26.2 Short Circuit Test ( S.C. Test) i 5 6.26.3 Caleulation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests... . 6-66 6.26.4 Calculation of Regulation vevvinccsnserarancenins AGB. 6.27 Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test) .. saa = "70. 6.28 Separation of Core Losses .... 6.29 Impulse Test .... i 6.30 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer 6.33 Transformation Ratio of an Autotransforme: 6.34 Copper Saving in Autotransformer...6.35 Power Transfer in Autotransformer.. 6.31 VA Rating of Autotransformer 6.37 Conversion of Two Winding Transformer to an Autotransformer.. 6.37.1 Additive Polarity. 6.37.2 Subiractive Polarity . e 6.38 Advantages of ‘Autotransformer 6.39 Limitations of Autotransformer. 6.40 Applications of Autotransformer. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions.....Basics of Magnetism 1.1 Introduction All of us are familiar with a magnet. It is a piece of solid body which possesses a property of attracting iron pieces and pieces of some other metals. This is called a natural magnet . While as per the discovery of Scientist Oersted we can have an electromagnet. Scientist Oersted stated that any current carrying conductor is always surrounded by a magnetic field..The property of such current is called magnetic effect of an electric current, Natural magnet of an electromagnet, both have close relation with electromotive force (em), mechanical force experienced by conductor, elecitic current etc. To understand this relationship it is necessary to study the fundamental concepts of magnetic circuits. 1.2 Magnet and its Properties ‘A magnet is a piece of solid body which possesses property of attracting iron and some other metal pieces. i) When such a magnet is rolled into iron pieces it will be observed that iron pieces cling to it as shown in Fig. 1.1 Iron pieces accumulnie The maximum iron pieces accumulate at more al the ends the two ends of the magnet while very few “3 € accumulate at the centre of the magnet. vy The points at which the iron pieces Fig. 1.1 Natural magnet accumulate maximum are called Poles of the magnet while imaginary line joining these poles is called Axis of the magnet. ii) When such magnet is suspended freely by a piece of silk fibre, it turns and always adjusts itself in the direction of North and Fig. 1.2 Freely suspended South of the earth. The pole which adjusts itself in the direction of North is called North seeking or North (N) pole, while the pole which points in the direction of South is called South seeking or South (S) pole. Such freely suspended magnet is shown in the Fig. 1.2. a-4)Electrical Machines -1 1-2 Basics of Magnetism This is the property due to which it is used in the compass needle which is'used by navigators to find the directions. iii) When a magnet is placed near an iron or steel piece, its property of attraction gets transferred to iron or steel piece. Such transfer of property of attraction is also possible by actually rubbing the pole of magnet on an iron or steel piece. Such property is called magnetic induction. Magnetic Induction : The phenomenon due to which a magnet can induce magnetism in a (iron or steel) piece of magnetic material placed near it without actual:physical contact fs called magnetic induction. iv) An ordinary piece of magnetic material when brought near to any pole N or S gets attracted towards the pole. But if another magnet is brought near the magnet such that two like poles ('N' and 'N' or 'S' and 'S'), it shows a repulsion in between them while if two unlike poles are brought fear, it shows a force of attraction. Key Point: Like poles repel each other and the wtlike poles attract each other. Repulsion is the sure test of magnetism as ordinary piece of magnetic material always shows attraction towards both the poles. 1.3 Laws of Magnetism There are two fundamental laws of magnetism which are as follows : © Law 42 It states that ‘Like magnetic This is already mentioned in the properties of magnet. Law 2: This law is experimentally proved by Scientist Coulomb and hence also known as Coulomb's Law. ‘The force ( F ) exerted by one pole on the other pole is, a) Directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths, b) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and c) Nature of medium surrounding the poles. Mathematically this law can be expressed as, Mi M: Fe“ et M, and My are pole strengths of the poles while'd is distance between the poles. KMiMz + az Where K depends on the nature of the surroundings and called permeability.Electrical Machines - | 1-3 Basics of Magnetism 1.4 Magnetic Field We have seen that magnet has its influence on the surrounding medium. The region around a magnet within. which the influence of the magnet can be experienced is called magnetic field. Existence of such field can be experienced with the help of compass needle, iron or pieces of metals or by bringing another magnet in vicinity of a magnet. 1.4.1 Magnetic Lines of Force The magnetic field of magnet is represented by imaginary lines around it which are called magnetic lines of force. Note that these lines have no physical existence, these are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday to get the visualization of distribution of such lines of force. 1.4.2 Direction of Magnetic Field The direction of magnetic field can be obtained by conducting small experiment Let us place a permanent magnet on table and cover it with’ a sheet of cardboard. Sprinkle steel or iron fillings uniformly over the sheet. Slight tapping of cardboard causes fillings to adjust themselves in a particular pattern as shown in the Fig. 13. Cardboard sheet ovens Fig. 1.3 Magnetic lines of force The shape of this pattern projects a mental picture of the magnetic field present around a magnet. A line of force can be defined as, Consider the isolated N pole (we cannot separate the pole but imagine to explain line of force) and it is allowed to move freely, in a magnetic field. Then path along which it moves is called line of force. Its shape is as shown in the Fig. 1.3 and direction always from N-pole towards S-pole. The direction of lines of force can be understood with the help of small compass needle. If magnet is placed with compass needles around it, then needles will take positions as shown in the Fig. 1.4, The tangent drawn at any Fig. 1.6 Compass needle experimentElectrical Machines -| 1-4 Basics of Magnetism point, of the dotted curve shown, gives direction of resultant force at that point. The N poles are all pointing along the dotted line shown from N- pole to its S-pole. ‘The lines of force for a bar magnet and U-shaped magnet are shown in the Fig. 1.5. Fig. 1.5 (a) Bar magnet Fig. 1.5 (b) U-shaped magnet Attraction between the unlike poles and repulsion between the like poles of two magnets can be easily understood from the direction of magnetic lines of force. This is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (a) and (b). Repulsion > as Attraction Lines of force Lines of force ‘Magnet 2 Fig. 1.6 (a) Force of attraction Fig. 1.6 (b) Force of repulsion 1.4.3 Properties of Lines of Force Though the lines of force are imaginary, with the help of them various magnetic effects can be explained very conveniently. Let us see the various properties of these lines of force. 1) Lines of force are always originating on a Extemal to N-pole and terminating on a S-pole, external {7 magnet to the magnet. 2) Each line forms a closed loop as shown in the Fig. 1.7. Key Point: This means that a line emerging from N-pole, continues upto S-pole external to the magnet Fig. 1.7 Lines of force complete while it is assumed to continue from S-pole to N-pole the closed path internal to the magnet completing a closed loop. Suck lines internal to the magnet are called as lines of induction.Electrical Machines -1 1-5 Basics of Magnetism 3) Lines of force never intersect each other. 4) The lines of force, are like stretched rubberbands and always try to contract in length. 5) The lines of force, which are parallel and travelling in the same direction repel each other. 6) Magnetic lines of force always prefer a path offering least opposition. Key Point : The opposition by the material to the flow of lines of force is called reluctance. Air has more reluctance while magnetic materials like iron, steel etc. have low reluctance. Thus magnetic lines of force can easily pass through iron or steel but cannot pass easily through air. 1.5 Magnetic Flux (0) The total number of lines of force existing in a particular magnetic field is called magnetic flux. Lines of force can be called lines of magnetic flux. The unit of flux is weber and flux is denoted by symbol () . The unit weber is denoted as Wb. 1 weber = 10° lines of force. 1.6 Pole Strength We have seen earlier that force between the poles depends on the pole strengths. As we are now familiar with flux, we can have idea of pole strength. Every pole has a capacity to radiate or accept certain number of magnetic lines of force ie. magnetic flux which is called its strength. Pole strength is measurable quantity assigned to poles which depends on the force between the poles. If two poles are exerting equal force on one other, they are said to have equal pole strengths. Unit of pole strength is weber as pole strength is directly related to flux ie. lines of force Key Point: A snit pole may be defied as that pole tehich when placed from am identical 107 pole at a distance of 1 metre in free space experiences a force of --——s newtons. So when we say Unit N-pole, it means a pole is having a pole strength of 1 weber. 1.7 Magnetic Flux Density (B) It can be defined as ‘The flux per unit area (a) in a plane at right angles to the flux is known as ‘flux density’. Mathematically,Electrical Machines - 1 1-6 Basics of Magnetism It is shown in the Fig. 1.8. Cross Plane at right sectional angles to lines of force Magnetic lines of Flux force ie. density at B-2 a Fig. 1.8 Concept of magnetic flux density ew fis diy Whe, ide ea Key Point: 1.8 Magnetic Field Strength (H) This gives quantitative measure of strongness or weakness of the magnetic field. Note that pole strength and magnetic field strength are different. This can be defined as ‘The force experienced by a unit N-pole (i.e. N pole with 1 Wb of pole strength ) when placed at any point in a magnetic field is known as magnetic field strength at that point. It is denoted by H and its unit is newtons per weber ic. (N/Wb) or amperes per metre (A/m.) or ampere turns per metre (AT/m). The mathematical expression for calculating magnetic field strength is, ampere turns H = length Nie H => AT/m Key Point: More the value of 'H’, more stronger is the magnetic field. This is also called magnetic field intensity, 1.9 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets) When a coil or a conductor carries a current, it produces the magnetic flux around it. Then it starts behaving as a magnet. Such a current carrying coil or conductor is called an electromagnet. This is due to magnetic effect of an electric current. If such a coil is wound around a piece of magnetic material like iron or steel and carries current then piece of material around which the coil is wound, starts behaving as a magnet, which is called an electromagnet. ‘The flux produced and the flux density can be controlled by controlling the magnitude the current. ‘The direction and shape of the magnetic field around the coil or conductor depends on the direction of current and shape of the conductor through which it is passing. TheElectrical Machines -1 1-7 Basics of Magnetism magnetic field produced can be experienced with the help of iron fillings or compass needle. Let us study two different types of electromagnets, 1) Electromagnet due to straight current carrying conductor 2) Blectromagnet due to circular current carrying coil 4.9.1 Magnetic Field due to Straight Conductor When a straight conductor carries a current, it produces a conductor ‘Magnetic field all along its length. The lines of force are in the tines of form of concentric circles in the planes right angles to the force {ux} conductor. This can be demonstrated by a small experiment. sath Consider a straight conductor carrying a current, passing caudboard through a sheet of cardboard as shown in the Fig. 1.9. Sprinkle iron fillings on the cardboard. Small tapping on the cardboard causes the iron filling to set themselves, in the concentric circular pattem. The direction of the magnetic flux can be determined by 1 placing compass needle near the conductor. This direction Fig. 1.9 Magnetic field “{©@ Cross Dot "| Ht! (Going away) (Coming LIP romobserver WJ towards) observer (a) Current into the paper (b) Current out of the paper Fig. 1.10 Cross and Dot conventionElectrical Machines - | 1-8 Basics of Magnetism 1.9.1.1 Rules to Determine Direction of Flux Around Conductor 4) Right Hand Thumb Ri It states that, hold the current carrying conductor in the right hand such that the thumb pointing in the direction of current eS 1 and parallel to the conductor, then conductor current curled fingers point in the direction A exp Thumb of the magnetic field or flux around ae curentdrtion it The Fig. 1.11 explains the rule. Curted ’ Let us apply this rule to the fingers indicate