AEOLINE the romantic period about 1800. Its intimate charm is beautifully described in Eduard Marike’s poem “Die Acolsharfe” with musical settings by Brahms and (especially) Hugo Wolf. Various attempts have been made to harness this elusive sound to a keyboard, with an artifi- cial jet of wind provided by foot bellows (J.-J Schnell’s Anémocorde ot Aeroclavichord, 1789: H. Herz's Piano éolien, 1851). See SaRM, p. J.G. Kastner, La Harpe d’Eole (1856). Aeoline. Old name for mouth organ [see Har- monica]. Also, an early type of *harmonium (aeolodicon). Aeolopantalon. An instrument invented in 1825 by Jozé Dlugosz, Warsaw; it was a combination of a harmonium-like instrumnet (aeolomelodi- kon, with brass tubes affixed to the reeds) and a piano, so that both instruments could be used in alternation. It is remembered largely because the young Chopin played on it in various recitals ‘Aequalstimmen [G.]. (1) The eight-foot pipes of the organ. (2) *Equal voices. Aer. See under Aria II. Aerophon. See Aerophor. Aerophones. See under Instruments ITI Aerophor. A device invented by B. Samuel in 1912 that provides the player of a wind instru- ment with additional air from a small bellows operated by the foot. By means of a tube with a mouthpiece, air can be supplied to the player's mouth whenever his breath is not sufficient for long-held tones or long melodies in full legato. R. Strauss has written passages requiring, this device, as in his Alpensinfonie (where it is incor- rectly called “aerophon”). Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is generally defined as the philosophy or study of the beauti- ful. Musical aesthetics, therefore, should be the study of the beautiful in music, the ultimate goal of such a study being the establishment of cri- teria that would allow us to say whether or not a particular composition is beautiful, or why one is beautiful while another is not. The main objection to such a point of view is that beauty is by no means the only (and possibly not even the foremost) criterion of what may be roughly described as “merit” or “artistic worth.” Music, like other works of art, may be aesthetically satisfying without necessarily being “beautiful.” Therefore a definition such as the following provides a much better basis for the study in AESTHETICS OF MUSIC question: Musical aesthetics is the study of the relationship of music to the human senses and intellect. This definition corresponds to the origi- nal meaning of the Greek word aisthesis, i.e. feeling, sensation. The following words by Robert Schumann (Gesammelte Schriften uber Musik und Musiker, rev. ed., 1914, i, 44) ade- quately describe the peculiar problem of musi- cal aesthetics [trans. by W. A.]: “In no other field is the proof of the fundamentals as difficult as it is in music. Science uses mathematics and logic; to poetry belongs the decisive, golden word: other aris have taken nature, whose forms they borrow, as their arbiter. Music, however, is a poor orphan whose father and mother no one can name. But, perhaps, it is precisely this mys- tery of her origin which accounts for the charm of her beauty.” Il. For more than two thousand years phi- losophers have tried to solve the mystery of music, Among them we find Pythagoras (550 B.C), who explained music as the expression of that universal harmony which is also realized in arithmetic and astronomy; Plato (400 B.C.) to whom, like Confucius, music seemed the most appropriate means of social and political educa- tion; Plotinus (d. 270), who interpreted music as a mystic and occult power; Boethius (d. 524), who divided music into three fields, musica mundana (the Pythagorean harmony of the universe), musica’ humana (the harmony of the human soul and body), and musica instrumen- talis (music as actual sound), a classification that prevailed in musical theory for more than ten centuries; J. Kepler (Harmonices mundi libri v, 1619), who erected a great edifice of ideas in which he correlated musical tones and intervals with the movements of the planets and their astrological functions; G. W. Leibnitz (1646- 1716), who paved the way for the psychological system of musical aesthetics by interpreting music as an “unconscious exercise in arithme- ic”; A. Schopenhauer (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, 1819), who considered music the purest incarnation of the “absolute will” and the expression of human feelings (love, joy, horror) in their abstract interpretation as metaphysical ideas; G. T. Fechner (1801-87), called the founder of experimental aesthetics, who insisted that music is the expression of “general mood” rather than specific “feelings”; and finally C. Stumpf (Tonpsychologie, 2 vols.. 1883, ’90), who inaugurated the scientific study of musical psy- chology on the basis of experiments and statis- tics, especially with regard to the problem ofAESTHETICS OF MUSIC consonance and dissonance. Stumpf’s procedure has been the point of departure for many in- vestigations along similar lines, especially in America, eg., C. E. Seashore, Psychology of Music (1938); M. Schoen, ed., The Effects of ‘Music (1927), and others [see Tests]. For a criti- cism of these methods, see C. C. Pratt, The Meaning of Music (1931), pp. 131" Not until the advent of the 19th century did these theories of music begin to accord with the present-day interpretation of musical aesthetics as defined above. This statement should not be construed as deprecating the much broader and, in a sense, more profound views—cosmic, politi- cal, or theological—held by the philosophers of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Whereas in those periods justification for music was con- sidered to have its origin in the state, in the uni- verse, or in God, today music has lost these transcendental affiliations but has gained instead a secure place in everyday life. IIL. Musicologists, as might be expected, aim at a more technically detailed penetration into the subject of musical aesthetics, usually being concerned with the study of specific techniques or compositions rather than with music in the abstract. Their various theories of aesthetics can be divided into two groups, according to whether they consider music (1) as a heteronomous art, ice., as the expression of extramusical elements, or (2) as an autonomous art, ie., as the realiza- tion of intrinsic principles and ideas (F. Gatz). (a) In the former class are the Affektenlehre (doctrine of *affections), according to which music in its various manifestations is the expres- sion of human temperaments, passions, moods, etc, In the 7th century, music was frequently treated as an oratorical art (Figurenlehre, doc- trine of *figures), its structural and stylistic elements (such as repetitio, fuga, climax) being related to corresponding rhetorical devices. In the romantic period the interpretation of musi- cal compositions was largely based upon pro- grammatic and allegorical concepts. Music was thought of as a sort of psychological drama and explained in terms such as “desperate struggle,” “the knocking of Fate,” “threatening fortis- simo,” or “gloomy minor.” An early exponent of this school of thought was A. B. Marx, in his Ludwig van Beethoven (1859). A more intelligent use of this approach was attempted by H. Kretz~ schmar, the inventor of musikalische Hermeneu- tik {see Hermeneutics]. He considered music a Sprachkunst, i.e., a language, of less clarity but with finer shades and deeper effects than ordi- 15 AESTHETICS OF MUSIC nary speech. He harked back to the “affects” of the 18th century, which, according to him, should be based upon the study of musical ele- ments (themes, intervals, rhythm, etc.). He also related the composer's music to his life (Beetho- ven’s “period of happiness,” etc.). The last point was emphasized by H. Riemann, who main- tained that the writien composition as well as the actual performance is nothing but a means of transferring an experience (Erlebnis) from the fancy of the composer to that of the listener. Kretzschmar’s method has been elaborated by A. Schering. An American book, E. Sorantin’s The Problem of Musical Expression (1932), repre- sents an example of 20th-century Affektenlehre. (b) In strong contrast to all these theories is the more recent school of thought that rejects the allegorical, emotional, programmatic, poetical foundation of musical aesthetics and explains music as a purely musical phenomenon, as an autochthonous and autonomous creation that can be understood only in its own terms, An early “autonomist” was M. de Chabanon, who in 1785 published a book entitled De Ja Musique considérée en elle-méme. The main representative of musical autonomy has been E. Hanslick, who, in his Vom Musikalisch-Schénen (1854), formu- lated the sentence: “Musik ist tonend bewegte Form’—“music is form in tonal motion” (trans. by D. Ferguson; the term “form, natu- rally, must be taken in its broadest sense, includ- ing all structural and stylistic elements of music). He admits the use of designations such as “powerful,” “graceful,” “tender,” “passionate,” but only in order to illustrate the musical char- acter of the passage, not to suggest a definite feeling on the part of composer or listener. Still further in this direction went A. Halm (Von zwei Kulturen der Musik, 1913), one of the most out- standing writers on musical aesthetics. The fol- lowing quotation from the Talmud, given at the beginning of his book, is a very apt expression of the central thought of musical autonomy: “If you want to understand the invisible, look care- fully at the visible.” Halm, as well as his succes- sors, E. Kurth, H. Mersmann, F. Jode, and others, advocated the separation of the musical work ftom the emotional worlds of both com- poser and listener and the emancipation of musi- cal thought from “sensuous intoxication and hallucination.” See also Affections; Figures; Hermeneutics; Musica reservata; Psychology of music. Lit: H. H. Britan, The Philosophy of Music (1911); H. Scherchen, The Nature of MusicAEVIA (1950); V. Zuckerkandl, Sound and Symbol (1956): id, The Sense of Music (1959); D. Fergu- son, Music as Metaphor (1960); L. Meyer, Emo- tion and Meaning in Music (1956); S. K. Langer, Feeling and Form (1953); R. W. Lundin, An Objective Psychology of Music [1953]: D. Cooke, The Language of Music (1959); F. M. Gatz, ed., Musik-Asthetik in ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929); R. Schifke, Geschichte der Musikasthetik (1934); E. G. Wolff, Grundlagen einer autonomen Musik asthetik, 2 vols. (1934, ’38); H. Pfrogner, Musik: Geschichte ihrer Deutung (1954); H. J. Moser, Musikasthetik (1953); C. Lalo, Eléments d'une esthétique musicale scientifique, tev. ed. (1939); G. Brelet, Esthétique et création musicale (1947); id, Le Temps musical: Essai d’une esthétique nouvelle de la musique, 2 vols. (1949); H. Besseler, “Grundfragen der Musikisthetik” (JMP xxiii); A. Einstein, “Musical Aesthetics and Musicol- ogy,” in Music in the Romantic Era (1947), pp. 337-85; R. Tischler, “The Aesthetic Experi- ence” (MR xvii, 189). For additional bibl. see “Musik-Asthetik” in MGG. Aevia. An artificial word, consisting of the vowels of *alleluia (u = v). It is occasionally used as an abbreviation in manuscripts of Gregorian chant, See Euouae. Affabile [It.]. Gentle, pleasing. Affannato, affannoso [It.]. Excited, hurried, agi- tated. Affections, doctrine of [also doctrine of affects; G. Affektenlehre]. An aesthetic theory of the late baroque period, formulated by A. Werckmeister (Harmonologia musica, 1702), J. D. Heinichen (1711), J. Mattheson (1739), J. J. Quantz (1752), F. W. Marpurg (Kritische Briefe, vol. ii, 1763), and other 18th-century writers. It was treated in greatest detail by Matheson (Der vollkommene Capellmeister, 1739), who enumerates more than twenty affections and describes how they should be expressed in music, e.g.: “Sorrow should be expressed with a slow-moving, languid and drowsy melody, broken with many sighs,” and “Hate is represented by repulsive and rough harmony and a similar melody.” He also describes the affections (characteristic emotions) of numerous dances, saying that the gigue ex- presses “heat and eagerness,” the courante, “sweet hope and courage.” These rather trite explanations reveal the difficulty involved in any attempt to formulate the doctrine of affections. There can be no doubt, however, that musicians of the late baroque, particularly in Germany, 16 AFFINALES were fully familiar with this aesthetic approach and often incorporated its tenets in their com- positions. A basic aspect of the doctrine of affec- tions is the principle that each composition (or, in the case of composite forms, each movement) should embody only one affection. Although the term Affektenlehre is associated with the 18th century, the close relationship between music and the human affections has often been recognized and emphasized not only in Western music (Plato, Aristotle, Isidore of Seville, Ramos de Pareja, Glareanus, Monte- verdi, Descartes) but also in that of the Orient, especially in the Hindu conception of the ragas [see India I]. Also see Aesthetics of music IIl(a); Musica reservata. Lit: H. Goldschmidt, Die Musikasthetik des 18. Jahrhunderts (1915); W. Serauky, Die musi- kalische Nachahmungsdsthetik im Zeitraum von 1700 bis 1850 (1929); E. Katz, Die musikalischen Stilbegriffe des 17. Jahrhunderts (1926); F. T. Wessel, “The Affektenlehre in the Eighteenth Century” (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); M. Kra- mer, “Beitrage zu einer Geschichte des Affekt- begriffs in der Musik von 1550-1700” (diss. Halle, 1924); H. Abert, in AMW vy; H. Kretz- schmar, in JMP xviii, xix; F. Stege, in ZMW x; A. Schering, in JMP xlv; H. Lenneberg, in JMT. ii (Mattheson); R. Schafke, in A MW vi (Quantz); G. Frotscher, in CP 1925 (Bach). Affektenlehre [G.]