Introduction Pressure Measuring Instruments A. Principles of Pressure Measurement 1. Absolute Pressure 2. Gage Pressure 3. Differential Pressure B. Special Pressure Measurements 1. Manifold Pressure 2. Engine Pressure Ratio 3. Pressure Switches 4. Altimeters a. Development b. Types of Altitude Measurement c. Types of Altimeters d. Altimeter Tests 5. Airspeed Indicators a. Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators b. True Airspeed Indicator c. Machmeter 6. Vertical Speed Indicator (Rate of Climb) 7. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator ‘Temperature Measuring Instruments A. Types of Temperature Measurement. 1. Non-Electrical a. Expansion of a Liquid b. Expansion of a Solid ii 14 4 16 ..16 16 -.16 -.16Iv, c. Expansion of a Gas 2. Electrical a. Resistance Change b. Voltage Generation . Mechanical Movement Measurement A. Accelerometer. B. Remote Position Indicating Systems 1. Direct Current 2. Alternating Current a, Autosyn System b. Magnesyn System C. Tachometers 1. Mechanical Tachometer 2. Blectrie Tachometers a. Three-phase AC Tachometer b. Electronic Tachometer Gyroscopic Instruments A. Gyro Theory 1. Rigidity in Space 2. Precession B. Attitude Gyro Instruments 1. Directional Gyro 2. Gyro Horizon C. Rate Gyro Instruments 1. Tum and Slip Indicator 2. Turn Coordinator Direction Indicating Instruments A. Principle of Operation B. Inherent Errors 1. Variation 7 17 17 20 25 25 26 26 27 27 21 29 30 30 31 32 32 32. 33 33 33 34 37 392. Deviation : 39 3. Acceleration and Turning Error 41 C. Remote Indicating Compass 41 D. Slaved Gyro Compasses 42 VI. Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems 46 A. Direct-Reading 46 B. Direct Current Electrical Gages 46 C. Capacitance Fuel Quantity System a7 VII. Fuel Flow Indicating Systems 50 ‘A. Puel Injection System Flowmeters 50 B. Volume Flow Measurement 51 C. Mass Flow Measurement 51 VIII. Stall Warning and Angle of Attack Systems 53 A. Stall Warning Systems 53 1. Bleetric Stall Warning System 53 2, Non-Electric Stall Warning System 53 B. Angle of Attack Indicators 54 IX. Automatic Pilots 55 A. Automatic Pilot Functions 55 1, Error Sensing 55 a. Attitude Gyros 55 b. Rate Gyros 56 c. Pitch Error Sensing 56 4. Altitude Deviation Sensing 56 2. Correction 56 3. Follow-up 58 a. Displacement Follow-up : 58, b. Rate Follow-up 58 4, Command . 58 X. Instrument Pneumatic Systems 59 ivA. B. Venturi Systems ‘Vacuum Pump Systems . . 1. Vacuum Pumps 2. Suction Relief Valves 3. Filters 4. Instrument Servicing XI. Pitot-Static System Static System Check 1. Entrapped Moisture 2. Leakage XII. Instrument Installation and Marking A. B. c. Panel Layout Instrument Mounting Power Requirements Range Marking 1, Airspeed Indicator 2. Carburetor Air Temperature Indicator 3, Cylinder Head Temperature Gages-- Reciprocating Engines 4. Manifold Pressure Gage-- Reciprocating Engines 5. Fuel Pressure-- Reciprocating and Turbine Engines 6. Oil Pressure-- Reciprocating and Turbine Engines 7. Oil Temperature Reciprocating and Turbine Engines 8. Tachometer-- Reciprocating Engines 9. Torque Indicator-- Reciprocating, Turboprop, and Turboshaft Engines 10. Exhaust Gas Temperature-- Turbine Engines 11. Tachometer--Turbine Engines .. v a BRaeaEBERSB 69 69 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 1 n aT12, Dual Tachometer--Helicopter 13, Gas Producer (Nj) Tachometer-- Turboshaft Helicopter : Glossary Answers to Study Questions . . Final Examination ‘Answers to Final Examination a 1 2 6 81‘The earliest aircraft had very little use for instruments, either engine or flight. The very fact that the engine was running was remarkable in itself, and the pilot had worries other than the ‘amount of oil pressure or temperature. Flight instruments were of even less concern. As the state of the art developed, however, the pilot needed to know more about the condition of his engines, especially those of multi-engine airplanes whose engines were mounted on struts between the biplane wings. The pilot had no “feel” of the RPM or temperatures of these engines, so he had to resort to tachometers, pressure gages, and temperature gages mounted on the nacelle’ to enable him to monitor the condition of the engines in flight. Flight instruments came into being as the pilot became more concerned about his altitude, his speed through the air, and the direction in which he was pointed. | These gages supplied information helpful to the pilot-but the seat of his pants still supplied his most trusted cues. ‘As aviation became of age, however, “blind flying” allowed pilots to fly without reference to the natural horizon, with invisible radio beams INTRODUCTION providing directional reference above or in the clouds; instruments then took on a new importance. No longer could pilots disregard the gages in favor of their feelings; they had to discipline themselves to believe what the dials told them, regardless of the signals sent up through their jeans. Now, flying in high-powered, high-speed jet aircraft