Right Pp. dreedon of fink ian conductor passing through card x sheet considered earlier. This can Fig. 1.11 Right hand thumb rule be explained by the Fig, 1.12 ¥ 4 fn wey & ay : Fig. 1.12 Direction of magnetic lines by Right hand thumb rule Conventionally it is shown as in the Fig. 1.13. (a) Clockwise (b) Anticlockwise Fig. 1.13 Representation of direction of flux 2) Corkscrew Rule : Imagine a right handed screw to be along the conductor carrying, current with its axis parallel to the conductor and tip pointing in the direction of the current flow ‘Then the direction of the magnetic field is given by the direction in which the screw must be turned so as to advance in the direction of the currentElectrical Machines - 1 1-9 Basics of Magnetism This is shown in the Fig. 1.14. Screw Scew 4 Cry a=: 1 af ‘Advancement ‘Advancement Wadkeatee! { indicates r direction t see { of current ' (a) Clockwise rotation (b) Anticlockwise rotation Fig. 1.14 Corkscrew rule 1.9.2 Magnetic Field due to Circular Conductor i.e. Solenoid A solenoid is an arrangement in which long core CORAuctor is wound with number of tums close together P to form a coil. The axial length of conductor is much more than the diameter of turns. The part or element around which the conductor is wound is called as core of the ot solenoid. Core may be air or may be some magnetic 7 7 . . material. Solenoid with a steel or iron core in shown in Fig. 1.15 (a) Solenoid Fig. 1.15 (a) Colt or [ conductor When such conductor is excited by the supply so that it carries a current then it produces a magnetic field which acts through the coil along its axis and also around the solenoid. Instead of using a straight core to wound the conductor, a circular core also can be used to wound the conductor. In such case the resulting solenoid is called Toroid. Use of magnetic material for the core produces fmiines: strong magnet. This is because current carrying conductor produces its own flux. In addition to this, the core behaves like a magnet due to magnetic induction, producing its own flux. The direction of two fluxes is same due to which resultant magnetic field becomes more strong. Battery The pattern of the flux around the solenoid is shown in the Fig. 1.15 (b). Fig, 1.15 (b) Flux around a solenoidElectrical Machines -| 41-10 Basics of Magnetism The rules to determine the direction of flux and poles of the magnet formed: 1) The right hand thumb rule : Hold the solenoid in the right hand such that curled fingers point in the direction: of the current through the curled conductor, then the outstretched thumb along the axis of the solenoid point to the North pole of the solenoid or point the direction of flux lines inside the core. Curled fingers current direction Stretched thumb N direction Right hand Fig. 1.16 (a) Direction of flux around a solencid This is shown in Fig. 1.16 (a) and (b). Cured finger current Stretched Sect thu direon Right hand Fig. 1.16 (b) Direction of flux around a solenoid In case of toroid, the core is circular and hence using right hand thumb rule, the direction of flux in the core, due to current carrying conductor can be determined. This is shown in the Fig. 1.17 (a) and (b). In the Fig. 1.17 (a), corresponding to direction of winding, the flux set in the core is anticlockwise while in the Fig. 1.17 (b) due to direction of winding, the direction of flux set in the core is clockwise. The winding is also called magnetising winding or magnetising coil as it magnetises the core. Magnetising ‘winding = tagetea ‘Supply 4 ‘Supply Flux , " a ) Bi it ) nse Flux oe oe im ‘me 4 \O7) Beth on ~) es (an ae Ty Ww esatiaie nStton aoa Fig. 1.17Electrical Machines -| 1-14 Basics of Magnetism 2) Corkscrew rule : ‘If axis of the screw is placed along the axis of the solenoid and if screw is turned in the direction of the current, then it travels towards the N-pole or in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. 3) End rule: If solenoid is observed from any one end then its polarity can be decided by noting direction of the current. Consider solenoid shown in the Fig. 1.18. If it is seen frém the end A, current will appear to flow in clockwise direction, so that end behaves as S-pole of the magnet. While as f 1 seen from the end B, current appears to flow in |= anticlockwise direction then that end which is Battery B, behaves as N-pole of the magnet. oy vss Generally right hand thumb rule is used to C) ®) determine direction of flux and nature of the Clockwise ‘Ani-cockwise poles formed. Using such concept of an electromagnet, various magnetic circuits can be Fig. 1.18 End rule bbisined: 1.10 Permeability The flow of flux produced by the magnet not only depends on the magnetic field strength but also on one important property of the magnetic material called permeability. It is related to the medium in which magnet is placed. The force exerted by one magnetic pole on other depends on the medium in which magnets are placed. Key Point: The permeability is defined as the ability or ense with which the magnetic maicrial forces the magnetic flux through a given mediurt For any magnetic material, there are two permeabilities, i) Absolute permeability _ii) Relative permeability. 1.10.1 Absolute Permeability (u) The magnetic field strength (H) decides the flux density (B) to be produced by the magnet around it, in a given medium. The ratio of magnetic flux density B in a particular medium (other than vacuum or air) to the magnetic field strength H producing that flux density is called absolute permeability of that medium.Electrical Machines -1 1-12 Basics of Magnetism It is denoted by 1 and mathematically can be expressed as, B He ie. B= uH The permeability is measured in units henries per metre denoted as H/m. 1.10.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum (10) If the magnet is placed in a free space or vacuum or in air then the ratio of flux density B and magnetic field strength H is called Permeability of free space or Vacuum or air, It is denoted as 1) and measured in H/m. It denotes the ease with which the magnetic flux permeates the free space or vacuum or air. It is experimentally found that this 1p ie. ratio of B and H in vacuum remains constant every where in the vacuum and its value is 4m 10-7 H/m. 4x10? /m Key Point : For a magnetic material, the absolute permeability is not constant. This is because B and H bears a nonlinear relation in case of magnetic materials. If magnetic field strength is increased, there is change in flux density B but not exactly proportional to the increase in H. The ratio B to H is constant only for free space, vacuum or air which is Ho =4nx10-7 H/m. 1.10.3 Relative Permeability (1,) Generally the permeability of different magnetic materials is defined relative to the permeability of free space ( {19). The relative permeability is defined as the ratio of flux density produced in a medium (other than free space) to the flux density produced in free space, under the influence of same magnetic field strength and under identical conditions. Thus if the magnetic field strength is H which is producing flux density B in the medium while flux density Bg in free space then the relative permeability is defined as, B ur = Bp Where His same. It is dimensionless and has no units. For free space, vacuum oF air, i= 1 According to definition of absolute permeability we can write for given H, B = qq inmedium (ll)Electrical Machines -1 1-13 Basics of Magnetism Ho = fy in free space wol2) 3 u Dividing (1) and (2) , ae B but Bo = be Poe wo > be H = Holly H/m The relative permeability of metals like iron, steel varies from 100 to 100,000 Key Point: If we require maximum flux production for the lesser magnetic field strength then the value of the relative permeability of the core material should be as high as possible. For example if relative permeability of the iron is 1000 means it is 1000 times more magnetic than the free space or air. 1.11 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F. or F) The flow of electrons is current which is basically due to electromotive force (e.m-f.). Similarly the force behind the flow of flux or production of flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force (m.m.f). The m.m.f. determines the magnetic field strength It is the driving force behind the magnetic circuit. It is given by the product of the number of turns of the magnetizing coil and the current passing through it. Mathematically it can be expressed as, m.m.f. = NI ampere turns Where N= Number of turns of magnetising coil and I = Current through coil Its unit is ampere turns (AT) or amperes (A). It is also defined as the work done in joules on a unit magnetic pole in taking it once round a closed magnetic circuit. 4.12 Reluctance (S) In an electric circuit, current flow is opposed by the resistance of the material, similarly there is opposition by the material to the flow of flux which is called reluctance It is defined as the resistance offered by the material to the flow of magnetic flux through it. It is denoted by ‘S'. It is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic circuit while inversely proportional to the area of cross-section.Electrical Machines -| 1-14 Basics of Magnetism i S$ « > where'!* in'm' while'a'in'm?" KI fea Where K = Constant of proportionality 1 = Reciprocal of absolute permeability of material = s-t- —-asw a ~ Hobra It is measured in amperes per weber ( A/Wb). The reluctance can be also expressed as the ratio of magnetomotive force to the flux produced. m.m.f ie Reluctance = “Ag, s-u AT / Wb or A/ Wb 1.13 Permeance The permeance of the magnetic circuit is defined as the reciprocal of the reluctance. It is defined as the property of the magnetic circuit due to which it allows flow of the magnetic flux through it. 1 Permeance = Refuctance It is measured in weber per amperes (Wb/A). 1.14 Magnetic Circuits The magnetic circuit can be defined as, the closed path traced by the magnetic lines of force i.e. flux. Such a magnetic circuit is associated with different magnetic quantities as mmf, flux reluctance, permeability ete. Consider simple magnetic circuit shown in the Fig. 1.19 (a). This circuit consists of an iron core with cross-sectional area of ‘a’ m” with a mean length of ‘I’ m. (This is mean length of the magnetic path which flux is going to trace.) A coil of N turns is wound on ‘one of the sides of the square core which is excited by a supply. This supply drives a current I through the coil. This current carrying coil produces the flux () ) which completes its path through the core as shown in the Fig. 1.19 (a). This is analogous to simple electric circuit in which a supply ie. e.m.f. of E volts drives a current I which completes its path through a closed conductor having resistance R. This analogous electrical circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.19 (b).Electrical Machi 1915 Basics of Magnetism Flux(¢) I | Ses. ——_ Iron core J+ R ee * Area of c/s ‘aim Fig. 1.19 (a) Magnetic circuit Fig. 1.49 (b) Electrical equivalent Let us derive relationship between mmf, flux and reluctance. I = Current flowing through the coil. N = Number of turns. $ = Flux in webers. B = Flux density in the core. lt = Absolute permeability of the magnetic material Hi, = Relative permeability of the magnetic material Magnetic field strength inside the solenoid is given by, H = x AT/m -) Now flux density is, B= nH :NI see Wo/m? (2) Now as area of cross-section is ‘a' m” , total flux in core is, ,NI e=Ba- NS «.(8) Ni ie. oe ot Holes mm reluctance Where NI = Magnetomotive force mmf. in AT 1 S = tone = Reluctance offered by the magnetic path.Electrical Machines - 1 41-16 Basics of Magnetism This expression of the flux is very much similar to expression for current in electric circuit. emf. resistance Key Point: So current is analogous to the flux, emf. is analogous to the mmf and resistance is analogous to ihe reluctance, tum Example 1.1: An iron ring of circular cross sectional area of 3.0 cm? and mean diameter of 20cm is wound with 500 turns of wire and carries a current of 2.09 A to produce the magnetic flux of 0.5 m Wh in the ring. Determine the permeability of the material. Solution : The given values are a = 3cm?=3x 10m, d= 20cm, N=500, I= 2A, 6 = 05mWb Now, 1 = mx d= x 20 = 62,8318.cm = 0.628318 m gue ealll oe 0.628313 __ 1.6667 x 109 i “ Pobra “4x 107 xp, x 3x 104 > Ur ~@ mmf NI . S is NI 500 x2 6 R= aa ee BW ore we o Q) Equating (1) and (2), 5667 Yo 2 198 = 18667 x10! ur by = 833.334 1.14.1 Series Magnetic Circuits In practice magnetic circuit may be composed of various materials of different permeabilities, of different lengths and of different cross-sectional areas. Such a circuit is called composite magnetic circuit.When such parts are connected one after the other the circuit is called series magnetic circuit. Consider a circular ring made up of different materials of lengths 1).l2 and I; and with cross-sectional areas a,, a) and a, with absolute permeabilities 1,,12and 3 as shown in the Fig. 1.20.Electrical Machines - 1 1-17 Basics of Magnetism Let coil wound on ring has N Flux(a) turns carrying a current of 1 amperes | (Lenginof The” total. «mmf. available moat material 1) is = NIAT (Length of | This will set the flux ‘0° which is rmateral 2) ¢ same through all the three elements of the circuit. This is similar to three resistances connected in series in electrical circuit and connected to emf. carrying same current through all of them. Tts analogous electric circuit can Fig. 1.20 A series magnetic circuit be shown as in the Fig. 1.21. 