. See Affections, doctrine of. Affetti[It.]. The term appears in the title of vari- ous publications of the late 16th and early 17th centuries [Dolci Affetti, 1582; S. Bonini, Affetti spirituali . . . in istile di Firenze o recitativo, 1615; B. Marini, Affetti musicali, op. 1, 1617; G. Ste- fani, Affetti amorosi, 1621, see Editions V, 3], probably to emphasize the affective character of the music. It is also used in early violin sonatas to designate a certain type of ornament, either tremolo or arpeggio [see SchGMB, no. 183; RiHM ii, 2, 120). Affettuoso [It.]. Tender. Affinales [L., sing. affinalis]. In medieval theory of the church modes, name for the pitches a, b, and c’, which occur as the finals of transposed chants [see Speculum musicae; CS ii, 248a]. In a Tonale ascribed to Bernard of Clairvaux (1091- 1153), it is stated that the first *maneria has the finals d and a, the second e and b, the third f and C,, the fourth only g [see GS ii, 266a]. Many of the Ambrosian chants close on the affinales, in- cluding the d’. See Transposition II.AFFRETTANDO Affrettando [It.]. Hurrying. Africa, The musical cultures of Aftica may be very broadly classified as North African (essen- tially Islamic; see Arab music) and sub-Saharan. The latter is considered here in its traditional aspects. 1. Background. The interpenetration of sub- Saharan tribal Africa with Western and Eastern civilization has resulted in a vivid cultural dualism, reflected in a fast-diminishing body of traditional, tribal music on the one hand and a slowly emerging nucleus of art and “city” music on the other. Unfortunately, a historic view of the tribal music remains vastly limited, owing to the relative sparsity, prior to c. 1950, of notated examples, and the fact that recorded evidence, such as that supplied to E. M. von Hornbostel by the Czekanowski Central African Expedition of 1907-08, begins only with the 20th century. However, some of the history may be recon- structed by tracing the musical legacies of past contacts with other cultures. Preliminary obser- vations concerning possible legacies of the Malayo-Polynesian migrations (c. 2000 B.C. c. A.D. 500) to Malagasy (Madagascar) and the African mainland, for example, include the fol- lowing: (1) C. Sachs shows that several instru- ments of Malagasy, including an idiochordic tube zither tuned in thirds (valfha) and a free-log thigh-supported xylophone, are of Malayan origin (the xylophone especially is known from Celebes to the Molucca islands), He also relates the resonated xylophones of the African main- land to those of Indonesia. (2) Certain African xylophone tunings, as pointed out by J. Kunst (PMA Ikxii) and others, strongly resemble (but may not necessarily derive from) some “ideal” (theoretic) isotonic tunings of the Far East, nota- bly the five-step Indonesian sléndro and the seven-step isotonic scale of Thailand [see III C below], (3) The use of double xylophone beaters in one hand, held or fastened at an angle, has been noted among some African peoples, e.g., the Azande of the Congo-Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and the Venda of South Africa, and also in Indonesia. Musical ties, particularly rhythmic, with the Middle East and India may be even stronger than those with the Far East. Such ties may have been gradually defined through early migrations, invasions of ancient Egypt south of the Sudan, the South Indian trade on the East African coast during the third or second centuries B.C., and, of course, throughout the period of Islamic spread in Africa. 17 AFRICA Sub-Saharan Africa includes a large variety of tribes and languages. While anthropologists and linguists have been able to map important culture and language areas (which, incidentally, are generally not congruent—eg, Bantu lan- guages cut across both cattle and agricultural areas), a similar delineation of musical style areas has thus far not proved practicable. For example, although there is, at first glance, a pre- ponderance of polyphony in parallel fourths and fifths in the eastern and southern regions and in parallel thirds in the central and western regions, further study reveals greater intermingling of intervals than hitherto believed. IL. Social function and professionalism. Music and dance permeate nearly all phases of African tribal life. They are vital to the many rituals, such as those concerned with birth, puberty and secret-society initiation, marriage, etc, and rituals of “livelihood,” e.g., hunting, farming, etc. Ceremonial music, costumes, masks, and instruments usually attain an aura of sacredness. Each of the Watutsi (Watusi) royal drums, for example, has been thought to possess a “soul,” represented by a large pebble inside the drum, that can do away with evil spirits. Music may also serve in legal, political, and historical capacities. Thus, there are public litigation ceremonies, such as those of the Bambala (Congo-Kinshasa), in which the liti gants present portions of their legal briefs in song; there are songs of criticism, or of praise, directed at chiefs, employers, governments, etc.; and there are songs narrating historical or cur- rent events, such as the warrior epics of the Watutsi of Rwanda. There is also a great deal of music and dance for entertainment. This ranges from the highly informal to a mote “theatrical,” prepared type, such as the chikona, the leading ceremonial and social dance of the Venda (South Africa), which features a circle of men playing vertical flutes of reed in