with pressurized cabins and engines mounted out on the wings or back on the tail, and with boosted controls, pilots can no longer fly their airplanes by feel and intuition. They must fly by the numbers--numbers supplied by a highly complex system of instrumentation. It is the function of the aviation maintenance technician to maintain this system so it will accurately sense all the parameters and supply the pilot with the accurate, reliable information he requires. Instrument repair and alteration are reserved for FAA-approved repair stations, but knowing ‘what goes on inside the little black boxes enables the A&P to more effectively analyze a malfunc- tioning system, isolate the trouble, and remove vii the proper box for repair in the shop.SECTION I: PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS A. PRINCIPLES OF PRESSURE MEA- SUREMENT Since the air in which we fly is a fluid*— a gaseous fluid—supporting our airplanes by a pressure differential*, it is necessary for us to know a great deal about the pressures* which exist in the atmosphere. In addition, pressure gages for air, hydraulic, oil, and various other engine pressures keep us informed of the conditions which exist in our airplane's many operating systems. Since pressure is a force, there must be a point from which it is applied. This point, or reference, determines the type of pressure we have [Absolute pressure* is referenced from a vacuum®, ‘or Zeto pressure; gage pressure* is that above or below the existing atmospheric pressure; and differential pressure* is the difference between two pressures. Absolute Pressure Absolute pressure is measured from. zero pressure, or a vacuum, and for most aeronautical applications it is measured in inches of mercury*, as the mercury barometer* is used to make this measurement. Consider a glass tube about a yard long and an inch or so in diameter, sealed at one end: if this tube is filled with mercury, closed at one end, with the other end immersed in a bowl of mercury, Fig. 1, the mercury will drop in the tube until there is a space above it. In this space, there is no air--it is a vacu- um. The atmospheric pressure on the mercury in the bowl (or cistern, as it is properly called) holds the mercury up in the tube. Under standard atmospheric conditions at sea level, it will hold the mercury up 29.92 inches (760 mm). Mercury barometers are obviously too inconvenient to carry in an airplane, so aneroid (no liquid) barometers are used in flight formeasuring absolute pressure. Fig. 2 shows the basics of an aneroid barometer: ANEROID BAROMETER MECHANISM -Fig. 2- A pair of concentrically corrugated metal discs are soldered together, forming a capsule, and all the air between them evacuated, Fig. 3. ‘he spring action ofthe corrogations balances the ere te Simaoperc pcs. -Fig. 3- The air pressure on the outside of the capsule tends to push it together, and this is opposed by the spring action of the corrugated metal. By the use of amplifying levers, the expansion and contraction of the capsule is transmitted to a pointer that moves over the dial. Variations of this simple aneroid included stacked diaphragms and bellows such as in Fig. 4. Pointer Vacuum bellows ii aH) ie Pressure bellows ressure bellows of a manifold presure gage measures the difference between intake manifold pressure and parti vacuum - Fig. 4- A special form of the absolute pressure gage is the altimeter*, about which much more will be said in this book. Manifold pressure*, the absolute pressure which exists in the intake manifold of a reciprocating engine, is measured with a differential bellows similar to that in Fig. 4. 2. Gage Pressure The importance of engine oil pressure and hydraulic pressure is not their absolute pressure, but the amount the pressure has been raised by the pump above that in the tank or reservoir. For this reason, gage pressure measurement is used. In its simplest form, gage pressure is measured by applying a pressure to a known area and measuring the force it exerts, but in actual aircraft instruments, it is measured for the higher ranges of pressure by a bourdon tube, Fig. 5. Preside he burn ibe ed tsp i. The ‘straightening action moves the pointer. a -Fig.5-‘A brass or bronze tube has been rolled into an elliptical cross section and then curved into a half circle, with one end sealed and attached to a link which drives a sector gear*. The fluid whose pressure is being measured is fed into the open end of the tube attached to the instrument case. ‘The pressure in the tube causes distortion of the ellipse which attempts to assume a round cross section, straightening the curve. This moves the Low pressures may be measured by 3 captle ss tn 'anerold, excep It is not evacuated 6. sector and the pinion gear* to which the pointer is attached. Lower pressures may be measured by a capsule similar to that used in an aneroid, but the pressure is put into the capsule and is opposed by the atmospheric pressure on the outside, Fig. 6. 