CLIMATE

CLIMATEANDBUILDINGS
Contents:
2.1Introduction
2.2Factorsaffectingclimate
2.3Climaticzonesandtheircharacteristics
2.4Implicationsofclimateonbuildingdesign
2.1INTRODUCTION
Theweatherofaplacerepresentsthestateoftheatmosphericenvironmentoverabriefperiod oftime.
Integratedweatherconditionoverseveralyearsisgenerallyreferredtoasclimateormore specifically,asthe
macroclimate.Ananalysisoftheclimateofaparticularregioncanhelpinassessingtheseasonsorperiods
duringwhichapersonmayexperiencecomfortableoruncomfortableconditions.Itfurtherhelpsinidentifying
theclimaticelements,aswellastheirseverity,thatcausediscomfort.Theinformationhelpsadesignerto
buildahousethatfiltersoutadverseclimaticeffects,whilesimultaneouslyallowingthosethatarebeneficial.
Discomfortandthecorrespondingenergydemandformechanicalsystemscanbesignificantlyreducedby
judiciouscontroloftheclimaticeffects.Thebuiltformandarrangementofopeningsofabuildingcanbe
suitablyderivedfromthisanalysis.Forexample,inaplacelikeMumbai,onefeelshotandsweatyowingto
intensesolarradiationaccompaniedbyhighhumidity.Here,thebuildingdesignshouldbesuchthat(a)itis
sufficiently shaded to prevent solar radiation from entering the house and, (b) it is ventilated to reduce
discomfortduetohighhumidity.Ontheotherhand,inaplacelikeShimla,itisnecessarytomaintainwarmth
insidethebuildingduetothepredominantlycoldclimate.Climatethusplaysapivotalroleindeterminingthe
designandconstructionofabuilding.
Inthischapter,wewillreviewthevariousaspectsofclimateandthemethodsofitsanalysis.This
includes a brief description of the various climatic factors and climatic zones of India. The design
requirements of buildings in different climatic zones are discussed and tabulated. Illustrative examples
provideinformationonhowtoanalysetheclimaticconditionsofaplace.
2.2FACTORSAFFECTINGCLIMATE
Bothweatherandclimatearecharacterisedbythecertainvariablesknownasclimaticfactors[1].
Theyareasfollows:
(A)Solarradiation
(B)Ambienttemperature
(C)Airhumidity
(D)Precipitation
(E)Wind
(F)Skycondition


(A)Solarradiation
Solarradiationistheradiantenergyreceivedfromthesun.Itistheintensityofsunraysfallingperunit
2
timeperunitareaandisusuallyexpressedinWattspersquaremetre(W/m ).Theradiationincidentona
surfacevariesfrommomenttomomentdependingonitsgeographiclocation(latitudeandlongitudeofthe
place),orientation,season,timeofdayandatmosphericconditions(Fig.2.1).Solarradiationisthemost
importantweathervariablethatdetermineswhetheraplaceexperienceshightemperaturesorispredominantly
cold.Theinstrumentsusedformeasuringofsolarradiationarethepyranometerandthepyrheliometer.The
durationofsunshineismeasuredusingasunshinerecorder.
EXAMPLE: BUILDING ON A SOUTH FACING SLOPE IN
SHIMLA WILL RECEIVE MORE RADIATION COMPARED TO
OTHER ORIENTATIONS
SOLAR RADIATION ON SURFACES NORMAL TO SUNS' RAYSIS HIGHER THAN ON
HORIZONTAL SURFACES

EFFECT OF ORIENTATION

(a)
EXAMPLE: NORTHWEST ROOM TENDS TO GET HOTTEST IN MUMBAI IN APRIL, MAY AND JUNE
IN OTHER MONTHS SOUTHWEST ROOM TENDS TO
BE HOTTEST

SUN IN NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SUN IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE IN SUMMER FOR MUMBAI (LATITUDE 19.12 N) IN WINTER FOR MUMBAI (LATITUDE 19.12 N)

EFFECT OF SEASON

(b)

Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation

(a) effect of orientation, (b) effect of season

EXAMPLE: MUMBAI IS COOL IN THE MONTH OF AUGUST DUE TO PRESENCE OF CLOUDS AND RAINFALL

SUNDIRECTLYOVERHEADATNOONSUNATANANGLEINEVENINGTHEREFORESOLARRADIATIONISMORETHEREFORESOLAR
RADIATIONISLESS
DIRECT SUNLIGHT

EFFECTOFTIME
IN SUMMERS
EFFECT OF
SKY COVER

SUNLIGHT CUT-OFF IN MONSOON

DUE TO PRESENCE OF CLOUDS

(c)

(d)

Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation (cont.)

(c) effect of sky cover, (d) effect of time

EXAMPLE:

AT NOON, A HORIZONTAL ROOF WILL

GET MAXIMUM SOLAR RADIATION

(B)Ambienttemperature
LATE AFTERNOONS,
The temperature INof
air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is known as the ambient
SOUTHWEST WALLS RECIEVE
temperature;itisgenerallyexpressedindegreeCelsius(C).Temperatureatagivensitedependsonwindas
MORE RADIATION
wellaslocalfactorssuchasshading,presenceofwaterbody,sunnycondition,etc.Whenthewindspeedis
low,localfactorsstronglyinfluenceontemperatureofairclosetotheground.Withhigherwindspeeds,the
temperatureoftheincomingairislessaffectedbylocalfactors.Theeffectofvariousfactorsontheambient
temperatureisshowninFig.2.2.AsimplethermometerkeptinaStevensonsscreencanmeasureambient
temperature.

DECIDUOUS TREES PROVIDE SHADE IN SUMMER AND ALLOW SUNLIGHT IN WINTER

TREE SHADES GROUND, HENCE SURROUNDING AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED

EFFECT OF SHADING

COOL NIGHT
AIR CAN

EVAPORATION OF WATER REDUCES

ON CLEAR
NIGHTS RE-RADIATION TEMPERATURE OF AMBIENT AIR BACK TO SKY REDUCES AMBIENT
TEMPERATURES

EXAMPLE:
BE UTILISED
TO COOL
POOLS AND FOUNTAINS AT STRUCTURE AND SPACES BY

FATEHPUR - SIKRI USED FOR VENTILATION

COOLING DIWAN-E-KHAS

Fig. 2.2 Factors affecting ambient temperature

(C)Airhumidity
Airhumidity,whichrepresentstheamountofmoisturepresentintheair,isusuallyexpressedinterms
ofrelativehumidity.Relativehumidityisdefinedastheratioofthemassofwatervapourinacertain
volumeofmoistairatagiventemperature,tothemassofwatervapourinthesamevolumeofsaturatedairat
thesametemperature;itisnormallyexpressedasapercentage.Itvariesconsiderably,tendingtobethe
highestclosetodawnwhentheairtemperatureisatitslowest,anddecreasingastheairtemperaturerises.
EFFECT OF WATER
EFFECT OF SKY
Thedecreaseintherelativehumiditytowardsmiddaytendstobethelargestinsummer.Inareaswithhigh
BODY
CONDITION
humiditylevels,thetransmissionofsolarradiationisreducedbecauseofatmosphericabsorptionand
scattering.Highhumidityreducesevaporationofwaterandsweat.Consequently,highhumidityaccompanied
byhighambienttemperaturecausesalotofdiscomfort.Theeffectsofvariouscombinationsofhumidityand
ambienttemperaturearepresentedinFig.2.3.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE AND HIGH HUMIDITY

AND LOW HUMIDITY

EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE AND

HIGH HUMIDITY

Fig. 2.3 Effects of air humidity

(D)Precipitation
Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew. It is usually measured in
millimeters(mm)byusingaraingauge.TheeffectsofprecipitationonbuildingsareillustratedinFig.2.4.
(E)Wind
Windisthemovementofairduetoadifferenceinatmosphericpressure,causedbydifferential
heatingoflandandwatermassontheearthssurfacebysolarradiationandrotationofearth.Windspeedcan
bemeasuredbyananemometerandisusuallyexpressedinmetrespersecond(m/s).Itisamajordesign
considerationforarchitectsbecauseitaffectsindoorcomfortconditionsbyinfluencingtheconvectiveheat
exchangesofabuildingenvelope,aswellascausingairinfiltrationintothebuilding(Fig.2.5).