1 Ry Ry Re R, R, yo ‘ |] EK Ry E : 1 Fig. 1.21. Equivalent electrical circuit material 3) The total resistance of the electric circuit is R, + Ry + Rj . Similarly the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is, ads a2 “Haas Total_m.m.f. NI NI Tolal reluctance’ ~ St * G45, 455) Total Sy = S,+S) +453 = Total 9 = NI = Sy =(S,+S2+53)6 NI = 31645264536 (m.m.f.)T = (m.m.f)1+(m.m.f)2 m.m.f)3,Electrical Machines - | 1-18 Basics of Magnetism The total m.m.f. also can be expressed as, (m.m.f.)T = Hyly+Holy +H3l5 Bi. oe, Bs Where Ws yy Hesge Feeqy So for a series magnetic circuit we can remember, 1) The magnetic flux through all the parts is same. 2) The equivalent reluctance is sum of the reluctance of different parts. 3) The resultant m.mf. necessary is sum of the m.m.f.s in each individual part. 1.14.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap The series magnetic circuit can also have a short air gap. Key Point: This is possible because we have e Argop seen earlier that flux can pass through air also. Flux can : : pass through Such air gap is not possible in case of electric airgap circuit. ; ; Consider a ring having mean length of iron Fig, 1.22 A ring with an air gap part as '|;' as shown in the Fig. 1.22 Total mmf = NI AT Iron ring of length /; Total reluctance [Sp = Sj +Sp Where $i = Reluctance of iron path Sg = Reluctance of air gap 6 Ho ai Key Point: The absolute permeability of air w= {to ‘The cross-sectional area of air gap is assumed to be equal to area of the iron ring. S =Electrical Machines -1 1-19 Basics of Magnetism or Total mmf. = mmf. for iron + mmJf for air gap NI = Si¢+S,6 AT for ring] ym Example 1.2: An iron ring 8 cm. mean diameter is made up of round iron of diameter cm and permeability of 900, has an air gap of 2 mm wide. It consists of winding with 400 turns carrying a current of 3.5 A. Determine, i) mmf. ii) total reluctance iti) the flux iv) flux density in ring Solution : The ring and the winding is shown in the Fig. 1.23. Diameter of ring d= 8 cm, Length of iron = nd—Length of air gap Ky = mx(8x10-2)-2x103 = 0.2493 m. 2 mm Ne gop Key Point: While calculating iron length, do Fig. 1.23 not forget to subtract length of air gap from total mean. length lg = Length of air gap = 2mm = 2x10 m Diameter of iron = 1 cn Area of cross section a = Fd? = Fx) a = 7.853x10-5 m? Area of cross section of air gap and ring is to be assumed same. i) Total mmf. produced = NI = 4003.5 = 1400 AT (ampere turns) ii) Total reluctance Sr = Si +S, 4 Si = iouea -Given p, = 900 0.2493 4x10? x900%7.853x10-> " 2806947.615 AT/ Wb I, ly Sp = pga a8 He 1 for airElectrical Machines - 1 1-20 Basics of Magnetism 2x103 sg ee a 6 6 aexdo7 x7sst0s ~ 266710" AT / Wo Sp = 2806947.6154202667 x10 = 23.0737<10° AT / Wb _ m. NI 1400 ii) 9 = Reluctance = St ~ 230737408 = 6.067x10% Wb 5 iv) Flux density = 7 SO67x10 Wb / m? 1.14.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits In case of electric circuits, resistances can be connected in parallel. Current through each of such resistances is different while voltage across all of them is same. Similarly different reluctances may be in parallel in case of magnetic circuits. A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flux is known as a parallel magnetic circuit. Consider a magnetic circuit shown in the Fig. 1.24 (a). At point A the total flux 9 , divides into two parts 1 and $2. > = O1td2 The fluxes 01 and 62 have their paths completed through ABCD and AFED respectively. . This is similar to division of current in case of parallel connection of two resistances in an electric circuit. The analogous electric circuit is shown in the Fig, 1.24 (b). 0, Central limb 9, (a) Magnetic circuit (b) Equivatent electrical circuit Fig. 1.24 A parallel magnetic circuitaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 1-22 Basics of Magnetism Flux 6, Flux 6, fa Ag | | [Total flux Se | air cap J, ‘Mean length, 6 Mean lengih f— Fig. 1.25 Parallel circuit with air gap The analysis of this circuit is exactly similar to the parallel circuit discussed above. The only change is the analysis of central limb. The central limb is series combination of iron path and air gap. The central limb is made up of, path GD = Iron path = Ic path GA = Air gap = ky The total flux produced is 6 . It gets divided at A into ¢, and 6. o = O1td2 The reluctance of central limb is now, ke Sy SiS, = Hae “Hoa a u Hence m.m.f. of central limb is now, Ry (m.m.fJap = (m.m.f.)gp Hmm. £)Ga ag ' 3% Hence the total m.m4. can be expressed as, Be (ND totai= Dep HNDGa HN) apcp oF (NU rep ' Thus the electrical equivalent circuit for such case becomes as shown in the Fig. 1.26. Similarly there may be air gaps in the side limbs Fig. 1.26 seein equivalent but the method of analysis remains the same. circuiElectrical Machines - | 1-23 Basics of Magnetism im Example 1.3: The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.27 is constructed of wrought iron The cross-section of the centre limb is 8 cm? and of each other limb, 5 cm?. If the coil on centre limb is wound with 1000 turns, calculate the exciting current required to set up a flux of 1.2 mWb in the centre limb, Width of each air gap is 1 mm. Points on the B/H curve of wrought iron are as follows - B (in Tesla) H (in ATim) Fig. 1.27 Solution : Given; —_[, = Length of central limb = 10 cm = 0.1 m ac = 8 cm?=8x10-4 m2, ¢¢ = 1.2m Wh = 1.2x10-3 Wb J, = Length of iron path of side limb = 25 em = 0.25 m (on each side) lg = Length of air gap = 1 mm = 1x10-3 m ay = 5 cm2=5x10-4 This is the example of parallel magnetic circuit. The flux in central limb 1.2 mWb gets divided into two equal paths as shown in Fig, 1.27. 1 Flux in side limbs = 8 ie. 4 6) =06 mWbElectrical Machines - 1 1-24 Basics of Magnetism Flux density in central limb is, Ge _12«10-3 “ae ~ 8x10 4 =15 Tesla = 12 Wb/ m? ie.Tesla =p = 12 Wh/ m? ie-Tesla % ma we The equivalent circuit in electrical form is F *W- 8 shown in Fig. 1.28 (a). ! Applying KVL to loop ABCD, I 1 § 5 E-IRe-3 Ry- 5 Ri =0 I I we v2. co BSIRet 5 Ret 5 Ri Similarly applying Kirchhoff's m.m.f. law e D © to the loop, Fig. 1.28 mamf. = He le+Hy lp +Hi hi Where Hele = mum. required by central limb Hg ly = mam4f. required by air gap Hy 4; = mam. required by iron path on any one side 1) Central limb Be = 15 Tesla From B-H table given, corresponding, H_ = 2000 He le 2000%0.1 = 200 AT ) Side limb By = 12 Tesla From B-H table, given corresponding El: = 625 Hy fj = 625x025 = 156.25 ATElectrical Machines - 1 1-25 Basics of Magnetism IM) The air gap Key Point: For air gap, BH table should not be referred tut value of field strength H, fot aif Gap is 10 be calculated as, Bs = Ho Hy B, 12 Hg = $i. Ho” 4nxi0 Hg = 954929.65 AT Hg lg = 954929.65 x (1x10-3) Hy ly = 954.9296 AT Total mmf. required = He le+ Hi litHy Ig NI = 200+156.25+9549296 NI = 1311.17 AT 1311.17 1311.17 1000 Current I = T= 131A nm Example 1.4: A cast steel structure is made of a rod of square section 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm as shown in the Fig. 1.29, What is the current that should be passed in a 500 turn coil on the left limb so that a flux of 2.5 mWb is made to pass in the right limb, Assume permeability as 750 and neglect leakage. Fig. 1.29 Solution : This is parallel magnetic circuit. Its electrical equivalent is shown in the Fig, 1.29 (a). The total flux produced gets distributed into two parts having reluctances S; and §). $1 = Reluctance of centre limb So = Reluctance of right sideElectrical Machines -1 1-26 Basics of Magnetism h 25x 102 E21) A c $1 * Goi a1 ~ Fax 107 x750x25x25x 104 1, b CC (@2) = 424.413 «103 AT/Wb 4 2 R Sk 8 ly 40x10°2 R a * 2S Hobe a1” 4nx10-7 x750x25x 2.5x104 t = 679,061x10?_AT/Wb F 4° Key Point: For parallel branches, m.m,. remains Sante, Sy So Fig. 1.29 (a) For branch AB and CD, mmf. is same. mm = 6181= $2 $2 And 2 = 25 mWb given 2 $2 _ 25x 1073 x 679.061x 103 _ or “Sy = “azgaisxio? AP © = 01462 = 2544 = 65 mWb Total mmf, required is sum of the mm. required for AEFB and that for either central or side limb. Saeras = S2=679.061x 103 AT/Wb -. mmf, for AEFB = Sagpp xb = 679.061x 103 x 65x 103 = 44138965 AT Total mmf = 4413.8965+1 $1 = 4413896544 10-3 x 424.413x 103 = 6111.548 AT But NI = total mmf. 6111548 12.223 A 1.15 Kirchhoff's Laws for Magnetic Circuit Similar to the electrical circuit Kirchhoff's laws can be used to analyse complex magnetic circuit. The laws can be stated as below : 1.15.1 Kirchhoff's Flux Law The total magnetic flux arriving at any junction in a magnetic circuit is equal to the total magnetic flux leaving that junction.Electrical Machines 4-27 Le = 0 The law infact is used earlier to analyse parallel magnetic circuit at a junction A shown in the Fig. 1.29 (a), where of Magnetism At a junction, > = O12 4.15.2 Kirchhoff's M.M.F. Law The resultant m.mf. around a closed magnetic circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the flux and the reluctance of each part of the closed circuit ie. for a closed magnetic circuit. Immes = Los Flux x Reluctance = m.m.f. As oxS = MME. also can be calculated as Hx! where H is field strength and ‘I" is mean length mmf. = HE Alternatively the same law can be stated as : The resultant m.m.f. around any closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the magnetic field strength and the length of each part of the circuit ie. for a closed magnetic circuit Imme = DH 1.16 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits Similarities between electric and magnetic circuits are listed below : Sr.No. Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit dy Path traced by the current is called Path traced by the magnetic flux is, electric circuit defined as magnetic circuit. 2. EME. is the driving force in electric MM. is the driving force in the magnetic circuit, the unit is volts, circuit’, the unit of which is ampere turns. 3 There is current I in the electric circuit | There is fux » in the magnetic circuit measured in amperes. measured in webers. 4 The flow of electrons decides the current | The number of magnetic lines of force in conductor. decides the flux. Resistance oppose the flow of the current. | Reluctance is opposed by magnetic path Unit is ohm. to the flux. Unit is ampere tur/weber.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -! 1-30 Basics of Magnetism It has following two effects : 1) It increases the effective cross-sectional area of the air gap. 2) It reduces the flux density in the air gap. So leakage, fringing and reluctance, in practice should be as small as possible. Key Point: Titis is possible by choosing good magnetic material and making the Fig. 1.31 Magnetic fringing air gap as narrow as possible. mm> Example 1.5: A cast iron ring of 40 cm mean length and circular cross section of 5 cm diameter is wound with a coil. The coil carries a current of 3 A and produces a flux of 3mWh in the air gap. The length of the air gap is 2 mm. The relative permeability of the cast iron is 800. The leakage coefficient is 1.2. Calculate number of turns of the coil Solution : Given, , = 40cm=04m, 1, = 2x10"? m I, - Igy = 0.4 — 2 x10-3 = 0.398 m 3A, ,= 2x10-3 Wb, pty = 800, A= 1.2 or s A= G_ ~ Leakage coefficient 9, Air gap 12-2 2x10"? ‘a =19.63 X 10m? ” op =2.4x10-3 Wb i Now reluctance of iron path $; = Gou-3 a = FA? = 4x5? = 19.6349 cm® = 19.634 x10" ‘me? 0.398 Si = Trrao-Pxsooxdoaanto-¥ = 201629.16 AT/Wb mmf. _ NI OT = Feluctance = 5; NI rio gM 24x10" = p0162916 NI for iron path = 483. 909 ATaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -! 