3. Differential Pressure Itis often necessary to know, not the pressure itself, but the difference between two pressures. For example, in a pressure carburetor the important pressure is the difference between the inlet fuel pressure and the inlet air pressure. Airspeed is measured by the difference between the ram*, or pitot pressure*, and still air, or static pressure. This differential pressure may be measured by two bellows, such as seen in Fig. 4, in which one pressure is sensed by one bellows and the reference pressure by the other bellows. ‘The movement of the bellows is transmitted to the pointer through a set of amplifying levers. Airspeed is measured by introducing ram pressure into the capsule and measuring this against static pressure in the airtight instrument case, Fig. 7 ‘A difeentat pressure ge measures the dilference between P, inside ‘the capsule, and Py acting on its cutie + Fig. 7- 3 N\SS QUESTIONS: 1. What is the reference point from which absolute pressure is measured? 2. What is the reference pressure from which gage pressure is measured? 3. What type of pressure is normally measured with a bourdon tube type of instrument? LL B. SPECIAL PRESSURE MEASURE- MENTS. 1, Manifold Pressure ‘The power developed by a recipro- cating engine is proportional to the amount of fuel burned. This, in turn, is determined by the mass of air with which it mixes. The actual mass of this air is difficult to measure, but a usable indication is its absolute pressure, just before it enters the intake valve. One bellows of an absolute pressure gage is connected to the intake manifold somewhere between the butterfly valve of the carburetor and the intake valve of the cylinders. The other bellows has been evacuated and is ‘sealed. The dial of this instrument is marked from about ten inches of mercury to 40, 70, or 110 (depending on the power output of the engine with which the instrument is used). When the engine is not running, the instrument senses the atmospheric pressure existing in the intake manifold and indicates somewhere around 29 to 30 inches of mercury. When the engine is started and is idling, the pistons pump more air than the butterfly valve in the carburetor will allow to pass, and the manifold pressure, therefore, will be lower than atmospheric; somewhere around 12 to 15 inches of, mercury. ‘The highest manifold pressure a normaliy aspirated engine is able to have is slightly less than the existing atmospheric pressure. Supercharged engines can have manifold pressure higher than atmospheric because the air is compressed by a mechanical ‘compressor before it is put into the cylinders. Moisture may condense in the manifold pressure gage line and cause an erratic indication, so provisions may be made to drain this mois- ture. To do this, a normally closed purge valve is installed between the manifold pressure line and the atmosphere near the instrument. When the pilot presses the purge valve button, air under atmospheric pressure enters and forces any water in the line into the engine, Fig. 8. UZLLLLILLLLLL2. Engine Pressure Ratio Manifold pressure is used with ‘engine RPM to provide the pilot with an indication of the power his reciprocating engine is producing. In an axial-flow* turbine engine, an indication of the thrust may be had by measuring the engine RPM and the Engine Pressure Ratio, EPR*. EPR is a differential pressure between Ptp (Compressor inlet total pressure*) and Per, ‘Turbine discharge pressure*), Fig. 9. Because of the long distances between the engines and instrument panel of jet aircraft, these instruments are usually remote-indicating. ‘The two pressures are fed into a transmitter, where a ratio is developed and converted into an electrical signal which drives the indicator on the instrument panel. 3. Pressure Switches Itis often important that a pilot learn immediately of a dangerous condition. In these situations a pressure switch may be used to initiate a warning device when a definite low or high pressure is reached. Lights on the instrument panel are the most commonly used warning devices, but audible signals may also be used. Diferental bellows measures the pressure ratio {elet and the turbine discharge. This nformataon is carted ‘by an Autosyn remote indating system - Fig. 9- s Fig. 10 shows a typical fuel pressure warning switch. The pressure port* is attached to the fuel Pressure inlet of the fuel control unit (or carburetor) and the vent port to the air inlet. Dilflereatal pressure between fuel and aie holds the micro- ich open” When the pressure drops, de with cones ad the warning fight comes on + Fig. 10- between the compresserFuel pressure applied below the diaphragm moves it over and through the actuating arms opens the normally closed micro-switch. A disc spring behind the diaphragm exerts a force in the direction to close the switch and is opposed by the helical spring* which tends to open it. The compression of the helical spring is adjustable to cause the switch to close at the pressure desired. i QUESTIONS: What is the purpose of a manifold pressure purge valve? 