- OFTEN LEADS TO DECAY OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURE

RAINFALL IN WARMER REGIONS TENDS TO PRECIPITATION IN THE FORM OF SNOW COOL STRUCTURE AND SURROUNDINGS CAN PROVIDE ADDITIONAL LAYER OF
INSULATION

EFFECT OF RAINFALL EFFECT OF SNOW

Fig. 2.4 Precipitation

1
2
3

IN COLD REGIONS, WIND NEEDS TO BE RESTRICTED

IN HUMID REGIONS, MODERATE INTENSITY WINDS ARE WELCOME
IN HOT AND DRY AREAS, WIND NEEDS TO BE CONTROLLED AND HUMIDIFIED
TERRAIN AND MASSING OF BUILDINGS AFFECT WIND SPEED

Fig. 2.5 Factors affecting wind

(F)Skycondition
Skyconditiongenerallyreferstotheextentofcloudcoverintheskyorthedurationofsunshine.
Underclearskyconditions,theintensityofsolarradiationincreases;whereasitreducesinmonsoondueto
cloudcover.Thereradiationlossesfromtheexternalsurfacesofbuildingsincreasewhenfacingclearskies
thancoveredskies.ThisisillustratedinFig.2.6.Themeasurementofskycoverisexpressedinoktas.For
th
example,3oktasmeansthat3/8 ofthevisibleskyiscoveredbyclouds.

CLOUD COVER

CLEAR SKY
BUILDINGS SHADED BY CLOUD COVER RECEIVE LESS SOLAR RADIATION

Fig. 2.6 Effect of sky condition

In addition to these factors, a number of natural elements such as hills, valleys, waterbodies,
vegetation,etc.affecttheclimatelocally.Buildings,citiesandothermanmadefeaturesalsohaveanimpact
ontheclimate.Theeffectsofsuchfeaturesarediscussedinthesection2.6underMicroclimate.
2.2.1WeatherData
The data of all weather variables are recorded at various meteorological stations by the Indian
MeteorologicalDepartment(IMD),andarealsoavailableinanumberofbooks[15].Syntheticdataforsolar
radiationhavebeengeneratedbyISHRAE[6]aswellasManiandRangarajan[7].Thedistributionsofhours
ofsunshine,globalanddiffusesolarradiationonanannualbasisarepresentedinFig.2.72.9[2].Itcanbe
seenfromFig.2.7thatRajasthan,Gujarat,westMadhyaPradeshandnorthMaharashtrareceivemorethan
3000to3200hoursofbrightsunshineinayear.Over2600to2800hoursofbrightsunshineareavailableover
the rest of the country, except Kerala, the northeastern states, andJammuandKashmir where theyare
appreciablylower.Thecorrespondinginformationfordifferentmonthsoftheyearisalsoavailableinthe
handbook[2].Duringmonsoon(JuneAugust),asignificantdecreaseinsunshineoccursoverthewhole
countryexceptJammuandKashmirwherethemaximumdurationofsunshineoccursinJuneandJuly,and
minimum in January due to its location. The northeastern states and southeast peninsula also receive
relatively less sunshine during October and November due to the northeast monsoons. As far as the
2
availabilityofglobalsolarradiationisconcerned,morethan2000kWh/m yeararereceivedoverRajasthan
2

andGujarat,whileeastBihar,northWestBengalandthenortheasternstatesreceivelessthan1700kWh/m
year(Fig.2.8).Theavailabilityofdiffusesolarradiationvarieswidelyinthecountry(Fig.2.9).Theannual
2
2
patternshowsaminimumof740kWh/m yearoverRajasthanincreasingeastwardsto840kWh/m yearin
2

thenortheasternstates,andsouthwardsto920kWh/m year.Themonthlyavailabilityofglobalanddiffuse
solarradiationoverentirecountryispresentedintheHandbookofsolarradiationdataforIndiabyMani[2].

Fig. 2.7 Distribution of annual sunshine hours [2]

The ambient temperature varies across the country. The maps showing the highest maximum and
lowestminimumtemperatureisoplethsareshowninFig.2.10and2.11[8].Amapshowingtheaverage
rainfallalongwithmaindirectionofwindsispresentedinFig.2.12[8].

773.2

731.9

740

766.9
780.2
775.6

809.9

776.6
45.0
-7.5 -5.0 -2.5
47.5
-2.5
50.0 50.0
40.0
-2.5 -5.0 -7.5
42.5
40.00 37.5 >40.0
-2.5
50.0
2.5
>5.0
37.5
50.0
02.5
5.
763.4
47.5
5.0
5.0 5.0 40. 0
45.00
45.0 40.0
2.
>47.5 <45.0 >5.0
40.0
42.5
42.5 42.5
856.5
5
45.0
45.0
7.5 10.0 5.0 10.0 7.5
45.0

37.5
758.5

45.0

12.5

42.5
12.5
<10.
37.5 40.0
15.0
0
17.5 797.4

17.5 15.0
Fig. 2.10 Maximum
Fig.
Minimum
temperature2.11
isopleths
[8]
temperature isopleths [8]

860
924.9

Fig. 2.9 Distribution of annual diffuse solar radiation (kWh/m -year) [2]

5 10
20 -THE ARROWS SHOW THE MAIN LINES OF AIR MOTION
200 10 150
100
50
50 50 30 20

30
- RAINFALL IS SHOWN IN
INCHES

50
50
50 75
20
100 20 30
CONVERSION SCALE

20 150

in. cm. 200

30

5
10
20

20

30
50

10

200

50

500
400 150
300 100 200

50 50
100
100

30 75 50 30
00

Fig. 2.12 Average rainfall and main wind direction [8]

2.3CLIMATICZONESANDTHEIRCHARACTERISTICS
Regionshavingsimilarcharacteristicfeaturesofclimatearegroupedunderoneclimaticzone.Basedon
theclimaticfactorsdiscussedintheprevioussection,thecountrycanbedividedintoanumberofclimatic
zones.Bansaletal.[1]hadcarriedoutdetailedstudiesandreportedthatIndiacanbedividedintosixclimatic
zones,namely,hotanddry,warmandhumid,moderate,coldandcloudy,coldandsunny,andcomposite.The
criteriaofclassificationarepresentedinTable2.1andFig.2.13(a)showstheclimaticzones.Aplaceis
assignedtooneofthefirstfiveclimaticzonesonlywhenthedefinedconditionsprevailthereformorethan
sixmonths.Incaseswherenoneofthedefinedcategoriescanbeidentifiedforsixmonthsorlonger,the
climaticzoneiscalledcomposite[1].AccordingtoarecentcodeofBureauofIndianStandards[9],the
countrymaybedividedintofivemajorclimaticzones.Table2.1presentsthecriteriaofthisclassificationas
well;Fig.2.13(b)showsthecorrespondingclimaticclassificationmapofIndia.Itisseenthattherecent
classificationisnotverydifferentfromtheearlieroneexceptthatthecoldandcloudy,andcoldandsunny
havebeengroupedtogetherascoldclimate;themoderateclimateisrenamedastemperateclimate.However,
asmallvariationisnoticedasfarasthelandareaofthecountrycorrespondingtodifferentzonesisconcerned
(Fig.2.13(a)and(b)).Inthisbook,wehavefollowedtheformerclassification.Itmaybementionedthateach
climaticzonedoesnotexperiencethesameclimateforthewholeyear.Ithasaparticularseasonformorethan
sixmonthsandmayexperienceotherseasonsfortheremainingperiod.