1-34 Basics of Magnetism Now as per Lenz's law (discussed later), the induced e.m-f. sets up a current in such a direction so as to oppose the very cause producing it. Mathematically this opposition is expressed by a negative sign. Thus such an induced e.m.f. is mathematically expressed alongwith its sign as, do e = -N Gp volts 1.21 Nature of the Induced E.M.F. EME. gets induced in a conductor, whenever there exists change in flux with that conductor, according to Faraday's Law. Such change in flux can be brought about by different methods. Depending upon the nature of methods, the induced e.m.f. is classified as, 1) Dynamically induced emf. and 2) Statically induced emf. 1.22 Dynamically Induced E.M.F. The change in the flux linking with a coil, conductor or circuit can be brought about by its motion relative to magnetic field. This is possible by moving flux with respect to coil conductor or circuit or it is possible by moving conductor, coil, circuit with respect to stationary magnetic flux. Both these methods are discussed earlier in discussion of Faraday's experiment . Key Point; Such an induced vm which is due to physical movement of coil, conductor with respect to flux or movement of magnet with respect to stationary coil, conductot is called dynamically induced e.m.f. or motional induced emf. 1.22.1 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. Consider a conductor of length | metres moving in the air gap between the poles of the magnet. Motion of conductor If plane of the motion of the conductor is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field then there is no cutting of flux lines and there can not be any induced emf. in i the conductor such condition is Conductor-+1 shown in the Fig. 1.35 (a). LL Piane of tux 7 Paane of motion Fig. 1.35 (a) No cutting of fluxElectrical Machines - | 1-35 Basics of Magnetism Key Point: When plane of the flux is parallel to the plane of the motion of conductors then there is no cutting of flux, hence no induced emf. In second case as shown in the Fig. 1.35 (b), the velocity direction Conductor <— pa ie. motion of conductor is Plane of motion perpendicular to the flux. Hence SZ Plane of fux whole length of conductor is cutting the flux line hence there is maximum possible induced em.f. in the conductor. Under such Fig. 1.35 (b) Maximum cutting of flux condition plane of flux and plane of motion are perpendicular to each other. Key Point: When plane of the flux is perpendicular to the plane of the motion of the “conctors then the cutting of flux is maximum and hence induced emf is also maximum, Consider a conductor moving with velocity v m/s such that its plane of motion or direction of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of flux lines as shown in Fig. 1.36 (a). omega No nae 0 vsin@ Flux ines @ Conductor \ (velocity) veo @ — Direction of flux (a) (c) Fig. 1.36 B = Flux density in Wb/m? 1 = Active length of conductor in metres. (This is the length of conductor which is actually responsible for cutting of flux lines.) v Velocity in m/sec.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 1-38 Basics of Magnetism Force Force Right hand Field Field Current (e.m.t) «xy Fig. 1.37 (b) in the direction of the induced emf. (or current). Consider the conductor moving in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. 1.37(a). It can be verified using Fleming's right hand rule that the direction of the current due to the induced emf. is coming out. Symbolically this is shown in the Fig. 1.37 (b). Key Point: Ir practice though magnet is moved keeping the application of rule; thumb should point in the direction of rel with respect to flex, assuming the flux stationary nductor stationary, while motion of conductor This rule mainly gives direction of current which induced e.m.f. in conductor will set up when closed path is provided to it. Verify the direction of the current through conductor in the four cases ‘shown in the Fig, 1.38 by the use of Fleming's right hand rule, Retative motion of conductor (a) Current coming out (b) Current going in Relative motion of conductor {¢) Current going in (4) Current coming out Fig. 1.38 Verifying Fleming's right hand rule 2) Lenz's: Law This rule is based on the principles derived by German Physicist Heinrich Lenz. The Lenz's law states that, ‘The direction of an induced emf. produced by the electromagnetic induction is such that it sets up a current which always opposes the cause that is responsible for inducing the e.r.f In short the induced emf, always opposes the cause producing it, which is represented by a negative sign, mathematically in its expression.Electrical Machines - | 1-39 Basics of Magnetism The explanation can be given as below : Consider a solenoid as shown in the Fig. 139. Let a bar magnet is moved towards coil such that N-pole of magnet is facing a coil which will circulate the current through the coil. According to Lenz's Law, the direction of current due to induced emf. is so as to oppose the cause. The cause is motion of bar Bar magnet magnet towards coil. So em-f. will set up a current through coil in such a way <= Direction of motion - that the end of solenoid facing bar magnet will Fig. 1.39 Lenz's law become N-pole. Hence two Force ofatvaction dueto] like poles will face each induced e.m.t and other experiencing force of urent in. colt repulsion which is opposite 4 to the motion of bar magnet as shown in the Fig. 1.39. Bar magnet If the same bar magnet | is moved away from the ==} Drection of motion coil, then induced e.m.f. will co set up a current in the direction which will cause, the end of solenoid facing bar magnet to behave as S-pole. Because of this two unlike poles face each other and there will be force of attraction which is direction of magnet, away from the coil. The galvanometer shows deflection in other direction as shown in the Fig. 1.40. The Lenz's law can be summarized as, Fig. 1.40 Lenz's law EMF. Curent] [Direction of currents r Ind ogg Lo gt Len] toe, Ll suctt p |_,|Route | nero P| induced F>>} through veloped sedan conse Conductor incoil coil near S poe ofmamnet| | '°'Me Poles] | proaveingt Motion of Induced Curent Direction of Tries to oppose Lenz's aw ‘magnet emt feld magnet motion EMF Curent] [Direction of current is Magnet Attractive |__| Induced em‘. moved away from} Soe =D} gins, doy Uo aL Dae 9 ka force due te ==P>onposes cause conducter nied ne earNoaeeracnet| | Utke Boles] ~ |” procucing it Motion of Induced Current Direction of Tiesto oppose ~—_Leng’s aw magne! emf feld magnet motion Fig. 1.41 Concept of Lenz's lawaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 1-42 Ba: of Magnetism Current through coil A is I, producing flux 6). Part of this flux will link with coil B ie. will complete its path through coil B as shown in the Fig. 4.12. This is the mutual flux 2. Now if current through coil A is changed by means of variable resistance R, then flux 1 changes. Due to this, flux associated with coil B, which is mutual flux @2 also changes. Due to Faraday's law there will be induced em. in coil B which will set up a current through coil B, which will be detected by galvanometer G. Key Point: Any change in current trough coil A produces emf in coil B, this phenomenon is called mutual induction and emf is called miivtually induced erp 1.26 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field We know that energy is required to establish flux ie. magnetic field but it is not required to maintain it. This is similar to the fact that the energy is required to raise the water through a certain height (h) which. is ‘mgh’ joules. But energy is not required to maintain the water at height ‘h’. This energy ‘mgh’ gets stored in it as its potential energy and can be utilized for many purposes. Key Point: The energy required to establish magnetic field then gots stored imto it as # potential energy. This energy can be recovered when magnetic field established, collapses. This can be explained” as Sno: below. stored in Z magnetic field Consider a solenoid, the current through which can be controlled with the help of switch S, resistance R shown in the Fig. 145, 1 Initially switch ‘S' is open, so current through coil, I is zero. When switch is closed, current will try to built its value equal to I. Neglect the resistance of coil. It will take some time to increase the current from ‘zero’ to ‘T’ say ‘dt’ seconds. In the mean time, flux linkages associated with the coil will change, due to which there will be self induced e.m4f. in the coil whose value is given by, al Fig. 1.45 Energy stored in magnetic fieldElectrical Machines - 1 1-43 Basics of Magnetism So at every instant, coil will try to oppose the increase in the current. To overcome this opposition, supply has to provide the energy to the circuit. This is nothing but the energy required to establish the current ie. magnetic field or flux around the coil Once curtent achieves its maximum value ‘I’ then change in current stops. Hence there cannot be any induced e.m.f. in the coil and no energy will be drawn from the supply. So no energy is required to maintain the established flux. This is because, induced e.m. lasts as long as there is change in flux lines associated with the coil, according to Faraday's law. Key Point: Now the energy whiich supply Has provided gets stared in the coil which is energy stored in thé magnetic field, as its potential energy. When current is again reduced to zero by opening the switch then current through the coil starts decreasing and flux starts decreasing. So there is induced emf. in the coil according to Faraday’s law. But as per Lenz's law it will try to oppose cause producing it which is decrease in current. So this induced e.m.f. now will try to maintain current to its original value. So instantaneously this induced emf. acts as a source and supplies the energy to the source. This is nothing but the same energy which is stored in the magnetic field which gets recovered while field collapses. So energy stored while increase in the current is returned back to the supply when current decreases ie. when field collapses. Key Point : Tic energy which is stored in the coll earlier is returned back to the supply. No additional energy can exist as coil cannot generate any energy. The expression for this energy stored is derived below. 1.26.1 Expression for Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field Let the induced e.m.f. in a coil be, dl e = -LE ‘This opposes a supply voltage. So supply voltage ‘V’ supplies energy to overcome this, which ultimately gets stored in the magnetic field. v Power supplied = Vx1 = soa Energy supplied in time dt is, E = PowerxTime = LE xpedt dt 0 Ldix 1 joulesElectrical Machine: ' 1-44 Basics of Magnetism This is energy supplied for change in current of dI but actually current changes from zero to I. «+ Integrating above total energy stored is, 1 1 E = fran = Lfarr a 0 (shh E= pur joules 1.26.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume The above expression for the energy stored can be expressed in the different form as, = 1p j E = 5LI? joules Now L=% — UNG: tee = LNer; E = ENO r2outes = AN@Tjoules Now NI = Hi ampere-turns = Ba 1 E= gBaHl But ax! = AreaxLength = Volume of magnetic circuit «. Energy stored per unit volume is, 1 = BH But B= pH Energy per unit volume, ® en H2 joules / m3 2 E/unit volume = 13? joutes/m? 2h Where = Molleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 1-46 Basics of Magnetism The ring specimen as a mean length of ‘?) metres with a cross-sectional area of ‘a’ square metres. Coil is wound for 'N' turns carrying a current 'I' which can be varied by changing the variable resistance 'R' connected. in series. Ammeter is connected to measure the current. For measurement of flux produced, fluxmeter can be used which is not shown in the Fig. 1.46. NI So H can be calculated as “* while B can be calculated as ® for various values of current and plotted. With the help of resistance R, I can be changed from zero to maximum possible value. The B-H curve takes the following form, as shown in the Fig. 1.47, ! ¢_Saturation Flux density Boi’) ° — Field stength H(ATim) Fig. 1.47 B-H curve The graph can be analysed as below : i) Initial portion ; Near the origin for low values of 'H’, the flux density does not increase rapidly. This is represented by curve OA. The point A is called as instep. ii) Middle portion : In this postion as 'H' increases, the flux density B increases rapidly. This is almost straight line curve. At point ‘C’ it starts bending again. The point ‘C’ where this portion bends is called as knee point. iii) Saturation portion : After the knee point, rate of increase in 'B' reduces drastically. Finally the curve becomes parallel to 'X’ axis indicating that any increase in ‘H’ hereafter is not going to cause any change in ‘B'. The ring is said to be saturated and region as saturation region. We have seen already that according to molecular theory of magnetism, when all molecular magnets align themselves in the same direction due to application of H, saturation occurs. Such curves are also called saturation curves. 1.27.1 B-H Curve and Permeability From B-H curve, a curve of relative permeability y, and H can also be obtained. As B= uH Hrio HLElectrical Machines - 1 1-47 Basics of Magnetism B be = Ho is constant which is 4nx10-7. So B/H is nothing but slope of B-H curve. Key Point « So slope of B-H curte at various points decide the value of relative permeability at that point. Initially the slope is low so value of tris also low. At knee point, the value of slope of B-H curve is maximum and hence uy, is maximum. But in saturation region the value of rmaximum and hence tr is maximum. But in’ saturation region the value of itr falls down to very low value as slope of B-H curve in saturation region is almost zero. The curve of j1 against H is shown. in the Fig. 1.48 for a magnetic material He mae knee point Relative permeabiity ) Magnetic field! —m strength (H) Fig. 1.48 u, - H curve for magnetic material The value of pis 1 which is constant in case of non magnetic material. The slope of B-H curve is constant ic. it is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in the Fig. 1.49. Hat 2 q— eS qo Fig. 1.49 u1,- H curve for non magnetic material 1.27.2 Practical Use of B-H Curves While designing the magnetic circuits, magnetization curves are useful to design the values of B corresponding to H. From this, proper material with required relative permeability can be selected. ‘The various materials like iron, steel are generally represented by the B-H curves and r-H curves.