hocket and dancing counterclockwise around drummers, most of whom are women. Various levels of musical professionalism, en- gaged in mostly by men but also by women, have Tong been apparent in African tribal life, in addi- tion to communal music-making. Thus, there are trained instrumentalists, dancers, master instru- ment builders, and tuning specialists (composing is usually subsumed under the performer's craft), some atiached to a chief”s or king’s court, others traveling as paid performers, as well as the skilled leaders of a singing or dancing commu- nity group, who are perhaps also official or semi-AFRICA official religious leaders. Training, which may be long and involved, is generally informal and based on rote learning, often with such mne- monic aids as the singing of nonsense or stylized syllables (especially for drum patterns). Such aids recall similar methods in Hindu drumming and Japanese *gagaku. IL. Style. Although diversity of style is evi- dent, there are certain elements that represent a reasonably common musical denominator. A. Rhythm and tempo. Probably the most out- standing feature of much African music is the complexity of rhythmic structure, a complexity no doubt well comprehended by musicians trained in unequal-beat styles (Sachs’ “addi- tive” category), such as those of the Middle East and India and of the Western Renaissance and 20th century. The essence of what the present writer has termed the “African hemiola style” lies in the contrast of two unequal “conductor” beats in a 2:3 length-ratio, e.g, Jd, or J2, both horizontally and vertically. Horizontally, the 2:3 contrast may be texturally (1) concentrated, i., the two unequal conductor beats appear close to each other within a short space, as in a pattern of 6/8 + 3/4 (the European hemiola; see Ex. 4, line 2) or in measures (appearing individually or in any combination) such as 5/8, 7/8, 8/8 (eg. the dochmiac 4.4.4), 12/8 (€.8. ddd.dd.; see Ex. 4, top line and Ex. 2, line 2), etc.; or the 2:3 con- trast may be (2) wide-paced and sectional, in- volving change from the short to the long beat (or vice versa) by sections, one section (several measures) perhaps featuring the J in 3/4 time and another the 4. in 6/8 ; or (3) the 2:3 contrast may be entirely absent in an individual line, so that equal-beat rhythm prevails, as in the steady reiteration of the dotted-quarter beat in 3/8 fig- ures (e.g., Ex. I, line 1; Ex. 2, lines 3, 4). Further- more, whatever the type of beat contrast, a line often features one distinctive rhythmic pattern constantly repeated (see Ex. I, line 1; Ex. 2, lines 2-4; Ex. 4, lines 1, 2], somewhat like the Hindu tala patterning. However, patterns are open to variation, especially in vocal music (owing to text requirements) and in certain “leader” parts, such as that of the master drummer. Vertical realization of the hemiola style is a direct concomitant of the strong African propen- sity for “orchestral,” polyphonic music. The contrast of the two unequal conductor beats in their multipart setting may then take on the greatest intricacy, an intricacy deriving from true vertical *polyrhythm. In such polyrhythm each line maintains a certain degree of rhythmic AFRICA independence, especially with respect to the organization of the conductor beats. Specifically, in African polyrhythm [see Ex. 1-4] each line may carry its own distinctive beat pattern (in Hindu music all parts are controlled by one com- mon beat pattern). This means that beats may not coincide vertically: the two unequal beats obviously cannot coincide, because one beat is one and one-half times as long as the other, and equal beats may not coincide because each line pattern may enter at a different point (Ex. 2, lines 3 and 4). In other words, there may be verti- cal overlapping of entire patterns and of their internal beats. Clearly, this is not syncopation, in which all lines are subsumed under one underly- ing regular beat and in which any kind of line- independence is considered to derive from “off- beat” stress of the one equal-beat base. = 189 126 a 2,2 = 336 solo e-nito ba m’d-gino Kandngé drum ko mad’a-Ié Aguda drum Iyd Ila “mother” or master drum 1. Watutsi royal drums excerpt (Rwando) [R. Bran- del]. 2. Yoruba song with dindin drums of Ogén, war god (Nigeria) [A. King]. 18AFRICA _-thumb 3 4. = 0.96 Right hand forefinger... - | “Left hand (thumb only) >. 4 decl7 4 is 4 iron idiophone + HB up (against palm) vp on ali. SNe * 2 Gourd rattle down (against thigh) Right foot prado Left foot ‘Shoulders forward (with stomachl contraction) Shoulders (with}|? d elbows bent) t Shoulders back (with stomach release) 3. Lemba deze, i.e., sanza (South Africa) [P. R. Kirby]. 4. Ewe dance figure with portion of en- semble (Ghana) [R. Brande] Feet (knee lit on eighth-note, step on quarter} The vertical tug between the two unequal beats and between the simultaneous independ- ent patterns in which they are set is further com- plicated by the appearance of a subtle rhythmic Gestalt, the “over-all perception” pattern, or composite, of all (or some) of the lines. Mainly through timbre and pitch accents, especially vivid in tuned drum ensembles, this composite pattern is ever fluid and changing, sometimes resulting from the variation techniques of the master drummer, sometimes from changing orchestral density and texture, and also from other factors. The performer, particularly, must to some extent be aware of such an over-all pat- tern for the sake of ensemble coordination (or else each part would theoretically require its own conductor). But no doubt there are various Gestalt perceptions, depending on the type of participation (dancer's, singer's, etc.), the skill of the performer, and the kind of material he executes (variations, unchanging ostinatos, one or two lines at a time—in the last case, as singer- player, dancer-player, player of “harmonic” instrument, etc.). An ensemble usually pays AFRICA special attention to the part of the master drum- mer, which may give rhythmic signals for changes in dance steps, changes in tempo, type of section to be performed, etc., and frequently to the part of some over-all tempo-setter, such as the adawuraa, the boat-shaped iron idiophone of the Akan (Ghana), which may perhaps also act as a central “rhythmic post” for the entire ensemble. Dance rhythms may also play an important “governing” role. ‘Tempo, as judged from the speed of the basic units, such as the ever-present “running eighths” from which the J and 4, beats are constructed, tends on the whole toward the very rapid (in distinct contrast with music of the Middle East and India). The eighth-note units may average roughly from J = c. 240 to c. 450, thus giving conductor beats of J = c. 120 to c. 225, and J. = c. 80 toc. 150. B. Polyphony. Another distinguishing charac- teristic of African music is a strong tendency toward polyphony, both vertical (“harmonic”) and horizontal (“contrapuntal”). The codevelop- ment of polyrhythm and some degree of har- mony in this music is an interesting contrast with the nonharmonic but rhythmically complex music of the Middle East and India. A further comparison may be made with the polyrhythmic emphasis of the Western Renaissance and its gradual movement toward harmonic and equal- beat emphasis. The principal African polyphonic types are parallel intervals (mainly thirds, fourths, fifths), overlapping choral antiphony and solo-choral response (particularly the latter), ostinato and drone-ostinato (but not the Hindu continuous drone), and, less frequently, polymelody (mainly double). The types may often intermingle within one piece and may appear in any vocal and instrumental combination. The characteristic orchestral attitude frequently results in the piling up of parts, so that vertical densities of three and four different pitches are not uncommon, whether achieved through parallel block motion or through contrapuntal techniques [see Ex. 6] Such densities are in constant flux, however, even in parallel motion, so that continuous triads throughout an entire piece, for example, are rare. “Spot” or intermittent fullness resulting from sudden choral divisi or solo interjection of variational segments, often at strategic cadential or phrase points, is a favored practice. Parallel thirds, which frequently move diatoni- cally, are found in numerous areas [see I, above]. Ex. 5 illustrates parallel fourths and fifths, to- 19AFRICA gether with responsorial technique. Whether overlapping or not, the responsorial or antipho- nal section in African music may be a repetition of the first phrase (Ex. 5), which may result in canonic imitation, or the section may contain new melodic material, such as a brief punctu- ating refrain, a completion of the first phrase, or a distinctly contrasting melody. The African ostinato, usually quite small in length and pitch range, may be continuous or intermittent, vocal or instrumental, and may appear above or below the main line. Frequently there is a multi-ostinato, two or more ostinatos moving contrapuntally, with or without a longer melodic line. The African propensity for *hocket (especially favored by the Mambuti Pygmies) is often allied to multi-ostinato. In Ex. 6, five ivory horns (part of a professional band), playing one note (pitch) each, execute melodic and harmonic hocket (largely through sustaining notes) in two ostinato lines, the top line being a kind of fore- cast of the vocal melody. ‘Although complex polymelody (simultaneous independent melodies of some length and inner organization) is not common, there are many simple varieties, involving phrases longer than those of the multi-ostinato. Also, there are cer- tain types of heterophonic variations on a theme, which often achieve a distinctness of line move- ment approaching genuine polymelody There are hints of some functioning “chordal” relationships in African polyphony, although these are not the Western major-minor system, nor are they formally and verbally articulated The type of functioning, involving concepts of tension-relaxation, dissonance-consonance (which are by no means fixed universals), cannot as yet be gauged. It is clear, however, that there are varieties of “chord” clusters (as there are varieties of scales), and that some level of harmonic patterning may be aimed at through oral tradition. A few samples, resulting either from parallel or contrapuntal motion, follow (all hyphenated notes are to be read vertically), It should be noted that interval sizes are not those of equal temperament: (1) a re- peated tritonic (augmented fourth) “chord” in a minor seventh or larger span, e.g., a-c’-e”"-f’— g’-a’ of Ex. 6 (cents given in the next section below), popular among the Mambuti Pygmies and in many parts of Central Africa, and also appearing elsewhere; (2) a cadential sequence resting on parallel major thirds, with roots a major second apart, eg. Gangele (Angola), c-e'-g, BP-d’-4', c-e'-g’, and Baduma (Congo- 20 AFRICA Brazzaville), b’-d’, c’-e’; (3) another cadence- like sequence of the Baduma (bracketed notes are the most important), eg’, a-d’-fy’, a-c’-€-; (4) “plagal” motion with roots (or focal notes) a fourth apart, e.g, Babinga Pygmies (Congo-Brazzaville), be” 2-2-2’, and a related (reversed and inverted) form of the Venda (South Africa), g’-c’-&”, fra'-c’-”. See also, the patterning of Ex. 5, eg. (meas. 6), g’-c”, eb”, c’-p’. Solo = 120 4 =80 - aa i ae - 6 = 1322 OV twee | dj dy eS Horns| ej v7p OO T GF 5. Wasukuma wedding song (Tanzania) [R. Brandel}. 6. Kukuya ivory horns (Congo-Brazzaville) [R. Brande]. C. Scale and melody. Among the large variety of African scales there is no one scale that is more idiomatic than the others. However, scales and melodies of very small range, two or three notes spanning the interval of a second or a third, appear somewhat infrequently (other than in ostinato accompaniments, which are usually part of pieces with larger scale gamuts). Tetra- chordal and pentachordal spans are common, while scales and melodies of even larger range are quite prevalent. (A ladder of thirds spanning a ninth, F-A-C-E-G, may be found in a Batwa y song of Rwanda.) Furthermore, scales and melodies may be chasmatonic (gapped) or diatonic, within any span. Thus, there are chasmatonic five-note octaves, e.g., C-D-E’-G- BY_C of Ex. 5, and A-C-E?