Table 2.1 Classification of Climates

Criteria of Bansal et Criteria of SP 7: 2005
al. [1]
[9]
Climat Mean Relat Climat Mean Relati
e
monthly ive e
monthly ve
tempera humi
maximu humid
ture (oC) dity
m
ity (%)
(%)
temperat
ure(oC)
Hot
Hot
and
>30
<55 and
>30
<55
dry
dry
Warm
Warm
>55
and
>30
>55 and
>30 >25
>75
humid
humid
Moder
Tempe
25-30 <75
25-30
<75
ate
rate
Cold
All
and
<25
>55 Cold
<25

Fig. 2.13a Climatic zones of India [1]

Fig. 2.13b Climatic zones of India [9]

Thecharacteristicfeaturesofeachclimatearedescribedbrieflyinthefollowingsubsections.
2.3.1HotandDry
ThehotanddryzoneliesinthewesternandthecentralpartofIndia;Jaisalmer,JodhpurandSholapurare
someofthetownsthatexperiencethistypeofclimate.
A typical hot and dry region is usually flat with sandy or rocky ground conditions, and sparse
vegetationcomprisingcacti,thornytreesandbushes.Therearefewsourcesofwateronthesurface,andthe
2

undergroundwaterlevelisalsoverylow.Duetointensesolarradiation(valuesashighas800950W/m ),the
groundandthesurroundings of thisregionare heatedupveryquicklyduringdaytime. Insummer,the
maximumambienttemperaturesareashighas4045Cduringtheday,and2030Catnight.Inwinter,the
valuesarebetween5and25Cduringthedayand0to10Catnight.Itmaybenotedthatthediurnal
variationintemperatureisquitehigh,thatis,morethan10C.
Theclimateisdescribedasdrybecausetherelativehumidityisgenerallyverylow,rangingfrom25to
40%duetolowvegetationandsurfacewaterbodies.Moreover,thehotanddryregionsreceivelessrainfall
theannualprecipitationbeinglessthan500mm.
Hotwindsblowduringthedayinsummersandsandstormsarealsoexperienced.Thenightisusually
coolandpleasant.Agenerallyclearsky,withhighsolarradiationcausinganuncomfortableglare,istypical
ofthiszone.Astheskyisclearatnight,theheatabsorbedbythegroundduringthedayisquicklydissipated
totheatmosphere.Hence,theairismuchcooleratnightthanduringtheday.
Insuchaclimate,itisimperativetocontrolsolarradiationandmovementofhotwinds.Thedesign
criteriashouldthereforeaimatresistingheatgainbyprovidingshading,reducingexposedarea,controlling
andschedulingventilation,andincreasingthermalcapacity.Thepresenceofwaterbodiesisdesirableas
theycanhelpincreasethehumidity,therebyleadingtolowerairtemperatures.Thegroundandsurrounding
objectsemitalotofheatintheafternoonsandevenings.Asfaraspossible,thisheatshouldbeavoidedby
appropriatedesignfeatures.
2.3.2WarmandHumid
Thewarmandhumidzonecoversthecoastalpartsofthecountry.Somecitiesthatfallunderthiszone
areMumbai,ChennaiandKolkata.Thehighhumidityencouragesabundantvegetationintheseregions.
Thediffusefractionofsolarradiationisquitehighduetocloudcover,andtheradiationcanbeintense
oncleardays.Thedissipationoftheaccumulatedheatfromtheearthtothenightskyisgenerallymarginal
due to the presence of clouds. Hence, the diurnal variation in temperature is quite low. In summer,
temperaturescanreachashighas3035Cduringtheday,and2530Catnight.Inwinter,themaximum
temperatureisbetween25to30Cduringthedayand20to25Catnight.Althoughthetemperaturesarenot
excessive,thehighhumiditycausesdiscomfort.
Animportantcharacteristicofthisregionistherelativehumidity,whichisgenerallyveryhigh,about
7090%throughouttheyear.Precipitationisalsohigh,beingabout1200mmperyear,orevenmore.
Hence,theprovisionforquickdrainageofwaterisessentialinthiszone.

Thewindisgenerallyfromoneortwoprevailingdirectionswithspeedsrangingfromextremelylow
toveryhigh.Windisdesirableinthisclimate,asitcancausesensiblecoolingofthebody.
Themaindesigncriteriainthewarmandhumidregionaretoreduceheatgainbyprovidingshading,
andpromoteheatlossbymaximisingcrossventilation.Dissipationofhumidityisalsoessentialtoreduce
discomfort.
2.3.3Moderate
PuneandBangaloreareexamplesofcitiesthatfallunderthisclimaticzone.Areashavingamoderate
climatearegenerallylocatedonhillyorhighplateauregionswithfairlyabundantvegetation.
Thesolarradiationinthisregionismoreorlessthesamethroughouttheyear.Beinglocatedat
relatively higher elevations, these places experience lower temperatures than hot and dry regions. The
temperaturesareneithertoohotnortoocold.Insummers,thetemperaturereaches3034Cduringtheday
and1724Catnight.Inwinter,themaximumtemperatureisbetween27to33Cduringthedayand16to
18Catnight.
Therelativehumidityislowinwintersandsummers,varyingfrom2055%,andgoingupto55
90%duringmonsoons.Thetotalrainfallusuallyexceeds1000mmperyear.Wintersaredryinthiszone.
Windsaregenerallyhighduringsummer.Theirspeedanddirectiondependmainlyuponthetopography.The
skyismostlyclearwithoccasionalpresenceoflow,densecloudsduringsummers.
Thedesigncriteriainthemoderatezonearetoreduceheatgainbyprovidingshading,andtopromote
heatlossbyventilation.

2.3.4Composite
ThecompositezonecoversthecentralpartofIndia.Somecitiesthatexperiencethistypeofclimate
areNewDelhi,KanpurandAllahabad.Avariablelandscapeandseasonalvegetationcharacterisethiszone.
Theintensityofsolarradiationisveryhighinsummerwithdiffuseradiationamountingtoasmallfractionof
thetotal.Inmonsoons,theintensityislowwithpredominantlydiffuseradiation.Themaximumdaytime
temperatureinsummersisintherangeof3243C,andnighttimevaluesarefrom27to32C.Inwinter,
thevaluesarebetween10to25Cduringthedayand4to10Catnight.
Therelativehumidityisabout2025%indryperiodsand5595%inwetperiods.Thepresenceof
highhumidityduringmonsoonmonthsisoneofthereasonswhyplaceslikeNewDelhiandNagpurare
groupedunderthecompositeandnothotanddryclimate.Precipitationinthiszonevariesbetween500
1300mmperyear.Thisregionreceivesstrongwindsduringmonsoonsfromthesoutheastanddrycold
windsfromthenortheast.Insummer,thewindsarehotanddusty.Theskyisovercastanddullinthe
monsoon,clearinwinterandfrequentlyhazyinsummer.
Generally,compositeregionsexperiencehigherhumiditylevelsduringmonsoonsthanhotanddry
zones.Otherwisemostoftheircharacteristicsaresimilartothelatter.Thus,thedesigncriteriaaremoreor
lessthesameasforhotanddryclimateexceptthatmaximisingcrossventilationisdesirableinthemonsoon
period.

2.3.5ColdandCloudy
Generally,thenorthernpartofIndiaexperiencesthistypeofclimate.Mostcoldandcloudyregions
aresituatedathighaltitudes.Ootacamund,Shimla,Shillong,SrinagarandMahabaleshwarareexamplesof
placesbelongingtothisclimaticzone.Thesearegenerallyhighlandregionshavingabundantvegetationin
summer.
Theintensityofsolarradiationislowinwinterwithahighpercentageofdiffuseradiation.Hence,
wintersareextremelycold.Insummer,themaximumambienttemperatureisintherangeof2030C
duringthedayand1727Catnight,makingsummersquitepleasant.Inwinter,thevaluesrangebetween4
and8Cduringthedayandfrom3to4Catnight,makingitquitechilly.
Therelativehumidityisgenerallyhighandrangesfrom7080%.Annualtotalprecipitationisabout
1000mmandisdistributedevenlythroughouttheyear.Thisregionexperiencescoldwindsinthewinter
season.Hence,protectionfromwindsisessentialinthistypeofclimate.Theskyisovercastformostpartof
theyearexceptduringthebriefsummer.
Conditionsinsummerareusuallyclearandpleasant,butowingtocoldwinters,themaincriteriafor
designinthecoldandcloudyregionaimatresistingheatlossbyinsulationandinfiltration,andpromoting
heatgainbydirectlyadmittingandtrappingsolarradiationwithinthelivingspace.
2.3.6ColdandSunny
ThecoldandsunnytypeofclimateisexperiencedinLeh(Ladakh).Theregionismountainous,haslittle
vegetation,andisconsideredtobeacolddesert.
Thesolarradiationisgenerallyintensewithaverylowpercentageofdiffuseradiation.Insummer,the
temperaturereaches1724Cduringthedayand411Catnight.Inwinter,thevaluesrangefrom7to8
C during the day and 14 to 0 C at night. Winters thus, are extremely cold. The relative humidity is
consistentlylowrangingfromabout1050%andprecipitationisgenerallylessthan200mmperyear.
Windsareoccasionallyintense.Theskyisfairlyclearthroughouttheyearwithacloudcoveroflessthan
50%.
Asthisregionexperiencescolddesertclimaticconditions,thedesigncriteriaaretoresistheatlossby
insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by admitting and
trappingsolarradiationwithinthelivingspace.
2.4IMPLICATIONSOFCLIMATEONBUILDINGDESIGN
Thecharacteristicsofeachclimatedifferandaccordinglythecomfortrequirementsvaryfromone
climaticzonetoanother.Beforeproceedingfurther,itwouldbeusefultodefinecomfortandtheconditions
that affect it. According to ASHRAE [10], thermal comfort is, that condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment. It is also, the range of climatic conditions within which a
majorityofthepeoplewouldnotfeeldiscomforteitherofheatorcold.Suchazoneinstillaircorrespondsto
arangeof2030Cdrybulbtemperaturewith30
60 % relative humidity. Besides, various climatic elements such as wind speed, vapour pressure and
radiationalsoaffectthecomfortconditions.