5. What is measured by an Engine Pressure Ratio indicator? ooo 4, Altimeters ‘8, Development Probably one of the most used, yet least understood instruments in a modem aircraft instrument panel is the altimeter. This is ‘one of the oldest flight instruments, whose history dates all the way back to some of the early balloon flights; yet, still today, serious study is being undertaken to find ways of improving it. ‘The standard altimeter had a simple evacuated bellows or capsule whose expansion and contraction moved a rocking shaft*, a sector, and a pinion gear to which was attached a pointer, Fig. 2. The dial for this instrument was calibrated in feet, and since any change in the existing barometric pressure caused a change in altitude reading, the dial could be rotated so the pilot H q q H H H 4 4 4 4 4 Y 4 H H g K N N N N N N N N N N N N 5 N N N N N N N N N N § q N N Q N Q N N N N N N N N Q N y N N N 4 q N y N N q could make the instrument read zero while the airplane was on the ground. This simple form of adjustment made local flying easier for the pilot, but it was useless for cross-country flying, since the barometric pressure at the destination is seldom the same as that at the point of takeoff. So as soon as in-flight radio communications became possible, alti- meters with adjustable barometric scales were developed, enabling the pilot to adjust his altimeter to the barometric conditions existing at the point of landing. His instrument would then read either zero when his wheels touched down, or, as is currently done, indicate his elevation above mean sea level. In this way, the pilot can determine his elevation above objects on the ground, and his altimeter will indicate the surveyed elevation of the field when his wheels roll onto the runway. The pressure lapse rate, the decrease in pressure with altitude, is not linear*; that is, the change in pressure for each thousand feet is greater in the lower altitudes than at the higher levels. It is possible to design the corrugations in the bellows in such a way that their expansion will be uniform for a change in altitude rather than a change in pressure. The use of this kind of bellows has made possible the use of multiple pointers and uniform scales. One pointer makes a ‘complete round for 1000 feet; one, a turn each 10,000 feet; and a short pointer or marker would make a complete trip around for 100,000 feet, if the instrument went that high. Altimeters in use in modern aircraft usually have ranges of 20,000, 35,000, 50,000, and 80,000 feet. Fig. 11 illustrates one of the earlier forms of three-pointer sensitive altimeters*. THREE-POINTER SENSITIVE ALTIMETER. -Fig. 11- 6b. Types of Altitude Measurement An altimeter can measure height above any convenient reference point, and for most flying, it measures the pressure above the existing sea level pressure. This is called indicated altitude* and is read directly from the indicator when the altimeter setting* is placed on the barometric scale. Altimeter setting is determined by correcting the barometric pressure that exists at the reporting station to sea level, and this is included in the information given the pilot by control towers and flight service stations. If the correct altimeter setting is put on the barometric scale while on the ground, the altimeter should read the surveyed elevation of the airplane's parking space. If the barometric setting is adjusted to 29.92 inches of mercury, or 1013 millibars*, the altimeter will indicate the pressure altitude, the altitude above standard sea level pressure. ‘This is not really a specific point, as it is constantly changing; but airplanes flying above approxi- mately 18,000 feet all adjust their altimeters to this setting and therefore maintain the required vertical separation, regardless of the barometric pressure changes along the route. The performance of an airplane and its engine is based on the density of the air, not just its pressure, and since density is determined by temperature as well as pressure, density altitude* must be considered. This is not a direct measurement, but may be found by correcting the pressure altitude for nonstandard temperature by the use of a chart or computer. By definition, density altitude is that altitude in standard air that corresponds with the existing air density. Absolute altitude is of extreme concern to a pilot on an instrument approach, but it cannot be measured by a pneumatic altimeter*. A radar altimeter*, which is not discussed in this particular AMFI text, must be used. c. Types of Altimeters {1] Drum-Type Altimeters ‘The three-pointer altime- ter, Fig. 12-A, was relatively easy to misread, as the smallest pointer is easily hidden behind one of the others, and in pressurized airplanes with high rates of climb it is difficult to know the approximate altitude. Accidents have been attributed to pilots misreading the small pointer, so