-F-G-A of Ex. 6 with its tritonic melodic and harmonic emphasis (the diatonic upper tritone tends to descend, as in Ex. 6 and among the Mambuti Pygmies; see also the vocal line of a Chopi piece in Kirby, p. 65); chasmatonic five-note hexachords, e.g. C_D-E-G-A, often featuring triadic tunes; dia-AFRICA tonic octaves, e.g., C-D-E-F(F4)-G-A-B(B’)- C; diatonic hexachords, e.g. G-A-B-C-D-E, etc. In addition, there appear to be some equal- stepped or isotonic scales, e.g, some Uganda harps with a four-step octave (among the Bag- were) or with a five-step octave (among the Baganda), and some xylophones with a five-step octave (parts of both Congos, Uganda) or with a seven-step octave (among the Chopi of Mozam- bique). Scales and melodies are frequently con- structed in a “plagal” manner, featuring a central pivot note with a lower fourth and an upper fifth, eg, G-C-G. Interval sizes vary greatly, pointing up a variety of scale temperaments, especially evident in the tuning of instruments. (Ex. 6 horn inter- vals in cents reveal two small “minor” thirds and a large and a small “major” second: 279, 283, 227, 191.) Temperament norms, however, are not always easy to gauge. The influence of the tonal languages (Bantu, etc.) on melody is marked but not rigid. Al- though high-pitched and low-pitched speech syllables (pitch height governs meaning and grammar) tend to be set to correspondingly pitched melodic notes [see Ex. 2], melodic flow is often controlled by purely musical considera- tions. Over-all melody shapes are varied, octave tunes often curving downward and tunes some- times zigzagging through interlocking thirds. D. Form. The most. prevalent form is the litany type, ie., immediate (but not necessarily exact) repetition of a musical idea throughout a piece. The length of melodic phrases, how- ever, will vary from the very brief (one or two measures) to long-lined melodies of several measures. Frequently the length and inner or- ganization are such that a two- or three-sectional “sentence” with contrasting phrases is apparent, often executed in the popular antiphony or re- sponse. There is also evidence of some verse forms, such as those found in various Akan songs of Ghana. A sense of larger sectional for- mation and contrast is often achieved through the repetition of two or more melodies, eg., A...B...As..C...etc. (the form of the complete piece of Ex. 5). Such sectional contrast is heightened by some abrupt shifts in tonality in a Mangbetu choral piece (Brandel, The Music of Central Africa, p. 111). Lengthy ceremonies may provide even broader formal contrast through a series of musical “acts,” each consist ing of a piece repeated numerous times. Varia- tion is common, but developmental techniques are rare, 21 AFRICA E. Performance style. Density and motion are perhaps the best clues to over-all performance texture, both vocal and instrumental: masses of sound tend to pile up “orchestrally,” timbres— often pungent and staccato—are contrasted, tessiture are juxtaposed, dynamic levels are usually high, and motion is constant, hurried, and complex as melodies, musical rhythms, and thythms of dancers’ and players’ muscles con- verge with as much “action” as possible within a short span of time. This is, of course, a broad generalization. The qualities of speed and con- centration are not always present. An evening story-singer, a private Session on the musical bow or on the sanza may be quite different Vocal styles often point up emphatic, full- voice singing, at times punctuated by shouts and screams. Timbres are often tense-hoarse, some- what guttural, and tenorlike for the men, owing to a predominant use of the arytenoid vocal muscles at great intensities and at high pitch ranges, as well as to some laryngeal constriction by neck muscles. Women’s voices frequently are strident, owing to a predominant use of the thy- roid group of vocal muscles at great intensities and at generally lower pitch ranges. Special effects may include glissando (especially at phrase endings); excessive nasality (perhaps for disguise or spirit imitation); excessive breathi- ness (often as a timbre accent); Sprechstimme; among some peoples, yodeling (e.g. Babinga Pygmies and N’Gundi of Congo-Brazzaville, and Bushmen) and humming (as in some Watutsi bard songs), and a variety of animal imitations. Most singing is highly syllabic (non- melismatic), vibratoless, and nonornamented, except where Arab influence is evident (e.g., in some Watutsi bard songs). Hocket is a favorite instrumental and vocal device, and, in its achievement of rapid timbre contrast, decidedly contributes to the over-all performance texture. Dance styles include broad, outflowing motions, often part of depic- tive dances, and self-contained, sometimes con- vulsive movement, usually set within abstract or symbolic contexts. IV. Instruments. Orchestral emphasis is an important feature of African music. An ensem- ble consisting of hand-clapping singers, several different instruments, often including a set of one type, and usually dancers (or dancer-singers, dancer-players) is very common. A cappella as well as purely instrumental performance is also prevalent. In addition, certain instruments, no- tably the sanza and instruments of the chordo-AFRICA phone family, are frequently used in a solo, nonensemble capacity, particularly to accom- pany a singer (who may be his own instrumen- talist). Ensemble instruments center about idiophones (especially rattles, xylophones, bells) and membranophones, although aerophone bands are also popular. Many instruments (mainly slit drums, but also membrane drums, bells, horns, flutes, etc.) are used also for the purpose of telegraphy, which usually consists of duplication of actual speech tones and rhythms, particularly of stylized proverbs. Idiophones include a variety of rattles, single or strung, manually operated or tied to the body, made of gourd, woven fibers, skin, etc. Percus- sion sticks and pounded bamboos occasionally occur in “tuned” sets (as in Southeast Asia) Iron bells are of many sizes and forms and are usually clapperless and struck; two-toned double bells, joined by an arch or a common handle, are found mainly in western, central, and south central regions. West Africa (and also parts of Ethiopia and Egypt) features a double bell, such as the nnawuta of Ghana, with two unequal com- ponents, pitched perhaps a fifth or more apart. ‘There is also a type of folded, flattened iron, sometimes bell-like (Uganda, Congo-Kinshasa) and sometimes reminiscent of the slit drum and somewhat banana- or boat-shaped (eg., the Kende of the Kissi of Liberia; it is also found in West Central Africa and has been excavated in Rhodesia). Kunst has noted the same split- banana shape in the metal kemanak of Java and considers a common origin in the East Mediter- ranean or the Caucasus. The metal disk of the Far East, the gong, seems to be entirely absent from Africa The idiophonous slit drum, important in sig- naling, is made of wood and is stick-beaten; it