Fig. 2.14 Bio-climatic chart

Figure2.14illustratesaComfortZoneonabioclimaticchart[11]asimpletoolforanalysingthe
climateofaparticularplace.Itindicatesthezonesofhumancomfortbasedonambienttemperatureand
humidity,meanradianttemperature,windspeed,solarradiationandevaporativecooling.Onthechart,dry
bulb temperature is used as the ordinate, and relative humidity as the abscissa. Based on the dry bulb
temperatureandhumidityofaplace,onecanlocateapointonthechart.Ifitlieswithinthecomfortzone,
thentheconditionsarecomfortable.Incaseitisabovethezone,coolingisrequired;ifitisbelowthezone,
heatingisneeded.Ifthepointishigherthantheupperperimeterofthecomfortzone,airmovementneedsto
beincreased.Forconditionswhenthetemperatureishighandrelativehumidityislow,airmovementwillnot
help.Ontheotherhand,evaporativecoolingisdesirable.Ifthepointliesbelowthelowerperimeterofthe
comfortzone,heatingisnecessarytocounteractlowdrybulbtemperature.Ifthepointliestotheleftofthe
comfort zone, either radiant heating or cooling is necessary. Thus, a bioclimatic chart can give ready
informationabouttherequirementsofcomfortataparticulartime.Designdecisionscanbetakenaccordingly.

Basedonthecharacteristicsofclimate,thecomfortrequirementsforeachclimaticzonearepresented
inTable2.2.Thecorrespondingphysicalmanifestationsarealsomentionedinthetable.
Table 2.2 Comfort requirements and physical manifestation
1)Hot and Dry Region
OBJECTIVES PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION
1)Resist heat gain

Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building

Increase thermal resistance Insulation of building envelope
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag) Massive structure
Increase buffer spaces Air locks/ lobbies/balconies/verandahs
Decrease air exchange rate Weather stripping and scheduling air (ventilation during day-time) changes
Increase shading External surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees
Increase surface reflectivity Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles etc. 2)Promote heat loss
Ventilation of appliances Provide windows/ exhausts
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation Courtyards/ wind towers/ arrangement of during night-time) openings
Increase humidity levels Trees, water ponds, evaporative cooling
2)Warm and Humid Region

OBJECTIVES PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION

1)Resist heat gain

Decrease exposed surface area

Increase thermal resistance
Increase buffer spaces
Increase shading
Increase surface reflectivity 2)Promote heat loss
Ventilation of appliances
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation throughout the day)
Decrease humidity levels

Orientation and shape of building Roof insulation and wall insulation. Reflective surface of roof. Balconies and verandahs
Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.
Provide windows/ exhausts Ventilated roof construction. Courtyards, wind towers and arrangement of openings
Dehumidifiers/ desiccant cooling
3)Moderate Region
OBJECTIVES PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION
1)Resist heat gain

1
2
3
4
5
6

Decrease exposed surface area

Increase thermal resistance
Increase shading
Increase surface reflectivity 2)Promote heat loss
Ventilation of appliances
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)

Orientation and shape of building Roof insulation and east and west wall insulation East and west walls, glass surfaces
protected by overhangs, fins and trees Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.

Provide windows/ exhausts Courtyards and arrangement of openings

OBJECTIVES

PHYSICAL
MANIFESTATION
4)Cold
and Cloudy Region (Applies for Cold and Sunny also)

1)Resist heat loss

Decrease exposed Orientation and shape of

surface area
building. Use of 5)Composite
trees
Region
as wind barriers
Increase thermal
RoofOBJECTIVES
insulation, wallPHYSICAL MANIFESTATION
1)Resist heat
gain
in
summer
and
Resist
heat
loss
in winter
resistance
insulation
and
double

1
2
3
4

Decrease exposed surface

area
glazing

Increase thermal
Thicker walls
Increase thermal resistance
capacity (Time lag)
Increase buffer
Air locks/ Lobbies
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag)
spaces
Decrease air
Weather stripping
Increase buffer spaces
exchange rate

Decrease air exchange rate

6
7
8
9
10
11

Increase shading
Increase surface reflectivity 2)Promote heat loss in summer/ monsoon
Ventilation of appliances
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)
Increase humidity levels in dry summer
Decrease humidity in monsoon

Orientation and shape of building. Use of trees as wind barriers Roof insulation and wall insulation Thicker walls Air locks/
Balconies Weather stripping Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees Pale colour, glazed china mosaic
tiles, etc.
Provide exhausts Courtyards/ wind towers/ arrangement of openings Trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling
Dehumidifiers/ desiccant cooling

2.4 BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS FOR VARIOUS CLIMATES.

There are various factors that affect the building design. Among them the most important is the climate
control as this involves maintaining comfortable conditions inside the building. If this objective is
disregarded discomfort will prevail, resulting in lower productivity and psychological stress.
Simultaneously, the energy costs of maintaining comfort conditions will rise. Hence, it is desirable to
design climate-responsive buildings incorporating appropriate passive features. To get the maximum
benefit, these aspects should be considered at the planning and design stage.
There are four types of climate relevant to building design, namely, hot and dry, hot and humid, warm
and humid, and cold regions. Many regions alternately experience two or even three types of climate
during the course of a year with varying degrees of intensity and duration. Such regions are said to have
a composite climate. For instance, the plains of Northern India experience hot dry conditions during
April June; warm humid conditions during July September; and cold to very cold conditions during
December, January and February. For a functional design of buildings in such climates, the designer
ought to incorporate the salient design requirements in respect of all the prevailing types depending upon
their duration and severity, and to make compromise decisions regarding the conflicting features
accordingly.
HOT DRY CLIMATE+:
General Characteristics:
The characteristics features of hot dry climate are that it is hot during summer; cool to very cold during
winter and warm humid and monsoon season. E.g., Agra, Ajmer, Akola, Allahabad, Bikaner, Jaipur,
Luknow, NewDelhi, Varanasi etc. Maximum day-time air temperatures : 27 45deg C.
Night-time air temperatures : as low as 22 deg C. Relative Humidity :
moderately low up to 20%
Therefore it is desirable to keep the heat out and if possible increase the humidity level. Sunlight
penetration is desirable during winter. Adequate provision for sir change and comfort ventilation in
monsoon period is required. Heavy massive structures with thick walls and roof are preferred as
compared to thin concrete walls and asbestos cement roof. Building axis should fall east-west to
minimize heat gains through walls in summer and maximize the same in winter by the southern facing
walls.
Therefore the design objectives are: Resist heat
gain by:
a. Decreasing the exposed surface
b. Increasing the thermal resistance
c. Increasing the thermal capacity
d. Increasing the buffer spaces
e. Decreasing the air-exchange rate during daytime.
f. Increasing the shading

Promote heat loss by:

a. Ventilation of appliances
b. Increasing the air exchange rate during cooler parts of the day or nighttime.
c. Evaporative cooling
SITE: Landform:
Regions in this zone are generally flat; hence the surrounding areas
tend to heat up uniformly. In case of an undulating site, locating the
building on a north facing slope is preferred to a south facing one, as it
receives lower solar radiation. To reduce the effect of hot dusty
winds, the leeward side of slope is better. In case ventilation building
in a depression is preferable as cool air tends to sink in valleys. (fig.1)

Waterbodies:

Waterbodies such as ponds and lakes can

be used for evaporative cooling as well as
heat sinks for reducing the thermal heat
gain. Hot air blowing over water gets
cooled which can then be allowed to enter
the building.