the later models of altimeters replace the small pointer with a marker and a barber pole-striped sector which disappears behind a mask at an altitude of approximately 16,000 feet; Fig. 12-B. Madeen aimeters replace the small pointer with an easy to-read mather, tnd acer pole sped sector shows le ying blow Sout 16/00 fel Fig. 12 - With digital read-outs* becoming common in many of our flight instruments, there has been much research made into digitizing altimeters. ‘The main problem has been the extremely low torque available to drive the mechanism. A sensitive pneumatic altimeter uses a stack of bellows, as seen in Fig. 11, to drive the pointers. If, for example, the bellows change their dimensions one-quarter of an inch for the full 35,000 feet, the tip of the long pointer will travel more than 300 inches. This amplification requires a rather complex and delicate transmission and some very small gears. The friction inside the altimeter even under near-ideal conditions is such that there must be vibration of the instrument for accurate reading. This is no problem in reciprocating engine airplanes, as there is enough vibration from the engine, but jet aircraft often require instrument panel vibrators to keep the altimeter reading accurately.One of the popular semi-digital altimeters is shown in Fig. 13. Smiths Figure 14 is a schematic of the works of this altimeter. ‘The two capsules drive » common pointer shaft through two sets of rocking shafts and temperature-compensated links. A bevel gear from this shaft drives the three drums. ‘A ground-pressure setting knob actuates a cam to move the pointer and provide the proper pressure reference. An extension on the barometric scale adjustment moves a potentiometer* in the cabin pressurization system to relate it to’ the barometric pressure the pilot has set on the flight aljimeter. The torque required to drive the three Grums in addition to the pointer makes the use of a vibrator mandatory, and, rather than depend on an externally- inted unit, an oscillator and vibrator are included in the instrument case to provide just exactly the correct amount of vibration for the instrument. A rotary solenoid* drives a failure flag to warn the pilot if power is lost to the vibrator, INTERNAL MECHANISM OF A DRUM-TYPE NON-SERVO ALTIMETER + Fig. 14-SS QUESTIONS: 6. What type of altitude is measured when the altimeter setting is placed in the baro- metric window? 7. When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92 inches of mercury, what type of altitude is being measured? 8. How is density altitude determined? SS [2] Servo Altimeters* Some altimeters drive such a complex drum-type display that it is not practical for the bellows to do the work unassisted, so the servo altimeter has been developed. Fig. 15 is a photograph of the dial of a 50,000-foot servo altimeter in which there is a tens-of-thousands- foot drum-all of which move incrementally*, and a continuously rotating drum that indicates the tens of feet. ‘The pointer makes one revolution in 1000 feet and indicates the same information shown on the last three digits. In this instrument the tens-of-thousands-foot drum shows the famil- Smiths Sry shimetrs ue the low tore frm the bellows te provide Signal forthe servo motor + Fig. 15 - iar barber pole stripes when the airplane is below 10,000 feet. There is also a dual barometric scale where the pressure in either inches of mercury or millibars can be set into the instrument. If the power should fail, a power failure flag warns the pilot that the altimeter is inoperative. Fig. 16 is a schematic of the servo-type altimeter. = : : =o i : -) | Smiths + “fas, Type 3c ALreaeren SERVO ALTIMETER MECHANISM 16-‘The evacuated bellows or capsule is required to drive only an extremely low-inertia rotary pick-off. The signal from the pick-off is built up by the amplifier and drives a servo motor which rotates the drums, pointer, and synchros*. These in turn drive repeater indicators* and code the transponder* for altitude reporting. ‘There is an error inherent in static systems known as position error, caused by the impossibility of a static port to continually operate in perfectly undisturbed air. The servo altimeter has a built-in correction system tailored for the particular airplane design that minimizes this error for the full range of flight speeds and altitudes. [3] Encoding Altimeters* Radar control of air traffic has made the smooth, orderly flow of high-density traffic possible, but until recently the controller has had no accurate knowledge of the altitude of the airplane he was following. The radar beacon transponder replies to the ground radar with a code giving the controller certain information he needs. These transponders have 4,096 codes available, so the latest generation of altimeters not only provide the pilot with a visible read-out of his altitude, but code the transponder so it can reply to the ground station with a signal providing a visible indication on the