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 1-50 Basics of Magnetism E-F : Current is reversed and increased in reversed direction to get complete demagnetization of the core. O-F represent coercive force required to completely wipe out + B,. FG : Current is increased in reversed direction till saturation in opposite direction is achieved. Maximum flux density same but with opposite direction i.e. - Bry. GI: Current is reduced to zero but again flux density lags and core cannot be completely demagnetized. O-I represents residual flux density in other direction ie. - B,. TJ: Current is again reversed and increased till complete demagnetization is achieved. JD: Current is again increased in original direction till saturation is reached. Corresponding flux density is again + By, 1.28.2 Theory Behind Hysteresis Effect As seen from the loop 'O-C-D-E-F-G-I-J-D’ shown in the Fig. 1.51, the flux density B always lags behind the values of magnetic field strength H. When H is zero, corresponding flux density is + B,. This effect is known as hysteresis. This can be explained with the help of theory of molecular magnets inside a material. When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to a magnetic field strength, all the molecular magnets inside, align themselves in the direction of the applied m.m4f. If this applied force is removed or reduced some of the molecular magnets remain in the aligned state and magnetic neutralization of the material is not fully possible. So it continues to show some magnetic properties which is defined as the residual magnetism. The value of the residual magnetism as said earlier depends on the quality of the magnetic material and the treatment it receives at the time of manufacturing. This property is called as retentivity. Key Point: iigiter the value of retentivity, higher the vaiue of the power of the magnetic material to retain its magnetism. For high retentivity, higher is the coercive force required. It can be measured in terms coercivity of the material. 1.29 Hysteresis Loss According to the molecular theory of magnetism groups of molecules acts like elementary magnets, which are magnetized to saturation. This magnetism is developed because of the magnetic effect of electron spins, which are known as ‘domains’. When the material is unmagnetized, the axis of the different domains are in various direction. Thus the resultant magnetic effect is zero.Electrical Machines -| 1-51 Basics of Magnetism When the extemal magnetomotive force is applied the axes of the various domains are oriented...The axes coincide with the direction of the magnetomotive force. Hence the resultant of individual magnetic effects is a strong magnetic field. When a magnetic material is subjected to repeated cycles of magnetization and demagnetization it results into disturbance in the alighment of the various domain. Now energy gets stored when magnetic field is established and energy is returned when field collapses. But due to hysteresis, all the energy is never returned though field completely collapses. This loss of energy appears as heat in the magnetic material. This is called as hysteresis loss. So disturbance in the alignment of the various domains causes hysteresis loss to take place. This hysteresis loss is undesirable and may cause undesirable high temperature rise due to heat produced. Due to such loss overall efficiency also reduces. Such hysteresis loss depends on the following factors 1. The hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area under the hysteresis curve ie. area of the hysteresis loop. 2. It is directly proportional to frequency ie. number of cycles of magnetization per second. 3. It is directly proportional to volume of the material. It can be shown that quantitatively the hysteresis loss in joules per unit volume of the material in one cycle is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop. 1.29.1 Hysteresis Loss Per Unit Volume Consider a ring shaped test piece of magnetic material having length of '? metres, cross-sectional area of ‘a’ m?, wound with uniform ‘N’ turns of a coil. The hysteresis loop for the piece is obtained as in the Fig. 1.52. Fig. 1.52 Hysteresis loss per unit volume Consider an instant when material is magnetized to a point P. The corresponding current be I}.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -! 1-54 Basics of Magnetism The Fig. 1.53 (a) shows loop of hard steel, which is magnetic material. The Fig. 1.53 (b) shows loop of cast steel. The Fig. 1.53 (c) shows loop of permalloy (Alloy of nickel and iron) ie. ferromagnetic materials. The Fig. 1.53 (4) shows loop for air or non magnetic material. The materials iron, nickel, cobalt and some of their alloys and compounds show a strong tendency to move from weaker to stronger portion of a nor-uniform magnetic field. Such substances are called ferromagnetic materials. The hysteresis loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. For ferromagnetic materials the hysteresis loop area is less as shown in the Fig. 1.53 (c) thus hysteresis loss is less in such materials. In nonmagnetic materials, the hysteresis loop is straight line having zero area hence hysteresis loss is also zero in such materials. 1.30 Eddy Current Loss Consider a coil wound on a core. If this coil carries an alternating current i.e. current whose magnitude varies with respect to time, then flux produced by it is also of alternating nature. So core is under the influence of the changing flux and under such condition according to the Faraday's law of Flux electromagnetic induction, emf. gets induced in the core. Now if core is solid, then such induced emf. circulates currents through the core. Such currents in the core which are due to induced emf. in the core are called as eddy currents. Aternating Due to such currents there is power loss. (FR) in @7°"'S! the core, such loss is called as eddy current loss. This loss, similar to hysteresis loss, reduces the efficiency. For solid core with less resistance, 7 eddy currents are always very high. Eddy currents ‘The Fig. 1.54 shows a core carrying the eddy currents, Flux Fig. 1.54 Eddy currents Eddy current loss depends on the various factors which are i) Nature of the material ii) Maximum flux density iii) Frequency iv) Thickness of laminations used to construct to core v) Volume of magnetic material.Electrical Machines - | 1-55 Basics of Magnetism Tt has been found that loss can be considerably reduced by selecting high resistivity magnetic material like silicon. Most popular, method used to reduce eddy current loss is to use laminated construction to construct the core. Core is constructed by stacking thin pieces known as laminations as shown in the Fig. 1.55. The laminations are insulated from each other by thin layers of insulating material like varnish, paper, mica. This restricts the paths of eddy currents, to respective laminations only. So area through which currents flow decreases, increasing the resistance and magnitude of currents gets reduced considerably. 1.55 Laminated core The loss may also be reduced by grinding the ferromagnetic material to a powder and mixing it with a binder that effectively insulates the particles one from other. This mixture is then formed under pressure into the desired shape and heat treated. Magnetic cores for use in communication equipment are frequently made by this process. This loss is quantified by using the expression, Eddy current loss = K, (B,)° f ¢ x volume watts Where K, = A characteristic constant of material Bm = Maximum flux density f = Frequency t = Thickness of the lamination 1.31 R-L Series Circuit Consider a R-L series circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.56. Let the initial current through an inductor is zero. R L WWI . Applying KVL to the circuit, di(t) = -_) V =i R+L AO .¥_ ay bit) “Ot ae Fig. 1.56 R-L series circuit Vv L Fri = Ee R pat =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 1-59 Basics of Magnetism Examples with. Solutions Example 1.9: An iron ring has a mean diameter of 20 cm and a uniform circular cross section of 2.5232 cm diameter with a small brass piece fitted of 1 mm length. Three coils are wound on the ring as shown in the Fig. 1.60 and carry identical d.c. current of 2 A. If the relative permeability of iron is 800, estiniate :- i) The magnetic flux produced in air-gap, ii) Self-inductance of the arrangement. iii) Net m.mf. in the ring. Fig. 1.60 Solution : From the various values given, a = Fy =F 5232)" =5 em? = 5x 10" me ly = 1X dinean = 1X 20 = 62.8318 cm = 0.6283 m I, = Ip= I, = 0.6283 - 1 x10"? = 0.6273 m and Ig = Imm =1x 103m H = 800 and I=2A Ip ki S85 = Sura * oa 6273 4nx10~ x800x5 x 10-4 = 1247973.698 + 1591549.431 = 2839523.129 AT/Wb in x1 Net mmf. = Ny I, +Nz I) +Ng ly _ ... all produce flux in same direction = 2 (500 +125 +125] = 1500 AT m.m.f. 1500 Feluctance © 2839553.129 3a2A = 5.282x10-4 Wb N2 _ (600+125+4125)2 bis “sy = 9 2839523,129 7” 0198aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | Basics of Magnetism Cross section diameter cm a= Fat = 2 x(4)? = 12566 em? = 12.566 «10-4 m? Jy = Length of air gap = 2.2 mm = 22x 107? m 1, = Length of iron path 0.6261 m — 62 ~» 01, il undergoes a cycle Of magnetisation and demagnetisation. The hysteresis and eddy current effects are dominant under such condition. Thus there is an irrecoverable energy loss due to hysteresis and eddy currents. In our analysis it is assumed that these losses are separated out and supplied by the electric source used. Hence the coil is ideal lossless coil. Such a magnetic system is called conservative system. a - A Relationship : The i - & relationship is similar to the magnetisation curve for a magnetic % material for various values of x, the relationship is shown in the Fig. 27. Practically 2 may vary according to i or i may vary according to 2. So mathematically this relationship is expressed as, Fig. 2.7 i - } relationship i ne i@,x) .. A= Independent variable AG) wi = Independent variable Depending upon the independent variable the stored field energy is also the function of i, x ord, x. We = We(A,x) or We (i, x) +-(10) Key Point : If x is changed then energy interchange takes place in magnetic coupling field and mechanical system. If x is held constant then energy interchange takes place between electric aystem and magnetic coupling field. Concept of Co-energy : | When armature is held open then almost entire mmf. is required to drive the flux through air gap and hence magnetic saturation may not occur. Soi-or F - relationship is linear in nature as shown in the Fig. 2.8. As per the equation (9), » We = Ji(d)dd = Area OABO = Field energy 0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 2-11 Electromechanical Energy Conversion w,=} j Li? Joules (as) Nin ‘The co-energy can be expressed for linear case as, Wi = tine h Fos ; P32 Joules (16) where P = © ~ Permeance of magnetic circuit From equation (15) it can be observed that field energy Wy is function of two independent variables 4 and x. Wr (Q,x) = G7) where L(x) = Inductance as a function of x, From equation (16) it can be observed that co-energy Wj is function of two independent variables i and x. Wy (i, x) = 7 Le) ? as) ‘The equations (17) and (18) are general expressions for energy and co-energy. Magnetic Stored Energy Density : The magnetic energy density is the magnetic stored energy per unit volume. It is denoted as w;. at aE We _ Wi = ‘Volume ~ (Length of circuit) (Area normal to flux) — We_1 idk _ 159 a7 21a 15 @ “E27 K Now = Magnetic field intensity = H in AT/m While 2 = Magnetic flux density = Bin Wb/m? or Tesla Wr = 3 BH J/m? ... Stored field energy density a9) For a magnetic circuit, B = wHIaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 2-13 Electromechanical Energy Conversion B B W; = paisa aB+ [gle A dB -».(26) a 0 Now flux density remains same everywhere and can be expressed as, B = 1, Hy = Uniform flux density Note: The p, for air gap is unity. B BLA W, = fHiliA dB+{*— Bap Ho a a But A = Volume of the iron core IgA = Volume of the air gap 8 vol f fe voh yf di, - frnan) "ome? ATS ap] evonme J" iron core “| Site air gap we [js ee B2 _ volume of @ a , le. iron core * 2 * air gap This is magnetic stored energy. 2.6.3 Mechanical Force Consider that the magnetic field produces a mechanical force F; as shown in the relay. This force drives the mechanical system consisting active and passive mechanical elements. Let the armature moves a distance dx in positive direction i.e. in the direction of force. The mechanical work done by the magnetic field then can be obtained as, dW,, = F; dx (28) As per the energy balance equation for electrical input, Electrical ‘Change in Mechanical gy = |energy dWe|-| stored dW; energy output input energy F, dx = idi-d Wy (29) In such electromechanical systems the independent variables can be (i, x) or (A, x).