Fig.2

Fig.3

Street width and orientation:

Streets must be narrow so that they can encourage mutual shading of buildings (fig.4). They need to be
oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.

Open Spaces and Built form:

Open spaces such as courtyards and atriums are
beneficial as they promote ventilation. In addition
they can also be provided with ponds and
fountains for evaporative cooling. Courtyards act
as heat sinks during day and radiate the heat back t
the ambient during the night. The size of the
courtyards should be such that mid-morning and
the hot afternoon sun is avoided. Grass can be as
groundcover to absorb solar radiation and aid in
evaporative cooling (fig.5). Building below the
ground (e.g. earth berming) can help lower the
temperature and also deflect hot summer winds.
Form and Planning:
An enclosed, compactly planned and essentially
inward-looking building is the most suitable.
Surfaces exposed to the sun should be reduced as
much as possible. Site conditions permitting, the
larger dimensions of a building should preferably
face north-south, as these elevations receive the
lowest heat loads from solar radiation (fig.6). The
worst orientation is the west. Non-habitable rooms
can be effectively used as thermal barriers if planned
and placed on the east and west end of the walls.
Shading of roofs, walls and outdoor spaces is
critical. Projecting roofs, verandahs, shading
devices, trees and utilization of surrounding walls
and buildings are familiar techniques of solving this
problem. By aligning building close to
each other, especially if east and west walls are placed close to each other, mutual
shading will decrease the heat gains on external walls. Cross ventilation must be
ensured at night as ambient temperatures during this period are low.
Building envelope:
Roof: The most critical part of the building is the roof. In any location near the
equator the roof receives the greatest amount of solar radiation, thus the highest heat
load. The diurnal temperatures being large, the ambient night temperatures are about
10deg C lower than the daytime values and are accompanied by cool breeze. Hence,
flat roofs can be used for sleeping at night in summer. The material of the roof should
be massive; a reinforced cement concrete slab is preferred to asbestos sheet roofing.
10cm thick RCC or reinforced brick roofing is preferred for flat roofs and 6mm A.C.
sheet or thatch roof is preferred for Sloped roof. External insulation of mud phuska
with inverted earthen pots is suitable. When A.C. sheet roof is used false ceiling
should be used to improve thermal performance. Evaporative cooling of roof surface
and night time radiative cooling can be employed.

Fig.5

Fig.6

Walls:
In buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat transfer. It is estimated that walls and
windows account for more than 80% of the annual cooling load of a conditioned building. The control of
heat gain through walls by shading is an important consideration for reducing the room temperatures. To
achieve this, walls must be constructed of heavy materials, with a large thermal capacity. (e.g.) 22.5cm
thick brick walls can be used Cavity walls, hollow block, etc., can also be used. The empty air space can
be filled with loose insulating materials to improve the thermal performance. This will be effective only
if the morning heated-up period is started with as little heat content (as low a temperature) as possible.
Internal walls can be of 11.15cm thick brick walls. Precast concrete panels, hollow blocks and
lightweight cellular concrete blocks can also be used.
Fenestration:
In these climates, minimizing the window area can definitely lead to
lower indoor temperatures. Larger windows should be provided in
north as compared to east, west and south as it receives lower radiation.
All openings should be protected from the sun by the use of external
shading devices such as chajjas and fins (fig.7 & fig.8). The heat stored
during the day should be dissipated during night. Cooling through the
outer surfaces alone will not be sufficient for this purpose. Heat
dissipation through the inside surfaces should be assisted during the
night by adequate ventilation.
Thus the design of openings is governed by two requirements:

During the day the absence of openings would be most desirable or at least openings as small as

possible, located high on the walls.

During the night the openings should be large enough to provide adequate ventilation for the
dissipation of heat emitted by the walls and roof.
Fig.8
A solution satisfying both
requirements is the use of large
openings, with massive shutters, with
a high thermal resistance, e.g., heavy
shutters made of wood. If these are
kept closed during day, the heat inflow
is retarded, and if
Fig: 9
Fig.7

opened at night, the heat dissipation is not obstructed. A courtyard house with room opening into the
courtyard would be a suitable solution in these climates (fig.9 & 10).

Surface finishes: Finishes used can also affect heat absorption to a greater extent. Darker shades should
be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation. Light coloured or shiny external surfaces will
reflect a large part of the incident solar radiation, thus mush less heat will actually enter the building
fabric. The surface of the roof can be of broken tiles. This helps in reflecting the sunlight back to the
ambient and hence the heat gain of the building is reduced. Fenestrations having 15-20% of floor area
should be used for ventilation and day lighting
Day lighting:
In hot dry climate, there is direct sunlight from clear skies. This is
not preferred for day lighting because of glare and overheating.
Therefore, internally reflected light is the most convenient form of
day lighting. A suitable arrangement is a small window located at
a high level (with sill above eye level) for ensuring adequate
diffuse lighting (fig.11). The externally reflected component, i.e.,
light reflected from ground and other building surfaces, can be
used as the source of indoor day lighting provided that glare is
avoided.
Recommendations:
The winters in this region are uncomfortable cold. Hence, the windows should be designed such that
they encourage direct gain during these colder seasons. Deciduous trees can be used to shade the
building during summer and admit sunlight during winter. There is a general tendency to think that wellinsulated and very thick walls give good thermal performance. This is true only if glazing is kept to a
minimum and well-shaded, as is found in traditional architecture. However, a combination of insulated
walls and high percentage of glazing will lead to uncomfortable indoor conditions. Indoor plants can be
provided near the window, as they help in evaporative cooling and absorbing solar radiation. Outdoor
sleeping areas are good for summer nights. Use of ceiling fans is most desirable. Desert coolers can be
used in summer.

HOT HUMID CLIMATE:

General characteristics:
Hot humid climate is classified as regions where
Mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature : Above 32 deg C
Relative Humidity : Above 40%
Altitude : not more than 500m above M.S.L.
The thermal Characteristics of hot and dry climate and hot humid climate are almost identical except that
desert coolers are not suitable for hot humid zone. E.g., Ahmedabad, Bhuj, Mumbai, Calcutta, Calicut,
Chennai, Mangalore, Nellore, Surat, Vishakapatnam.
WARM HUMID CLIMATE:
General characteristics:
The characteristics of this climate are the hot, sticky conditions and the continual presence of dampness.
E.g., Cochin, Dwaraka, Puri, Trivandrum etc.
Maximum day-time air temperatures : 21 32deg C (with little diurnal variations) Relative Humidity
:Ranges between 70% to 90%
Hence, Cross ventilation is the most desirable and essential. Protection from direct solar radiation should
be ensured by shading.
The main objectives of building design are: Resist heat
gain by:
a. Decreasing exposed surface area
b. Increasing thermal resistance
c. Increasing buffer spaces.
d. Increasing shading
e. Increasing reflectivity
To promote heat loss by:
a. Ventilation of appliances
b. Increasing air exchange rate (ventilation) throughout day
c. Decreasing humidity levels
Site:
Landform: In case of sloped sites building should be located on the windward side or crest to take
advantage of cool breezes (fig 12).