may be cylinder-shaped, wedge-shaped, or footed and animal-shaped. The edges of the slit are usually of different thickness to produce two pitches. The trapeze-shaped lukumbi of the Batetela (Congo-Kinshasa) can emit six different pitches, three on each side of the drum. Xylophones are quite widespread and are fre~ quently played in ensembles, both small and large. Chopi timbila bands, popular in mining camps, may contain 20 to 30 xylophones in three or four different sizes, ranging from “soprano,” with c. 15 slabs, to “bass,” with c. 4 slabs. There are two main types of xylophone: (a) The rudi- mentary loose-key xylophone, without resona- tors, resting on tree trunks, is found in both Congos, Uganda, Central African Republic, 22 AFRICA Cameroon, etc. A root name in the northern Congo-Kinshasa is padingbwa; (b) the fixed-key xylophone, sometimes suspended from the shoulders, usually has resonators and is found in most areas, A root name in the southern Congo-Kinshasa is malimba or madimba. The wooden slabs are fixed to a frame, and beneath each slab is an acoustically matched resonator, usually of calabash, which may be round (eg, Mandingo people, Liberia; Chopi, Mozam- bique) or long (e.g., Yaswa, Congo-Brazzaville: Venda, South Africa). The latter recalls the vertical resonance tubes of the Indonesian gender. Buzzing timbres are often produced by fixing spider-webbing over a small lower-end hole in the calabash. The xylophone is frequently played by two or more persons, and one or two mallets may be used in each hand, The number of keys may exceed 20, and tunings, some of which appear to be isotonic, vary considerably in different areas [see III C above]. Indigenous to Africa is the sanza (Central Africa, Mozambique, etc.), mbira (Southeast Africa), kembe (Central Africa), or limba (East Central and Southeast Africa), a relatively small plucked idiophone with a set of flexible iron (sometimes bamboo) tongues fixed across a board or box; underneath, a calabash resonator may be attached or may loosely enclose the board. Tuning is accomplished by shifting the tongues, thereby altering their vibrating lengths. ‘The number of tongues varies greatly (¢. 5 to 25 or more), as do the tunings; unlike the xylo- phone, the lowest-pitched tongues not infre- quently are set in the center of the board and the upper ones to either side, or tongues may be intermingled in various ways. Thumbs, and at times other fingers, produce a delicately metallic, hocketlike pizzicato [see Ex. 3], sometimes en- larged by the rattling or buzzing of attached devices. The sanza may be played singly or in sets of two or three. Membranophone drums, usually used melodi- cally as well as rhythmically, are of numerous sizes and shapes; single- and double-headed; with laced, nailed, or glued skins; hand-beaten (fingers, palms, base, fist), stick-beaten, and rubbed; and are commonly played in tuned sets of various numbers. Pitch (and timbre) contrast may also be obtained on a single drum by utiliz- ing different striking points or by altering mem- brane tension (pressing on the skin or its fasten- ings). The long, conelike single-headed drum, such as the ndungu of the Babembe (Congo- Brazzaville), is one of the most popular. OthersAFRICA include the kettledrum, e.g., the hemispherical, stick-beaten ngoma of the Venda (South Africa), and the West African hourglass “pressure” drum (also found in ancient and modern India and in the Far East), e.g., the professional shoulder- suspended diindiin types (Ex. 2) of the Yoruba (Nigeria), which are played with a hooked stick and are capable of variable pitch via elbow or hand manipulation of the thongs connecting the two skins. (In Ex. 2 this method is used only for the master drum.) There are also barrel and gob- let drums; footed, stool-like drums with open lower ends, e.g,, the igbin of the Yoruba and the ganda of the Digo (Kenya); clay-pot drums, e.g., the bompili, a women’s drum of the Mbole (Congo-Brazzaville); frame drums, of Arab origin, e.g, the mantshomane of the Thonga (South Africa); and many others. Drums are among the major ceremonial instruments, al- though they are also used for secular purposes, and skilled drummers (especially the master drummer) may be trained from childhood. Acrophones include vertical wooden or bam- boo flutes (often without finger holes); whistles; mirlitons; the typically African transverse trum- pets and horns of ivory (frequently with raised embouchures), ¢.g., the bompate of the Nkundo (Congo-Kinshasa), or of animal horn, wood, or gourd; and ocarinas. Ensembles of c. 5 or more horns (Ex. 6) or flutes (with or without other instruments), often playing in hocket, are com- mon in many areas. Winds also include flutes with finger holes, eg, the 4-holed notched endere of the Baganda (Uganda), panpipes, transverse flutes, end-blown trumpets, occasion- ally nose flutes, and the free aerophone, the bullroarer, often associated with citcumcision rites. Chordophones are important solo and song- accompanying instruments. One of the most common is the musical bow, frequently appear- ing with attached resonator at one end or at a midpoint where the string is divided in two; the mouth often acts as resonator. Partials above the fundamental may be emphasized, melodically and harmonically, through fingering or changing mouth resonance. Related to the bow and espe- cially prevalent in Central Africa is the multiple- bow lute (Sachs: Bogenlaute), which consists of 5 to 8 one-stringed bows attached at one end (the strings above, the bows below) to a reso- nance case, Mainly playing with a vine plectrum rolled around the thumb, a professional lo- ngombe player of the Nkundo (Congo-Kinshasa) used to be carried around the village on a plat- 23 AFRICA form, singing and playing for an all-night cele- bration. Zithers, frequently with resonators, exist in stick, board, raft, trough, and frame forms (e.g., the 6-stringed triangular frame zither of the Bassa of Liberia, which recalls the Persian chank). The trough is especially characteristic of Central East Africa (eg, the inanga of Rwanda). Harps (usually arched) and lyres, possibly based on Egyptian models, are gener- ally not common below the Equator. Rudimen- tary one-stringed fiddles are in many instances derived from Arab sources. As for Western instruments, the guitar, frequently used in night- club ensembles (e.g., “high life”), has become one of the most popular, Modern trends