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 2-15 — Electromechanical Energy Conversion a We (i, x) Ox «++ (36) F = Key Point : This is the expression for system in which i is independent variable. This ‘means input current constant. Such a system is current excited system. Case 2: The independent variables are (h., x).ie. 2 is constant. ‘Thus i changes as A and x hence, i= iQ,» While Wy = We, x) _ OW: aw; dw, = Bt a (37) Using (37) in the equation (29), 4 aw, aw, Frdx = idk - “4 dn- ax _ aw; aw; ie. Fydx = - a ax fe Fk dd +38) There are no terms of dA on the left hand side of the equation, the corresponding term on the right hand side must be zero. aw, ae 8 Ws(2,%) =a ++ (39) =aWy(A,x) Rese . (40) Key Point : This is Hie expression for system in swhich 2. is independent suriable ic. Hux producing voltage is constant. Such a system is voltage controlled system Thus use equation (36) for current excited system while equation (40) for voltage controlled system to find the mechanical force developed. Rotational System ;|In rotational system, force is replaced by torque while linear displacement dx is replaced by angular displacement 40. a Wi(,8) 70 w+ (41) ~a Wy(A.0) and Tt] = Sate) (42)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 2-21 — Electromechanical Energy Conversion Ao by - ip) ww (iy > in) A Woy = -AWe= F2¢ Gy i) w (53) In both the linear and nonlinear case, when 2 is constant, the change in input electrical energy is zero as the voltage is maintained constant. AW, = 0 vos (64) Key Point ; For achicving this, the armature must move from position 1 to position 2 very quickly. As input energy is zero, the part of field energy stored is used to do the mechanical work. And thus stored energy decreases by same amount as equal to change in mechanical energy output. Practical cas Practically armature can not move infinitely slow or it can not move very fast instantaneously. So neither current can remain constant nor 4 remains constant practically when armature moves from x, to x, the current decreases from i to iz while flux linkages increases from )y to 2. ‘The i-A relationship for nonlinear case is shown in the Fig. 2.13 (a) while for linear case it is shown in the Fig. 2.13 (b). Increases Decreases <—— —_— a) Nonlinear case b) Linear case Fig. 2.13 Mechanical energy for practical caseaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 2-23 Electromechanical Energy Conversion Case 1: Independent variables 2, Ay @ i.e. hy, Ay are constants From the earlier analysis it is known, ~OWe (A142 8) Ty] = = +. Currents are variables (1) While the field energy is, a A: We Qa, Aa, 8) = firday finan 2) ° a Now let Ly = Self inductance of stator Ly = Self inductance of rotor Ly = Ly = Mutual inductance between stator and rotor y= Ly thy i +8) and dg = Lig iy + Lp i @) Solve (3) and (4) to express i; and ip interms of 4 and dy as Ay and Ay are independent variables. Multiply (3) by Ly, and (4) by Ly, Lin a Ly bai +, ib and. Ly 2 = Ty biz + bu bee Subtracting the two, Lyg Ay Lay Ap = (9g - bay Lael ae [eb es i } 3 Liles 4.-Lukz | b= Bo dtBae 6) Note that negative sign is absorbed in defining B. Similarly i, can be expressed interms of 2; and 2g as, a i, = Bu 1+ Bad 6) where ba = > 8 "aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines 2-27 Electromechi I Energy Conversion L (Maximum) Rotor aligned to direct axis, Ly thy 00s 28 (Minimum) Rotor aligned to quadrsture axis Fig. 2.17 Variation of L(@) with respect to 6 Let 8 is initial angle of rotor with respect to direct axis at t = 0 as shown in the Fig. 217, when current i is maximum. ©, = Angular speed of rotor in radians sec ‘Thus the rotor position at time 't' is, 8 = O_t-8 (3) The field co-energy is given by Wit, 0) = FLO? ‘The mechanical torque is given by aw 30 Th ~ 2" F@) T= ya cos? od [Ly + L, cos 29] T = ~I}, cos? wt L, sin ® -. (4) Using (3), T interms of a, is, T = -12,cos? at L, sin 2 [w,,t - 8] Ts - Hale sin 2(@mt—8) [1 + cos 2 wt] ...cos%x = —— =- Fabel sin 2(mt—8)+ sin 2 (dnt ~8) cos 2at}aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 2-35 —_Electromechanical Energy Conversion Nie qh 2 But 1 (sin? wt) dt F; (av) 2 Ors 0.03887 N ‘mp Example 2.5: Two coupled coils have self and mutual inductance of Ly, =2+1/(2x); Ly =141/(2x); Lig =L21 = 1/(2x), over a certain range of linear displacement x. The first coil is excited by a constant current of 20 A and the second by a consiant curent of - 10 A. Find 1) Mechanical work done if x changes from 0.5 to 1 m. 2) Energy supplied by each electrical source in part (1). 3) Change in field energy in part (1). Hence verify that the energy supplied by the sources is equal to the increase in the field energy plus the mechanical work done. Solution : As coils are current excited, the expression of co-energy is used. In this example, i; = 20 A, ip =- 10 A. , 1 1 We (inigsx) = 5 Lin iP +Laz ini +5 Lae 3 ai 1 2 = 3(2+ Pa cumes 5) 20) 10)+ 5 }-10) = 400+ 200200 59425 = 450+ 28 _ awe 3 25 y R= [s0+]e @ 1 BWm = FR dx= 3 ax=- 25-4 I i ils 1 AWmn = -2 iedije-ass R2Ge1) 2 AWe = f iy day =i) [Ay (K=1)~ay (x= 05)] 41 05) N Ay = Lui = (242) 20)4+4 (10)= 4045 low a= La in+ Liz in =(2+55) 00+ 55 (AN)= 4042 5 5 AWa = c2o[40+3-s0- 3] - - 100) Similarly, A Weg = i2[A2 (x=1)-A2 (x=05)]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -| 2-39 — Electromechanical Energy Conve (3.1491) 3 We = wax 22S)" 610-2)? =3.1491 J ‘ ii) Wi = | Adi = coenergy a iv? Tix and a 121x wo [Ss 0 Wi = ax ee i Sage ON? = 6.2983 J iit) R = ~ 2M. fs 2] » 8) R = ~2xeus3 x2Xx5x10 = — 125.9573 N ima Example 2.8 : In the rectangular elecromagnetic relay, there are two coils. ~ X, Ks Ly = Gtr lag= Band Ly =“? where x is the air gap at each end of the armature, which is free at both the ends. Find the expression for the force on the armature jf, iy = sin @yt and iy = b sin oot. Write an expression for the average force. For what relationship between w and w 2 is the average force (i) maximum and (ii) minimum ? Solution : The stored energy is given by, - Valin Penk Whip iy) = qbluif+gla ijt iy ingly — 1Ki.9,1Ks 2, iti2Ke = TK TD TX I OWE __1Ki jp _1 Ks ig _ intake ee ra 22 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Basics of D.C. Machines 3.1 Introduction The study of the electrical engineering, basically involves the analysis of the energy transfer from one form to another. An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to clectrical form or from electrical to mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical energy conversion. ‘An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy is called an electric generator. While an electrical machine which converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy is called an electrical motor. Such electrical machines may be related to an electrical energy of an alternating type called a.c. machines or may be related to an electrical energy of direct type called dc. machines. The dc. machines are classified as d.c. generators and d.c. motors. The construction of a dec. machine basically remains same whether it is a generator or a motor. 3.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced em.f. This principle is nothing but the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It states that, ‘whenever the number of magnetic lines of force ie. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.’ The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there exists a relative motion between a conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to a conductor. So a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between conductor and the flux. Such an induced em4f. which is due to physical movement of coil or conductor with respect to flux or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced emé. Key Point: So a geneting action reyuires following basic components io exist, ) The conductor or a coil it) The flux ii) The relative motion between conductor and flux. @-1)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 Basics of D.C. Machines 3.4 Single Turn Alternator Connection a c Conductor 1 7 Se? ’ J To To Gq & Fig. 3.5 Single turn coil It consists of a permanent magnet with two poles. A single tum rectangular coil is Kept in the vicinity. of . the permanent magnet. The coil is made up of conducting material like copper or aluminium. The coil is made up of the two conductors namely a-b and c-d. Such two conductors are connected at one end to form a coil as shown in the Fig. 3.5. The remaining two ends are to be connected to the rings mounted on the shaft, called slip rings C, and C;. Slip tings also rotate along with armature of a machine. The two brushes P and Q are resting on the slip rings, just making a contact with slip rings. The brushes P and Q are stationary. The slip ring and brush assembly is required to collect the e.m-f. induced in the rotating coil and make it available to the stationary external resistance. The overall construction is shown in the Fig 3.6. Slip rings Axis Direction of rotation v= Direction of instantaneous velocity Fig. 3.6 Single turn alternator The coil is rotated in an anticlockwise direction. While rotating, the conductors ab and cd cut the lines of flux of the permanent magnet. Due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf. gets induced in the conductors. This emf. drives a current through resistance R connected across the brushes P and Q. The magnitude of the induced emf.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 3-9 Basics of D.C. Machines 3. It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux. The low reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and hence the power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux. b) Choice of material : To provide low reluctance path, it must be made up of some magnetic material. It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest. For large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability ie. low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength. 3.5.2 Poles Each pole is divided into two parts namely, I) Pole core and I) Pole shoe This is shown in the Fig. 3.10. ne Pole. core Pole shoe Fig. 3.10 Pole structure a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe : Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux. It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole. Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has been given a particular shape. b) Choice of material ; It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As it requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations of required size and shape are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke. 3.5.3 Field Winding (F1 - F2) The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction. a) Functions : To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux. As it helps in producing the magnetic field ie. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called Field winding or Exciting winding.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -| 3-13 Basics of D.C. Machines Key Point : Due to this type of connection, the total number of conductors get divided into two number of parallel paths always, irrespective of number of poles of the machine. As number of parallel paths are less, it is preferable for low current, high voltage capacity generators. The number of parallel paths in which armature conductors are divided due to lap or wave fashion of connection is denoted as A. So A = P for lap connection and A = 2 for wave connection. 3.6.3 Comparison of Lap and Wave Type Winding Sr. No. Lap winding Wave winding 1._|_ Number of parallel paths (A) = Poles (P) Number of parallel paths (A) = 2 (aways) 2. | Number of brush sets required is equal to! Number of brush sets required is always: number of poles. ‘equal to two. 3. | Preferable for high current, low voltage] Preferable for high voltage, low current| capacity generators, capacity generators. 4. Normally used for generators of capacity) Preferred for generators of capacity less than more than 500 A. 500 A. 3.7 E.M.F. Equation of D.C. Machine Let P = Number of poles of the generator = Flux produced by each pole in webers (Wb) N = Speed of armature in r.p.m. Z = Total number of armature conductors “A. = Number of parallel paths in which the number of conductors are divided So A = P for lap type of winding A = 2 for wave type of winding Now emf. gets induced in the conductor according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Hence average value of emf. induced in each armature conductor is, d e = Rate of cutting the flux = “aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 3-17 Basics of D.C. Machines The single layer windings used in high voltage machines use small groups of concentrically placed coils. The interlinking between these coils is in such a way so as to minimize the space taken up outside the slot and in the overhang connections. 3.9.2 Double Layer Winding It is shown in the Fig. 3.18. It consists of identical coils with one coilside of each coil in top half of the slot and the other coilside in bottom half of another slot which is nearly one pole pitch away. In the Fig. 3.18 (a) there are two coilsides per slot while in (b) there are eight coilsides per slot. Each layer may contain more than one coil side if large number of coils are required. For placing double layer windings, usually open slots are used. Coilsides Top collside Bottom colside @) (b) Fig. 3.18 Double layer winding Advantages of Double Layer Winding The double layer winding has following advantages, 1) It provides neat arrangement as all coils are identical. 2) Greater flexibility can be achieved with double layer winding as coil span can be easily selected. 3.10 Closed and Open Windings Armature windings are classified into two different types namely i) closed type winding ii) open type winding.