Waterbodies: Since the humidity is high in this zone provision of waterbodies in the design is not
preferred.
Open spaces and built form: Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces for unrestricted air
movement (fig.13). In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation and cause cooling at ground.
Street width and orientation; Major streets should be oriented parallel to or within 45 degrees of the
prevailing wind direction to encourage ventilation. A north-south orientation is ideal from the point of
view of blocking solar radiation. The width of the streets should be such that the intense solar radiation
during late morning and early afternoon is kept to a minimum. Fig: 13
Form and planning:

The buildings have to be opened out

to breezes and oriented to catch
available air movement. Buildings
have elongated plans, with a single
row of rooms to allow cross
ventilation (fig.14). Such rooms may
be accessible from open verandahs or
galleries, which also
Fig: 14 Fig: 15
provide shading. Doors and window
openings should be as large as possible allowing a free passage of air.
Extended plans, in a line across the prevailing wind direction is a ideal
solution. Heat and moisture producing must be ventilated and separated from
the rest of the structure (fig15). Since the daytime temperatures are not very
high, semi-open spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches can be used
advantageously for daytime activities. Such spaces also give protection from
rainfall. In multi-storeyed buildings a central courtyard can be provided with
vents at higher level to draw away the rising hot air (fig 16).
Fig: 16

Building envelope:
Because of very low diurnal temperatures, a building cannot cool off sufficiently at night time to allow
for the storage of heat during day time. The principle of thermal storage cannot be relied on in this
climate. It is in fact, reliable to construct buildings of low thermal capacity materials, using light weight
construction.
Roof: The roof cannot improve the indoor conditions, i.e., it will not produce temperatures cooler than
the out-door sir, but if well designed, it can prevent the indoor temperature increasing above the out-door
air temperature, and keep the ceiling temperature around the same level as other surfaces. This can be
achieved by a reflective upper surface, a double roof construction, with roof space ventilated, a ceiling
with its upper surface reflective, and having good resistive insulation. Both the roof and ceiling should
be of low thermal capacity. Vents at the roof top effectively induce ventilation and draw hot-air out (fig
17). Very thin roofs having low thermal mass, such as asbestos cement sheet roofing, requires insulation
as they tend to radiate the heat into the interiors very quickly during the day time.
Walls: For solid vertical walls insulation is not necessary if they are
shaded. However, if these walls are exposed to solar radiation (such
as gable walls), good insulation needs to be provided to prevent the
elevation of inner surface temperature above the air temperature.
Reflective qualities on the outer surface of such unshaded walls will
also be helpful. The walls need to be designed to promote air
movement. Baffle walls, both inside and outside the building can
help to divert the flow of wind inside (fig 18). They should be
protected from the prevailing heavy rainfall. If adequately sheltered,
exposed brick walls and mud
plastered walls work very well by absorbing the
humidity and helping the building to breathe.
Fenestration:
Openings must be placed suitably in relation to the prevailing
breezes to permit natural air flow through the internal spaces at
the body level. The openings should be large and openable.
Fixed windows should be avoided. Venetian blinds or louvers
can be used to shelter the room from sun and rain`s as well as
direct the air movement to the living zone. Openings of a
comparatively smaller size can be provided on the windward side,
while the corresponding openings on the leeward side may be bigger for facilitating a plume effect for
natural ventilation (fig 19). The openings should be shaded by external overhangs. Outlets at higher
levels serve to vent hot air (fig 20).

Fig:17

Fig:18

Surface finishes: Dark colours should be avoided and light colours to be preferred for external surfaces
that are exposed to direct solar radiation. The external surface of the roof can be of
broken glazed tiles. These reduce heat gain of the buildings.
Fig: 20
Day lighting:
Direct sunlight is not desirable for thermal reasons.
The sky is bright enough to provide sufficient light,
but it may cause glare. Louvers which reflect
daylight from the ground and the sky to a whitecoloured ceiling are effective (fig 21).
Fig: 21
Recommendations:
Building should be oriented along E-W or NE-SW axis to reduce solar heat gains by walls and improve
wind movements. Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of climate.
Careful waterproofing and drainage of water are essential.
MODERATE CLIMATE:
General characteristics;
Temperatures are neither too hot not too cold in these regions. Hence, simple techniques are normally
adequate to take care of the heating and cooling requirements of the building. Sufficient shading, cross
ventilation, proper orientation, reflective glazing etc., ensures comfortable indoor air temperatures.
The main objectives are; Resist heat
gain by:
a. Decreasing the exposed surface area

b. Increasing the thermal resistance.

c. Increasing the shading. Promote heat loss by:
a. Ventilation of appliances
b. Increasing the air change rate (ventilation).

Site:
Landform: Buildings to be located on the windward slopes ensuring cool breezes (fig
22).
Fig: 22

open spaces
in the form
of lawns can
be provided
to reduce
the reflected
radiation.

Open space and built form: An open and free layout of the buildings is preferred. Large
Form and Planning:
It is preferable to have a building oriented in the N-S direction (bedrooms may be located on the easterly
side and an open porch on the S-E side), while the western side should ideally be well shaded. Humidity
producing areas must be isolated.
Building envelope:
Walls & Roof: Insulating the walls & roof are not required in this type of climate. 230mm thick brick
wall is good enough. Fenestration: The arrangement of windows is important for reducing the heat gain.
Windows can be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and south should be smaller. All the
windows should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths.
Day lighting:
In high altitude moderate climates where the sky is generally overcast, the whole hemisphere of the sky
acts as a source of light. The luminescence of the sky is sufficiently high to give adequate lighting in
living spaces.
Shilong, Ooty,
Shimla
etc. Mean : 6 deg c or less during
COLD
CLIMATE:
Daily dry bulb Dec, Jan : 1200m above
temperature
M.S.L
General
Characteristics:
Altitude
This region experiences very cold winters. Hence, trapping and using the suns heat whenever available,
mainconcern
design in building design. E.g., Darjeeling, Mussoorie,
is The
of prime
objectives are:
Resist heat loss
a.Decreasingtheexposedsurfacearea
b.Increasingthethermalresistance
c.Increasingthethermalcapacity
d.Increasingthebufferspaces

e.DecreasingthesirexchangeratePromoteheatgainby:
a.Avoidingexcessiveshading
b.Utilizingtheheatfromappliances
c.Trappingtheheatofthesun.
Site:
Landform: In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be located on the south slope
of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation (fig.22). At the same time, the exposure to cold
winds can be minimized by locating the building on the leeward side. With the help of natural barriers,
protection from cold winds is possible. Open spaces and built forms: Buildings in cold climates should
be clustered together to minimize the exposure to cold winds (fig.23). Open spaces must be such that
they allow maximum south sun. They should be treated with a hard and reflective surface so that they
reflect solar radiation on to the building (fig.24).

Street width and orientation:

In cold climates the street orientation should be E-W to
allow for maximum south sun to enter the building. The street should be wide enough to ensure that the
buildings on one side do not shade those on the other side (i.e. solar access should be ensured, fig.25).
Form and planning:
In these climates, the buildings must be compact (fig.26). This is because the lower the surface area, the
lower the heat loss from the building. Windows should preferably face south to encourage direct heat
gain. The north side of the building should be well insulated. Living areas can be located on the
southern side while utility areas such as stores can be on the northern side. Air-lock lobbies at the
entrance and exit points of the building, reduce heat loss. The heat generated by appliances in rooms
such as kitchens may be recycled to heat the other parts of the building.

Building envelope:
Roof: False ceiling are a regular roof feature of houses in cold climates. Internal insulation such as
polyurethane foam (PUF), thermocol, wood wool, etc., can be sued. An aluminium foil is generally used
between the insulation layer and the roof to reduce heat loss to the exterior. A sufficiently sloping roof
enables quick drainage of rain water and snow. A solar air collector can be incorporated on the south
facing slope of the roof and hot air from it can be used for space heating purpose. Skylights on the roofs
admit heat as well as light in winters (fig.27). Walls: Walls should be low U value to resist heat loss.
The south facing walls (exposed to solar radiation) could be of high thermal capacity (such as trombe
wall) to store day time heat for later use. The walls should be insulated internally. The insulation should
have sufficient vapour barrier (such as two coats of bitumen, polyethylene sheet 300 600 gauge or
aluminium foil) on the warm side to avoid condensation. Hollow and light weight concrete blocks are
also quite suitable. On the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be adopted.
Fenestration: Windows up o 25% floor area may be provided. It is advisable to have maximum window
area on the southern side of the building to facilitate direct heat gain. They should be sealed and
preferably double glazed. Double glazing helps to avoid heat losses during winter nights. However, care
should be taken to prevent condensation in the air space between the panes. Surface Finishes: The
external surfaces of the walls should be dark in colour having high absorptivity to facilitate heat gains.
Day lighting:
From a physical as well as psychological point of view, an excess of day lighting is advantageous in this
region. The over-lighting leads to an increased sense of well-being. Hence, windows must have
minimum shading.
COMPOSITE CLIMATE:
The composite climate displays the characteristics of hot and dry, warm and humid, as well as cold
climate. Designs here are guide by longer prevailing climatic condition. The duration of uncomfortable
period in each season has to be compared to derive an order of priorities. In India most of the design
decisions will pertain to cooling. In composite climates, natural lighting varies greatly due to overcast
and clear sky conditions. The day lighting needs to be controlled such that maximum illumination is
provided in winter and minimum in summer. Movable shading devices are preferred for this purpose.