radar scope of the airplane's altitude in 100-foot increments. Encoding altimeters of the nonservo type must have an extra low-torque pick-off, and the majority now in use use optical encoders. In this system, the bellows drives a glass disc, etched with transparent and opaque sectors. ‘A light source shines through the disc onto photoelectric cells which convert the disc’s movement into coded signals for the transponder. ‘This type of pick-off provides a high degree of accuracy with very low torque requirements. d. Altimeter Tests ‘The altimeter is the only instrument specifically singled out in the Federal Aviation Regulations as requiring a test. Every twenty-four calendar months, every alti- meter and every static system of airplanes used for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flying must be checked according to the tests prescribed in F.A.R. 43, Appendix E. These tests include: ‘Seale error: The barometric scale is set to 29.92 inches of mercury and the instrument subjected to pressure corresponding to a series of test altitudes. The instrument must not have a scale error in excess of that allowed in Table I. Hysteresis: This test is made to determine that the instrument will be within tolerance between a reading taken when the altitude is increasing and one taken when the altitude is decreasing. Hys- teresis is essentially a lagging of the indication caused by the deflection of the metal in the diaphragms not keeping up with the pressure changes. After-effect: This error shows up by the altimeter not returning to its original reading after the hysteresis test has been performed. It is the effect of the “set” the diaphragms have taken. Friction: All non-servo altimeters have enough friction that some form of vibration is needed for their accurate reading. This test determines just, how much friction the instrument has. A reading is taken before and after the case is vibrated. Case leak: The case is tested at 18,000 feet pressure to be sure it does not leak more than 100 feet in one minute. Barometric scale error: This test determines that the movement of the barometric scale-has the proper effect on the‘pointérs. Tame 1 atutade Equivalent pressure ‘Tolerance tect) (anenes of mercury) £ (teed) 1,000 sz TEST TOLERANCES "Tear Few <. #100 Tet Case Leak Test - Hysteresis Test: First Test Point (50 percent of maximum altitude) —--———- - Second Test Point (40 percent of maximum altitude) 7 Alter Bifect Test 1 10‘Tape I11—FRICTION ‘ede Pet) ‘Tolerance eo BEERS eune SSeS 2882828 g88 | ‘Taste IV-PRESSURE-ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE “anitode Diese any = TS QUESTIONS: 9. Why are some altimeters servo-operated? 10. What does an encoding altimeter do to inform the ground controller of the ai plane's altitude? 11. How often should eltimeters used for Ins- trument Flight Rules flying be checked for accuracy? Cy 5. Airspeed Indicators Airspeed is measured by the difference between ram pressure of the air and the still or static air pressure, Fig. 18, Fig. 18- To do this, the instrument is installed in an airtight case vented to the static source, usually a small hole in the side of the airplane fuselage, or a closed-end tube with holes or slits in its side. ‘The mechanism itself consists of a diaphragm connected to the pitot or ram air pickup tube. As the differential pressure increases, the iaphragm expands and rotates the rocking shaft which, through the sector and pinion, moves the pointer across the instrument dial. ‘The calibration of the airspeed indicator is nonlinear*--meaning that there is not the same amount of space between each ten mile per hour mark. The instrument is calibrated in the instrument shop by adjusting screws in the progressive restraint spring to make the pointer read the same as the calibrating master. Airspeed indicators may be calibrated in miles per hour, in knots (nautical miles per hour), or, for use in metric countries, in kilometers per hour. The reading given the pilot is indicated airspeed, and for it to be of use to him, there must be a correction made for nonstandard air temperature. This is the same correction used for density altitude and when applied to the indicated irspeed it gives true airspeed*. True airspeed is jigher than indicated by approximately two percent for every thousand feet of altitude, This is because the air becomes less dense as the airplane goes up in altitude, and the differential pressure is less, causing the indicated airspeed to be lower. Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators Airplanes have for years been limited in their maximum airspeed by structural considerations-If you fly too fast, the air loadsmay be greater than the structure can stand. But by the end of World War Il, airplanes had become so strong and so fast that a new limit was imposed, that being an aerodynamic limit. ‘As airplane speed approaches the speed of sound, shock waves form on the structure and produce buffeting and serious control problems. To prevent an airplane flying fast enough for shock waves to form, therefore, the airspeed must be restricted to a value below the critical Mach number*, As the airplane changes altitude, the indicated airspeed for the limiting Mach number changes, so a fixed red line on the airspeed indicator is not adequate. Airplanes whose design makes them susceptible to shock wave formation use maximum allowable airspeed indicators. Fig. 19. The svped pointer is attached {oan altimeter mechani Imoves to's loner aispeed a8 the aeplane goes up im al + Fig. 19- In the same case, and with a pointer coaxial with the airspeed indicator pointer, is an altimeter mechanism with a wide red checkered or striped pointer which indicates the maximum airspeed the pilot may fly at any given altitude. b. True Airspeed Indicator ‘The pilot can read his airspeed indicator, altimeter, and outside air-temperature gage and apply these three indications to his flight computer to come up with his true airspeed~TAS. Doing all this may be too distracting a procedure, however, and a true airspeed indicator may be installed in the panel. Fig. 20 is a true airspeed indicator manufactured by ALCOR Aviation, Inc. ‘The case of this instrument holds both an airspeed indicator which moves the pointer and an altimeter mechanism which moves the dial. ‘The movement of the altimeter mechanism. is affected--opposed or aided-—-by the action of a bimetallic spring exposed to outside airflow, and, as the airplane goes up in altitude, the dial rotates in such a direction that the pointer will indicate a higher value. If the air is warmer than standard for the altitude the airplane is flying, the temperature sensor will assist the altimeter to cause the true airspeed reading to be higher than under standard temperature conditions. Aleor “This re airspeed indicator modifies the airspeed indication by moving {he alin reaponse fo alttode and temperature [density] changes - Fig. 20- 2c. Machmeter Mach number is the ratio of the airspeed of the plane to the speed of sound in the same air conditions. To measure the Mach number, the airspeed indicator has its output Altimeter mechan Machaeter— am a ‘Simodibed by an aitcter, modified by an altimeter mechanism, Fig. 21 This expands as the airplane gains altitude, decreasing the movement of the pointer for a given expansion of the airspeed diaphragm. With this type of mechanism, the dial of the instrument may be made linear. ator mechanism mhoxe output + Fig. 21- QUESTIONS: 12. What two pressures are compared in an airspeed indicator? 13. As an airplane goes higher, does the true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed increase or decrease? 14. What drives the maximum allowable pointer in a maximum allowable airspeed indicator? 15. What corrections must be applied to indicated airspeed to produce true irspeed? 16. What is meant by Mach Number? SSEA V UN ewes so oS SSS SN Baro adjstment sree VERTICAL SPEED OR RATE OF CLIMB INDICATOR - Fig. 22- 6. Vertical Speed Indicator [Rete of Climb} It is important that a pilot be able to establish a climb or descent that will allow him to gain or lose a given amount of altitude in a given amount of time; so a vertical speed indicator has become one of the required instruments for IFR flying. The vertical speed indicator is a lag-type instrument, as it measures the rate of pressure change--and pressure must be changing before it can be measured. There have been sev- eral types of mechanisms used for this, but that in Fig. 22 illustrates the basic operating principle. ‘The works are housed in a vacuum-insulated container to prevent cockpit temperature affecting the reading. Air from the static port enters both the measuring and overpressure diaphragms 4 directly and goes into the case through a diffuser, a very fine calibrated leak. When the airplane ascends or descends, the pressure inside the diaphragms changes immediately, while that in the case changes more slowly. This creates a differential pressure which causes the pointer to move over the dial to indicate the rate of pressure change. When the airplane levels off, the pressure inside the case becomes the same as that in the diaphragms, and the needle returns to zero. 7. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator ‘The ordinary vertical speed indicator whose indication lags the pressure change is not, of as much value as it would be if it had no lag. For this reason, the instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) has been developed. An IVSI uses a vertical speed indicator mechanism in the case“Teledyne Avionics Calibrated teak The instantaneous vertical speed indicator uses accelerometer acuated wading cute an ination change when he xine Ditches, belore there ia pressure change - Fig. 23- with an accelerometer-operated pump, or dashpot, across the diaphragm. When the airplane noses cover to begin a descent, the inertia of the accelero- meter piston causes it to move upward, instantane- ously increasing the pressure inside the diaphragm and lowering the pressure at the diffuser. This gives an immediate indication of a descent. By the time the lag of the ordinary vertical speed instru- ment has been overcome so it will indicate the descent, there is no more inertia from the nose- down rotation and the piston is again centered, making the instrument ready to indicate instantly the levelling off from the descent. 