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 3-21 Basics of D.C. Machines The new position of MNA is also shown which is perpendicular to the resultant m.m.f. vector OFp . The MNA gets shifted through an angle 0 so that brushes are also shifted and are along new MNA. Due to this brush shift, the armature conductors as well as armature current is redistributed. Some of the armature conductors which were earlier under the influence of S pole now come under N pole and vice versa. This regrouping of armature conductors arid armature current is as shown in the Fig. 3.22, It can also be seen that the brush shifts in the same direction as that of direction of rotation of armature. The conductors on the left of new position of MNA carry current downwards and those to the right carry current upwards. The armature m.m.f. is now along new position of MNA represented by vector OFg in the Fig.3.22. It is inclined at an angle 0 to the left instead of being vertical. The armature m.m-f. represented by vector OFg can be resolved into two components, OF, parallel to the polar axis and OF, perpendicular to the axis. The component OF, is in direct opposition with field mmf. vector OF, This will tend to reduce the total flux. Hence this component is called demagnetising component of the armature reaction whereas the other component OF, is at right angles to vector OF, This will produce distortion in the main field. Hence this component is called cross magnetising component of the armature reaction It can be observed that both the components viz. demagnetising and cross magnetizing, will increase with increase in armature current.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -! 3-25 Basics of D.C. Machines 3) Due to armature reaction the maximum value of gap flux density increases. This will increase the maximum voltage between adjacent commutator segments at load. If this voltage exceeds beyond 30 V the sparking may take place between adjacent commutator segments. 4) The armature reaction shifts brush axis from GNA. Thus flux density in the interpolar axis is not zero but having some value. Thus there will be an induced emf. in the coil undergoing commutation which will try to maintain the current in original direction. This will make commutation difficult and will cause delayed commutation. 3.15 Reduction of Effects of Armature Reaction In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction following methods are used. 1) The armature reaction causes the distortion in main field flux. This can be reduced if the reluctance of the path of the cross-magnetising field is increased. The armature teeth ond air gap at pole tips offer reluctance to armature flux. Thus by increasing length of air gap, the armature reaction effect is reduced. 2) If reluctance at pole tips is increased it will reduce distorting effect of armature reaction. By using special construction in which leading and trailing pole tip portions of laminations are alternately omitted, 3) The effect of armature reaction can be neutralized by use of compensating winding. It is always placed in series with armature winding. The armature ampere conductors under pole shoe must be equal to compensating winding ampere conductors which will compensate armature m.mf. perfectly. 4) The armature reaction causes shifting the magnetic neutral axis. Therefore there will be some flux density at brush axis which produces emf. in the coil undergoing commutation. This will lead to delayed commutation. Thus the armature reaction at brush axis must be neutralised. This requires another equal and opposite m.m.f. to that of armature m.mf. This can be applied by interpoles which are placed at geometric neutral axis at midway between the main poles. Out of the different methods mentioned above, used to reduce the effects of armature reaction, let us see the method of providing compensating winding in detail. This method is very popularly used in actual practice for d.c. machines.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -| 3-29 Basics of D.C. Machines But brushes P and Q are stationary and tapping the current from the commutator segments which are in contact with them. Hence under instant 2, segment B will be in contact with brush P and segment A will be in contact with brush Q. Due to this, current through resistance R maintains its direction from left to right as shown in the Fig. 3.29. Brush P remains positive and Q remains as negative. ‘The Fig. 3.29 shows the waveforms of current in the individual conductor and current in external resistance R_ Effectively one brush always taps those conductors carrying current in one particular direction and other brush always taps those conductors carrying a current which is in 180° opposite direction to the conductors under brush one. So one brush remains always positive and other always negative, and the load current is ‘unidirectional. Key Point : in the limiting cnse, number of segments of @ commutator is equal to number of armature coils in a practical generator. Due to this, commutating action is very fast and almost straight line i.e. pure dc. can be obtained across the load, In a practical d.c. generator, the small poles in addition to the main poles, fixed to the yoke in between the main poles are used to improve the commutation. These poles are called interpoles. 3.17 Practical Commutation The emf. induced in each coil of armature is alternating in nature. If load is connected, the current flowing will also be alternating. But the flow of current in a d.c. generator must be unidirectional. This can be achieved by the use of commutator. When the armature conductors are under the influence of one pole they carry current in éne direction whereas the current is reversed when the conductors are under the influence of other pole. This reversal of current takes place along the magnetic neutral axis. Current in Current output conductor| In resistance R 9 180 [360° ° ° 180° 360° ° Fig. 3.30 Waveforms of current © Key Point : The reversal of current is likely to take place in short interoal when a col is short circuited by a brush so that transfer of current from one direction to other is carried out without any sparking. This process is called commutation.Electrical Machines - | 3-30 Basics of D.C. Machines Thus a process by which current in the short circuited coil is reversed while it crosses the MNA is called commutation. The time during which the coil remains short circuited is known as commutation period. This period is generally of the order of 0.0005 to 0.002 sec. The commutation is said to be ideal when current changes from + I to zero and zero to ~ I within the commutation period. The sparking is produced between the commutator and brush if current is not reversed by that time. This will lead to damage of commutator as well as brush. Hence for satisfactory operation of d.c. machine proper commutation is required ie. transfer of current must be without sparking and losses and heating of brushes and the commutator. Now we will see the process of commutation in detail with the help of the figures. Let us assume that the armature winding is ring type and the width of brush is equal to the width of one commutator segment and one mica insulation. In this case only one coil is short circuited at a time at each of these brushes whereas in actual practice width of brush is more than that of commutator so that more than two coils are simultaneously short circuited at each brush. =a War. (a) (@) Fig. 3.31 Practical commutation As shown in the Fig. 331 (a), coil B is about to be short circuited. The brush is about to come in contact with commutator segment ‘a’. Suppose that each coil is carrying current of 10 A so that total brush current is 20 A as every coil meeting at the brush supplies half the brush current independent of lap or wave wound armature. Before coil B is short circuited, it is belonging to the group of coils lying left of the brush. It is carrying current 10 A from left to right. ‘As seen from the Fig. 3.31 (b), coil B is entering short circuit period. The current in coil B has reduced from 10 A to 5 A as the other 5 A flows via segment ‘a. The total current isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3-33 Basics of D.C. Machines L = Coefficient of self inductance T, = Time of commutation tm Example 3.5: A 4 pole lap wound armature running at 1800 r.p.m. delivers a current of 150 A and has 64 commutator segments. The brush spans 1.2 segments and inductance of each armature coil is 0.06 ml Calculate the value of reactance voltage assuming i) Linear commutation ii) Sinusoidal commutation Neglect mica thickness. Solution : The given values are, I= 150A N= 1800 rpm. Wy, = 1.2 segments Wh = 0 L= 0.06 mH 64 segments There are total 64 segments on the entire periphery. It is necessary to calculate the peripheral speed in segments/second as Wy, is given in segments. Now the commutator speed is 1800 r.p.m. ie. 1800 60 = 30 rps. ie. revolutions per second And in one revolution, 64 segments get covered. Hence v = Peripheral speed in segments/second = No. of revolutions per second x Total segments on commutator = 30 x 64 = 1920 segments/second Key Point : if W, is given in om and commutator diameter D, is given in om then v is, to be calculated in cm/second as given below. ve xo. can/second _ Wy-Wm _ 12-0 ~ 1920 = 6.25 x 10 second I = Current through a conductor = a = 2 = 375A For linear commutation, Self induced em, B= Lx 2006 x103 x 2X25 o72v x= Te 6.25104Electrical Machines - | 3-34 Basics of D.C. Machines For sinusoidal commutation, B= Lei e=792Vv 3.18 Methods of Improving Commutation There are two practical ways by which commutation may be improved. These methods are, 1. Resistance commutation and 2. E.M.F. commutation. 3.18.1 Resistance Commutation In this method of improving commutation, the low resistance copper brushes are replaced by high resistance carbon brushes. From the Fig. 3.33 it can be seen that the current I from coil C when passing through commutator segment ‘b’ has two parallel paths. One is straight from ‘b’ to brush while the other is through short circuited coil B to segment ‘a’ and then to the brush. By using low resistance copper brush the current will not prefer second path as it will prefer first low resistance path. When carbon brushes ‘having comparatively high resistance are used then current I through coil C will select the second path as resistance Tr of first path will be increasing due to decrease in contact area of “b’ with brush and resistance 1, of second path will be decreasing due to increase in contact area of ‘a’ with brush. Fig. 3.33 Resistance commutation Thus by increasing contact resistance between commutator segment and brushes, will limit short circuit current and reduce time constant (L/P) of the circuit which will help in quick reversal of current in the desired direction. 3.18.1.1 Advantages of Resistance Commutation The advantages of resistance commutation are, 1) Upto some degree they are self lubricating and polish the commutator. 2) If sparking occurs, damage to commutator will be less as compared to when copper brushes are used. 3.18.1.2 Disadvantages of Resistance Commutation The disadvantages of resistance commutation are, 1) There is a loss of approximately 2 volts due to high contact resistance. Hence this is not used in small machines.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 3-37 Basics of D.C. Machines 1 2 3 10. ul 12, 13, 14, 15. Review Questions Explain with a neat sketch; the construction of a d.c. machine. Which part of a d.c. machine is laminated ? Why ? What is the basic nature of the induced emf. in a dc. generator ? What is the function of a commutator ? What is the difference between lap type and wave type of armature winding ? Derive from first principles an expression for the e.mf. of a d.c generator. Ina particular d.c. machine, if P = 8, Z = 400, N = 300 rp.m. and @ = 100 mWb, calculate generated emf. if winding is connected in (i) Lap fashion (i) Wave fashion. (Ans. :i) 200 V ii) 800 V) Explain the working of a single turn alternator. How it can be used as a d.c. generator ? 8. With neat diagrams explain the phenomenon of armature reaction in « d.c. machine, Discuss its effects. Develope an expression for the demagnetizing and cross magnetizing armature ampere-turns in a dc. generator. Explain how the effect of armature reaction can be neutralised by using interpoles and compensating winding. Explain clearly the process of commutation in a d.c. machine. What causes sparking at the commutator surface ? Explain the following terms Ideal commutation, Over commutation, Under commutation Define reactance voltage. What és its effect ? Why it is necessary to neutralize it ? How can it be done ? Explain the difficulties of commutation in a d.c. machine, What methods are used to overcome these difficulties ? Explain the functions of interpoles in a d.c. machine. ooo(3 - 38)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -| 4-3 D.C. Motors Key Point: In the practical dc. motor, the permanent magnet. is replaced by a field winding which produces the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating. 