General Guidelines:
For a climatically responsive design of buildings in any climate zone, the sun path (to identify the
desirable or undesirable radiation), the predominant winds, topography, vegetation, building envelope,
day lighting factors are to be considered. In addition to the above the relative humidity and the
precipitation of a particular location is analyzed and the design solution is arrived at.

CASESTUDIES
Contents:
7.1InspectorGeneralofPolice(IGP)Complex,Gulbarga
7.2AurovilleEcohouse,Auroville
7.3CentreforApplicationofScienceandTechnologyforRuralAreas(ASTRA),Bangalore
7.4SolarEnergyCentre,Gurgaon
7.5H.P.StateCooperativeBank,Shimla
7.6S.O.S.TibetanChildren'sVillage,ChoglamsarReferences
Thischapterpresentsexamplesofbuildingsincorporatingvariousaspectsofenergyconsciousdesign.
They demonstrate the successful use of passive solar architecture, sustainable materials, conservation of
resources,andintegrationofrenewableenergytechnologies.Theexamplesarechosenfromdifferentclimatic
zonessoastopresentawidevarietyoftechniques.
7.1INSPECTORGENERALOFPOLICE(IGP)COMPLEX,GULBARGA[1]
Location : Gulbarga, Karnataka Climate :
Hotanddry
Briefdescriptionofthebuilding:
ThisbuildingisagroundandtwostoreyedstructuredesignedbyKembhaviArchitectureFoundation
tohousetheofficesoftheInspectorGeneralofPolice,Gulbarga.Thebuildingisconstructedusinginnovative
materials.Forexample,theexternalwallsarecompositewalls(i.e.graniteblocksontheoutersideandrat
trapbondbrickwallsontheinnerside)andtheroofismadeoffillerslab.TheUvaluesofthewallsandroof
2
2
are1.53W/m Kand2.15W/m Krespectively.Thebuildingisroughlyrectangularwiththelongeraxis
alongthenorthsouthdirection.Mostwindowsfaceeastorwest.AlayoutplanofthebuildingisgiveninFig.
7.1.Asthebuildingislocatedinahotanddryclimate,evaporativecoolinghasbeenusedforproviding
comfort.Mostoftheofficesarecooledbypassivedowndraftevaporativecooling(PDEC)towersystem.
Figure7.2showsaphotographofthebuildingaswellasasketchsectionofatypicalPDECtowertoexplain
itsprinciple.
Energyconsciousfeatures:
Passivedowndraftevaporativecooling(PDEC)towersforprovidingcomfort
Tintedglassestoreduceglare
Alternativebuildingmaterialssuchascompositewallstoreduceheatgainandfiller
slabstoreducethequantityofconcreteinthestructure
Acentralatriumtoenhancecrossventilationandprovidedaylighting
SolarPVlightingandpumps,rainfallharvestingandwaterconservationfacilities
incorporated

SUMP FOR
RECIRCULATING
WATER SUPPLY LINE
RETURN

LINE

PDEC

TOWER

Fig. 7.1 Layout plan of I.G.P. Complex, Gulbarga

PerformanceofthePDECsystem:
Thebuildingisinthefinalstageofconstruction.ThePDECsystemsdesignisbasedonthe
shower tower (discussed in Chapter 3) concept developed by Givoni [2]. Preliminary
measurementstakeninMayandSeptember,2005showedthatthetemperatureoftheairexitingfrom
thetowerislowerbyabout10Cand4Crespectively,comparedtothatofambientair.Figure7.3
presents the hourly values of the temperature of air exiting from the tower on a typical day in
September. The corresponding measured values of ambient temperature are also plotted for
comparison.Additionally,thefigure showsthetheoreticallycalculatedvaluesbasedonGivonis
model of the shower tower. It is seen that the measurements agree reasonably well with the
predictions. Figure 7.4 shows the estimated performance of a tower in various months during
daytime.Itpresentstheresultsofexittemperatureofairleavingthetowerandthecorresponding
ambientdrybulbtemperature.Itisseenfromthefigurethattheperformanceofthecoolingtoweris
quitesatisfactoryinthesummermonths.Thedropintemperatureisabout1213CinMarch,April
andMay.ConsideringthatthePDECsystemisusedinthesemonths,thepredictionsoftheenergy
savingsofthebuildingperannum,ascomparedtoanairconditionedbuildingmaintainedat27.5C,
areasfollows:
EstimatedCostofPDECsystem=Rs.17,50,000Estimatedsavingsperannum=Rs.3,52,000Simple
paybackperiod=5years(approximately)

Fig. 7.2 Photgraphs of IGP Complex, Gulbarga and sketch showing the principle of a PDEC
tower

11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00

Hour

Fig. 7.3 Comparison of measured and predicted temperature of air exiting PDEC tower

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month Fig. 7.4 Monthly prediction of the temperature
of air exiting the PDEC tower

7.2AUROVILLEECOHOUSE,AUROVILLE[3]
Location:Auroville,PondicherryClimate:Warmandhumid
Briefdescriptionofthebuilding:
TheEcohousewasbuiltin1976byateamcoordinatedbyDr.C.L.GuptaatAuroville.This
housecanbeconsideredasoneofthefirstprototypesofanecologicallysustainablebuildingtobe
constructedinIndiainmoderntimes.Itisatwostoreyedstructurewithlongeraxisalongtheeastwest
direction,designedforcatchingwind.AcourtyardisprovidedinthebuildingwhichiscooledbyVenturi
effect.Theoverhangsabovethewindowsanddoorsaredesignedforoptimalshadingfromthesun.A
sketchplanandsectionoftheEcohousearegiveninFig.7.5.
Energyconsciousfeatures:
Optimumorientationofbuiltformfor
coolingbyventilation
Performanceofthehouse:
Shadingofwindowstoreduceheatgain
ThehousehasnofansandisreportedtobeoneofthecoolesthousesinAurovilleasobservedby
Alternativebuildingmaterialssuchas
theoccupants.(i)structurallyinsulatedroofunits(size
1.0mX0.5m),developedbyCentral
7.3 CENTRE FOR BuildingResearchInstitute,Roorkee,
APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR RURAL AREAS
(ii)jackarchesofhollowceramic
(ASTRA),BANGALORE[4]
Gunnatiles
Acourtyardtoenhancecrossventilation
Location:Bangalore,KarnatakaClimate:Moderate

andprovidedaylighting
Otherfeaturessuchassolarcooker
Briefdescriptionofthebuilding:
integratedinsouthfacingkitchen,
Thebuildingisagroundandonestoreyedstructureandisusedasanofficebuilding.Thesalient
rainfall
featureofthebuildingistheuseofvariousalternativebuilding