in art music include use of traditional material in ‘Western symphonic, operatic, church, and other forms. Lit. (selected and generally recent; for other works and bibl., see Brandel, Gaskin, Thieme, Wolff): R. Brandel, The Music of Central Africa (1961; music, bibl.); L. J. P. Gaskin, A Select Bibliography of Music in Africa (1965); W. V. Brelsford, African Dances of Northern Rhodesia (Rhodes-Livingstone Museum Papers 2, 1959); E, M. von Hombostel, African Negro Music (1928); A. King, Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti (1961); P. R. Kirby, The Musical Insiruments of the Native Races of South Africa, rev. ed. (1965); D. L. Thieme, African Music; a Briefly Annotated Bibliography (1964); K. M. Trowell and K. P. Wachsmann, Tribal Crafis of Uganda (1953; instr.); C. Sachs, Les Instruments de musique de Madagascar (1938); B. Séderberg, Les Insiru- ments de musique au Bas-Congo et dans les régions avoisinantes (1956); R. Gunther, Musik in Rwanda (1964); J. H. K. Nketia, {Folk Songs of Ghana (1963); J. Blacking, “Problems of Pitch, Pattern and Harmony in the Ocarina Music of the Venda” (African Music ii, no. 2); R. Brandel, “The African Hemiola Style” (Ethnomusicology iii); id., “Types of Melodic Movement in Central Africa” (ibid. vi); id, “Polyphony in African Music,” in CP Sachs; J. Kunst, “The Origin of the Kemanak (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 116, 1960); id., “A Musicological Argument for Cultural Relationship between Indonesia... and Central Africa” (PMA xii); G. Rouget, “Un Chromatisme afticain” (L’Homme i, no. 3, 1963); K. P. Wachsmann, “An Equal Stepped Tuning in a Ganda Harp” (Nature clxv); id., “A Study of Norms in the Tribal Music of Uganda” (Ethnomusicology ii, pt. 11); H. C. Wolff, “Die Musik Afrikas” (Deutsches Jahrbuch der Musikwissenschaft ixAFRICAINE, L" [1964]. See also “Current Bibliography, Africa,” in all issues of Ethnomusicology. Disc.: Publishers (1) Folkways Record Corp., N.Y.; 2) International Library of African Mu- sic, Roodepoort, Transvaal, South Africa; (3) Musée de Homme, Dept. d’Ethnomusicologie, Paris; and (4) UNESCO-Collection: An Anthol- ogy of African Music; see also An International Catalogue of Published Records of Folk Music (“Africa,” pp. 1-13), ed. K. P. Wachsmann (International Folk Music Council, 1960). RB. Africaine, L’ [F., The African Woman]. Opera in five acts by G. Meyerbeer (libretto by E. Scribe), produced in Paris, 1865. Setting: Lisbon and Madagascar, end of 15th century. Afternoon of a Faun, The. See Aprés-midi d'un ‘faaune, L’. Agende [G.]. The German Protestant counter- part of the Roman Catholic liturgy or the Angli- can rites, ie, the entire ritual of the service of the German Protestant Church. See R. von Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste vom 1523 bis 1700 (1893); F. Smend, Neue Beitrdge zur Reform unserer Agenden (1913). Agevole [It.]. Easy, smooth. Agiatamente [It.]. With ease. Agilmente [It.]. Nimbly, with agility. Agitato [It]. Excited. ‘Agnus Dei. The last item (except for the “Ite, missa est”) of the Ordinary of the Mass [see Mass ‘A and B Ill); therefore, the final movement in Mass compositions. It consists of three invoca- tions: “Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi: miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, ... miserere nobis. ‘Agnus Dei, ... dona nobis pacem.” It was intro- duced into the Roman Mass by the Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701), There exist about 300 melo- dies, 20 of which are in present-day use. The most common structure of the music is a aa or aba. See ApGC, p. 418. The Agnus Dei was retained in the first Eng- lish Prayer Book (1549) but was suppressed in the second (1552). It is now commonly used in the Anglican service. In the polyphonic Masses of the 16th century, the third invocation is often composed in a more involved style, using special contrapuntal de- vices, particularly canons. Examples are found in *L’Homme armé Masses of Josquin and La Rue (triple, quadruple mensuration canon; see 24 AIR HAM, no. 89; ApNPM, p. 181) and in many of the Masses of Palestrina. Agogic. An accent is said to be agogic if it is effected not by dynamic stress or by higher pitch but by longer duration of the note [see Accent]. The German term Agogik (translated “agogics”) is used to denote all the subtleties of perform- ance achieved by modification of tempo, as dis- tinct from Dynamik (dynamics), i.c., gradations that involve variety of intensity. Thus, the use of rallentando and accelerando, of tempo rubato, the dwelling on certain notes, as well as rests, breathing signs, fermatas, etc., all fall under ‘Agogik. The term was introduced by H. Rie- mann (Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik, 1884) to describe those deviations from strict tempo and rhythm that are necessary for an intelligent rendering of the musical phrase. Agréments [F.]. The ornaments introduced in French music of the 17th century, which were finally adopted into all European music and were generally indicated by stenographic signs or notes in small type. The agréments are charac- terized by a definitely stereotyped melodic con- tour, a close relationship with a single note of the melody to be ornamented, and a small me- lodic range. See Ornamentation II. PA. Aguinaldo [Sp.]. Religious folksong of Spanish origin based on texts praising Jesus, the saints, or the angels, sung throughout Latin America Prevailingly modal, it has a simple melodic struc- ture and follows the conventional pattern of refrain (estribillo)-stanza (copla)-refrain (estri- billo). Also called alabanza, adoracién, and *villancico. 10-5. Aida. Opera in four acts by Verdi (libretto by A. Ghislanzoni), commissioned by the Khedive of Egypt for the celebration of the opening of the Suez Canal and produced in Cairo, 1871. Setting Egypt under the Pharaohs. Although reputedly making use of a few Egyptian musical themes, the general style is that of Italian grand opera. Striking features are the brief atmospheric prel- ude (in place of a conventional operatic over- ture) and the use of a few “leitmotivs. Air. (1) French 17th- and 18th-century term for song in general [see under Chanson]. Air @ boire, drinking song. (2) In French opera and ballet of the 17th-18th centuries, an instrumen- tal or vocal piece designed to accompany danc- ing but not cast in one of the standard dance patterns such as the minuet, gavotte, etc. Some-