4.3 Direction of Rotation of Motor The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by, F = BII Newtons (N) Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding. 1 = Active length of the conductor. I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor. The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's left hand rule. So Fleming's right hand rule is to determine direction of induced emf. ie. for generating action while Fleming's left hand rule is to determine direction of force experienced ie. for motoring action. 4.3.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule The rule states that, ‘Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger, middle finger and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the first finger in the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor’. The Fleming's left hand rule can be diagramatically shown as in the Fig. 4.4 Direction of & motion N s —= Lines of flux Left mane Direction of current Fig. 4.4 Fleming's left hand ruleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 4-7 D.C. Motors When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back emf. increases. This causes (V - E,) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by the armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to produce the less torque required by the new load Key Point : So back emf. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the back emf. . 4.5 Power Equation of a D.C. Motor The voltage equation of a dc. motor is given by, V = B+hR Multiplying both sides of the above equation by I, we get, VI, = EI, +12 Ry This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor. Vi, = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts. I2R, = Power loss due to the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss. So difference between VI, and I2R, i.e. input — losses gives the output of the armature. So Ey I, is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature. This is denoted as Py, £. Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power developed in the armature. 45.1 Condition for Maximum Power For a motor from power equation it is known that, Pm = Gross mechanical power developed = Ey [5 = Via - 13Ra For maximum Paar® = 0 ‘dla Ni< Tn ORS Substituting in voltage equation,Electrical Machines -1 4-8 D.C. Motors: .. condition for maximum power Key Point : This is practically impossible to achieve as for this Ey, current required is much more than its normal rated value. Large heat will be produced and efficiency of ‘motor will be less than 50 %, 4.6 Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor — It is seen that the turning or twisting force Rotation about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential a, force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 4.7. Fig. 47 The wheel is rotating at a speed of N rpm. Then angular speed of the wheel is, 2nN @ = =~ rad/sec So workdone in one revolution is, W = Fx distance travelled in one revolution = Fx2nR Joules workdone And P = Power developed = “°° = Px2mR | FX2mR 2nN = ime for I rev ~ @ = eam) «{ o) N P = Tx = watts Where T = Torque in N-m © = Angular speed in rad/sec. Let T, be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E, I,, as seen from the power equation. So if speed of the motor is N r.p.m. then, Power in armature = Armature torque xo 2nN BI, = Tex but Ey in a motor is given by, OPNZ Be SAaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 4-14 D.C. Motors ump Example 4.4: A 4 pole, lap wound dc. motor has 540 conductors. Its speed is found to be 1000 rp.m. when it is made to run light. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. It is connected to 230 V d.c. supply. The armature resistance is 0.8 2 Calculate, i) Induced emf. ti) Armature current iii) Stray losses iv) Lost torque Solution :P = 4,A=P=4 Running light means it is on no load. No = 1000 rpm. Z = 540 and @ = 25 x 10 Wb Fy = DENG , 25x00 2 410007540 _ 95 y i) Induced em£, Eyg = 225¥ ii) From voltage equation, V = E, +1, R, V = Eyot oR, 230 = 225 + Ig X08 Tyo = 625A iti) On no load, power developed is fully the power required to, overcome stray losses. = 225 x 6.25 = 1406.25 W _ 1406.25 60 ~~ Fex1000 Stray losses = Eyg Ii iv) Lost torque T; = = 13.428 N-m. 4.7 Types of D.C. Motors The d.c. motors are classified depending upon the way of connecting the field winding with the armature winding. The different types of dc. motors are shunt motors, series motors and compound motors. The compound motors are further classified as short shunt compound and long shunt compound motors. Let us see the connection diagrams and different voltage and current relations of these types of motors. 4.8 D.C. Shunt Motor In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is connected across the supply, as shown in the Fig. 4.9.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 4-15 D.C. Motors Key Point «If the two field windings are wound in such a manner that the fluxes produced by the two always help each other, the motor is called cumulatively compound. If the fluxes produced by the uo field windings are trying to cancel each other ie. they are in opposite direction, the motor is called differential compound. A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short shunt compound motor can be.cumulative or differential type. 4.11 Torque and Speed Equations Before analysing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and speed equations as applied to various types of motors. T « 91, | from torque equation This is because, 0.159 7 is a constant for a given motor. Now 6 is the flux produced by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing through the field winding. = Thea But for various types of motors, current through the field winding is different. Accordingly torque equation must be modified. For a d.c. shunt motor, I,, is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence flux is also constant. Tel, for shunt motors For a d.c. series motor, I,, is same as I,. Hence flux 6 is proportional to the armature current I,. > Te Loe for series motors. Similarly as E, = aE, we can write the speed equation as, B, « ON Ey N« Ee o But V = B,+1,R, _ neglecting brush drop 3 B, = V-4,R, . Speed equation becomes, V-TaRa Ae ee he 9Electrical Machines -| 4-16 D.C. Motors: So for shunt motor as flux is constant, N « V-LR While for series motor, flux $ is proportional to I, ak, These relations play an important role in understanding the various characteristics of different types of motors. 4.11.1 Speed Regulation The speed regulation for a d.c. motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed corresponding to no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load. Mathematically it is expressed as, =Nrut oat y 309 % speed regulation = peed regu Nanas 4.12 D.C. Motor Characteristics The performance of a d.c. motor under various conditions can be judged by the following characteristics. i) Torque-Armature current characteristics (T Vs I,) : The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is called a torque-armature current characteristic These are also called electrical characteristics. ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics (N Vs I,) : The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current characteristics. iii) Speed - Torque characteristics (N Vs T): The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is called speed-torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical characteristics. The nature of these characteristics can easily be obtained by using speed and torque equations derived in section 411. These characteristics play @ very important role in selecting a type of motor for a particular application.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 4-19 D.C. Motors ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics From the speed equation we get, V~laRa la Rse as $= I, in case of series motor Now the values of R, and R,, are so small that the effect of change in I, on speed overrides the effect of change in V ~ 1,R, ~ I, Rye on the speed. Hence in the speed equation, E, = V and can be assumed constant. So speed equation reduces to, 1 N= So speed-armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the Fig. 4.17. ii) Speed - Torque characteristics In case of series motors, T « 1} and N « Hence we can write, Thus as torque increases when load N inereases, the speed decreases. On no load, torque is very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high value. Thus the nature of the speed-torque characteristics is similar to the nature of the T speed-armature current characteristics. The speed-torque characteristics of a Fig. 4.18 N Vs T for series motor series motor is shown in the Fig. 4.18. 4.15 Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load 7 It is seen earlier that motor armature current is decided by the load. On light load or no load, the armature current drawn by the motor is very small. In case of a dc, series motor, 6 eI, and ‘on no load as I, is small hence flux produced is also very small.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines -1 4-23 D.C. Motors I — ge a =2A few es Ray lo = Ip - Ln = 6-224 R. V=220V Back emf. on no load Ey can be determined from the voltage equation. 4 V= Epo + lo Ra Fig. 4.22 ny 230 = Ey +4x 03 Ey = 2188 V On full load condition, supply voltage is constant and hence, v _ 20 Ln = Ry 7 Tig 2A (emains same) Now IL = leu tts 50 = lpi +2 lagi = A and Vo= Ege + lara. Ra Es 220 = Eppi, + 48x03 Epru = 2056 V From the speed equation, But 4 is constant as I, is constant for both the load conditions No _ Evo Neu Ebr. New = 1000 x 2089 = 939.67 p.m. wm) Example 4.8: A dc. series motor is running with a speed of 800 rp.m. while taking a current of 20 A from the supply. If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is incrensed to 50 A, calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature and series field winding resisiances are 0.2 and 0.3 Q respectively. Assume the flux produced is proportional to the current. Assume supply voltage as 250 V.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - | 4-27 D.C. Motors: Key Point : So starter is not required to start a d.c. motor but it enables us to start the motor in a desired, safo way ‘Now at the starting’ instant the speed of the motor is zero, (N = 0). As speed is zero, there cannot be any back emf. as E, « N and N is zero at start. E, at start = 0 The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is, V = B+1,R So at start, VeLR as BE, =0 v L= Ry ++ at start Key Point > Generally motor is switched on with normal voltage and as armature resistance is very small, the armature current at start is very high. Consider a motor having full load input power as 8000 watts. The motor rated voltage be 250 V and armature resistance is 0.5 2 Then at start, E,, = 0 and motor is operated at 250 V supply, so wd 2 = Ry 757A While its full load current can be calculated as, Power input on full load _ 8000 _ rullload = “Supply voltage 250 ~ °2 “ So at start, motor is showing a tendency to draw an armature current which is 15 to 20 times more than the full load current. Such high current drawn by the armature at start is highly objectionable for the following reasons : 1 In a constant voltage system, such high inrush of current may cause tremendous line voltage fluctuations. This may affect the performance of the other equipments connected to the same line. Such excessively high armature current, blows out the fuses. If motor fails to start due to some problems with the field winding, then a large : armature current flowing for a longer time may burn the insulation of the armature winding. 5 the starting armature current is 10 to 15 times more than the full load current, the torque developed which is proportional to the I, will also be 10 to 15 times, assuming shunt motor operation. So due to such high torque, the shaft and other accessories are thus be subjected to large mechanical stresses. These stresses may cause permanent mechanical damage to the motor.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is 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unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Perera a eet Magnetic field, magnetic circuit, Faraday’ laws, hysteresis and eddy current losses, energy stored and RL time ee OMe re ne key Principle, energy stored in magnetic field, torque in singly and doubly excited magnetic field, torque from Ce rence Construction, commutator and process of commutation, armature reaction, methods to improve commutation, e.m.f, and torque equations, type of motors, load characteristics and applications, torque speed relations, starters for shunt and series motors, design of grading of resistance for starer, speed control, Cee Ree ee een Oecd Construction, emf equation, development of equivalent circuit-ideal transformer, transformer on no joad and cn load, phasor diagram, O.C. and S.C. test, polarity test, efficiency and regulation of transformer all day Ce ee ee ee First Edition : 2009 O Price INR 250/- =— ISBN 978-81-8431-535-6 Technical Publications Pune’ | | | OTS 8184315356 Se ue a a aL Telefax : +91 (020) 24495496/97, Email : technical@vtubooks.com Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com