(a) Section of Ecohouse

(b) Sketch plan of Ecohouse

Fig. 7.5 Section and sketch plan of Ecohouse, Auroville

materials that are affordable, environment friendly and energy efficient. It was built in 1999 in the
campusoftheIndianInstituteofScience,Bangalore.Figure7.6showsthetypicalfloorplanofthe
building.AphotographofthebuildingisgiveninFig.7.7.
Siz sto masonr comp mor i found steam
ed ne ywith osite tars n ations, cured
Energyconsciousfeatures:
stabilizedblocksforgroundfloor ement
loadbearingwalls,andsoilc
blocks
fo th fir flo wal Thexte expo wa ar coa wi
Performanceofthebuilding:
r e st or ls. e rnal sed lls e ted th
ThecostofconstructionofthisbuildingwasRs.4247persquaremetreofplinthareain1999.
transparentsiliconepaintfor
Thecomponentwisecostofthebuildingandthecorrespondingpercentageoftotalcostarepresentedin
protectionfromerosion
Table7.1.
Precastchajjasandbracketsare

madeofferrocement
Reinforced
7.4SOLARENERGYCENTRE,GURGAON[5,6]
ar usedabove a doors
blockwork
e openingssuch s and
Location:Gurgaon,Haryana.Climate:Composite(predominantlyhot)
Briefdescriptionofbuilding:
Itisasinglestoreyedresearchcentre.Thebuildingsincludeaguesthouse,aworkshop,offices
andlaboratories.Beingsituatedonalargeopenplotofland,thebuildingsarespreadoutandpossess
courtyardsaroundwhichthevariousactivitiesareclustered.Aplanandsectionoftheadministrative
blockofthesameisgiveninFig.7.8.
Energyconsciousfeatures:RoofsurfaceevaporativecoolingsystemAppropriateplanninginwhich
laboratoriesrequiringairconditioningareput
togetherinawellinsulatedbuildingHollowconcreteblockwallstoresistheatgainbyconduction
ReflectivefinishonroofsurfaceWindowsdesignedforcrossventilationanddaylighting.Theeastand
west
facingwindowsincorporateopenablelouveredshutters

Fig. 7.6 Ground floor plan of ASTRA building, Bangalore

Fig. 7.7 Photograph of ASTRA building, Bangalore

Table 7.1 Component-wise distribution of costs of ASTRA building at I.I.Sc., Bangalore

2
2
2
Effectiveplintharea=280m ,Carpetarea=223.64m Costofconstructionperm of
%2 of
2
plintharea=Rs.4247/m
(Rs.395/ft )
Cost
Component
total
(Rs.)
cost
Structure
Materialsused:
1,01,7
Foundation
8.8
99.00
6,797.
3
2
Plinth
0.6
masonry)4)Volumeofmasonrywalls(loadbearing):101.33m
5)a)Roofarea:271.56m a)Concrete:
00
3
34.03m ,b)Steel:2.241MT 3,28,0
Walls/beams
28.2
2
2
2
b)Floorarea:223.64m22.00
6)Area:a)Doors:24.80m ,b)Windows:24.08m Miscellaneousitems:
Roof & Floor
1,88,8
Jaliworks,Parapet
16.3
slabs
11.00
10,828
Staircase
0.93
.00
6,36,2
Sub-total
54.8
57.00
Openings
Doors &
1,08,7
9.4
Windows
20.00
16,039
Lintel & Chajjas
1.4
.00
1,24,7
Sub-total
10.8
(A Cement: 59.00Lime:5.5
Ste 2.
(B)
(C)
Finishes
) 842bags
tonnes
el: 66
1
M
T
Volumeofbedconcrete

Fig. 7.8 Administration block of Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon

38.0

36.0

A.O. Room

34.0

Verandah

Reception Room
32.0

30.0

28.0

July 2nd, 1997

Fig. 7.9 Comparison of indoor temperatures Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon

Performanceofthebuilding:
TheSolarEnergyCentre conductedapostoccupancyevaluationofthisbuilding[5].It was
observedthattheroofsurfaceevaporativecooling(RSEC)systemcausedaloweringoftemperatureby
23CincomparisonwithroomswithoutRSECsystem.Figure7.9showsthecomparisonofmeasured
temperaturesofthereceptionroom(withRSECsystem)withthoseofA.O.roomandverandah,both
beingwithoutRSECsystem.OneadvantageoftheRSECsystemisthatitcoolsinahealthymannerasit
doesnothumidifytheambientairoftheroom.Ontheotherhandifadesertcoolerweretobeused,it
wouldpumpmoistairinsidetheroomandincreasethehumidity,whichwouldcausediscomfortand
affectthehealthofoccupants.
7.5H.P.STATECOOPERATIVEBANKBUILDING,SHIMLA[6,7]
Location : Shimla, Himachal Pradesh Climate :
ColdandCloudy
Briefdescriptionofbuilding:
Thisbuildingisagroundandthreestoreyedstructurewithitslongeraxisfacingtheeastwest
direction.Thesmallernorthernwallfacestheprevailingwinterwindsfromthenortheasterndirection.
Thebuildingsharesacommoneastwallwithanadjoiningstructure.Itswestfaadeoverlooksasmall
streetfromwhichthebuildingdrawsitsmainrequirementsofventilationanddaylighting.Aplanand
sectionofthebuildingshowingthevariouspassivetechniquesincorporatedisgiveninFig.7.10.
Temperature(C)

10:30 11:30 12:30 13:30 14:30 15:30 16:30

Time (h)

Northfaceis acavitywallthat
protectedby insulatesthebuilding
from
prevailingwinterwinds
Fig. 7.10 Section and plan of H. P. state co-operative bank, Shimla
Westernwallisprovidedwithinsulation

aswellasdoubleglazing
Daylightingisenhancedbyproviding

lightshelves.Skylightontheterrace

Energyconsciousfeatures:
SouthfacingTrombewallandsunspaceheatsuptheinterior
Southfacingsolarcollectorsontheroofprovidewarmair,whichiscirculated
bymeansofducts

Performanceofthebuilding:
Thepredictionsoftheenergysavingsofthebuilding(componentwise)perannum,
ascomparedtoaconventionalbuildingareasfollows:Westwall(doubleglazingand
insulation)=43248kWh
Roofinsulation=23796kWhRooftopsolarcollector=10278kWh
Trombewall=7398kWh
Total=84720kWh
7.6S.O.S.TIBETANCHILDREN'SVILLAGE,CHOGLAMSAR[8]
Location : Choglamsar, Leh Climate :
Coldanddry
Briefdescriptionofthebuilding:
Twentyexistingground storey structures acting as dormitories have been retrofitted with an
attached green house and vented Trombe walls, in the extremely cold region of Leh. The original
2
constructionconsistsofsolidadobeforwalls(Uvalue1.64W/m K)andwoodenroofwithmudtopping
2
(Uvalue2.44W/m K).Thefloorisofwoodendeckoveracrawlspace.Asketchplanandsectionofa
typicalbuildingaregiveninFig.7.11.
Techniques:
Thecommonroominthecentreisprovidedwithanattachedgreenhousefacingsouthfor
trappingheat.Theextendedfloorofthegreenhouseconsistsofsolidmasonrytoprovide
2
goodthermalstoragemassof1.44MJ/m K.Thegreenhouseisfittedwithamovableinternal
shadefortheceiling.Thecommonroomreceivesheatedairbyopeningtheventsoftheadjacent
glasswallofthegreenhouse.
Twoendroomsonthesouthsideareprovidedwithdoubleglazed,ventedTrombewallsfor
heating.

(a) Sketch plan

(b) Elevation
Fig. 7.11 Sketch plan and elevation of S.O.S building, Choglamsar

Performanceofthebuilding:
Table7.2givesthemeasuredtemperaturedata,namely,themaximaandminimafortheTrombe
wallroom,greenhouse,aroomwithoutsolarheating(controlroom)andambienttemperature.Itisseen
thatinwintermonths,themaximumandminimumtemperaturecanbeappreciablyhigherthanboththe
ambienttemperatureaswellastheroomwithoutsolarheating(controlroom).
Table 7.2 Monthly mean measured temperature (S.O.S. Tibetan childrens village)
Maximum
MinimumTemperature


Temperature(OC)
(OC)
Ye Mont
Greenho Ambi
Greenho Ambi
Trombe
Trombe
ar h
use ent
use ent

Con
Sola
Sola Con
Sola Con Sola Con
r trol
r trol
r trol r trol
Septe 32. 27.0 29. 26.2 17.4 20. 16.6 17. 14.5 6.3

mber 2
6
0
6

Octob 29. 20.7 25.

11.6 16. 11.4 13.
1.2

19 er
4
6
2
4
80 Nove 21. 13.7 20.
7.1 11. 5.9 5.8
5.6

mber 8
5
6
Dece 21.
10.2
17.
2.8 6.8 2.4 4.6
9.4

mber
6 0
April 24. 19.0 24.
11.6 17. 14.0 15.
1.6

0
8
0
0
May 25. 23.6 25. 22.2 16.6 21. 19.0 19. 17.0 3.2

19
8
2
0
0
81 June 27. 26.8 29. 25.0 19.6 21. 20.4 21. 20.0 7.0