1s QUESTIONS: 17. What does a vertical speed indicator actually measure? 18. What type of device causes an_instan- taneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) to give the pilot an immediate indication of pitch?16 SECTION Il: TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS A. TYPES OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 1. Non-Electrical To make any kind of temperature measurement, we must realize that an increase in heat, which is what we are actually measuring, causes most materials to expand, and this expansion is usually pretty much linear--that is, the dimensions change just about the same amount for any given temperature change, regardless of the part of the scale it is on. This characteristic of dimension change with temperature may be used with liquids, solids, or gases. a, Expansion of a Liquid A glass tube having a tiny bore and a fairly large bulb on its end, filled with mercury or alcohol, is well known to all of us as the thermometer used in medicine, photography, and to measure the air temperature in our homes. This finds a very limited use around airplanes, however, because it is difficult to read and easy to break. b. Expansion of a Solid The outside air temperature gage we see sticking through the windshield of most light airplanes is one of our most familiar applications of the expansion of a solid to measure temperature, Fig. 24. The measuring element of this gage is a metal strip made up of two dissimilar metals welded together. This strip is twisted and attached at one end to a pointer with the other end attached to the case of theinstrument, As the temperature changes, the metals expand in different amounts and the strip twists, moving the pointer over the dial. c. Expansion of a Gas Most of the oil temperature gages in our light aircraft are actually pressure gages. A bulb, a capillary tube, and a bourdon tube are all sealed together and filled with methy! chloride--a gas at ordinary room temperature, but, a liquid if held under pressure. The vapor pressure, that pressure required to keep the vapors in the liquid, is fairly high and is proportional to the temperature. The bulb is placed where the temperature is to be measured, and, as the temperature changes, the vapor pressure of the methyl chloride changes. This is read by the bourdon tube pressure gage which is calibrated in units of temperature rather than pressure, Fig. 25. “The pressretype temperatre indicator uses a beutdon tube fe measure the vapor presaure ofthe liquid in the bulb and capilry Fig. 25- 2. Electrical a. Resistance Change The electrical properties of metals, as well as their physical dimensions, alter with temperature change. This charac- teristic is used when measuring the temperature of outside air, carburetor air, oil, and even the cylinder heads in our modern aircraft. A fine nickel wire wound on a mica core, Fig. 26, is placed where the measurement is to be taken. STEM-SENSITIVE NICKEL WIRE RESISTANCE-TYPE TEMPERATURE BULB - Fig. 26- Some bulbs are stem-sensitive, Fig. 27-A, some tip-sensitive, 27-B, and some fit flush with the airplane skin to measure outside air tempera- ture, 27-C. aANs7952 ansmna 150] oo S58 Ball resistance, given in ohms There are two standard calibrations of resistance bubs, one with 50 ohms Where degrees Cand the o ‘There are two basic calibrations of these bulbs, ‘one having a resistance of 50.00 ohms at zero degrees C. and the other with a resistance of 90.38 ‘ohms at zero degrees C. These temperature resistance curves are shown in Fig. 28. Resistance-type temperature measurements may be made with either a Wheatstone bridge-type indicator or with a ratiometer. ‘The Wheatstone bridge, Fig. 29, operates on the principle of controlling the flow of current through the indicator by varying the resistance of one of the legs of the bridge. In Fig. 29, if the ratio of Ry/Rg is the same as Ro/X, the bridge will be balanced and the voltage at point B will be the same as that at point C. No current will flow through the indicator. When the temperature measured by the bulb increases, the resistance of the bulb will also increase, as will the voltage drop across it ogi ohms a Zero degrees C WHEATSTONE BRIDGE-TYPE RESISTANCE THERMOMETER + Fig. 29-‘This makes the voltage at point C higher than at Point B, so current will flow through the indicator. If the resistance of the bulb drops below that required to balance the bridge, the voltage at point C will be low enough for current to flow through the indicator in the opposite direction. ‘There are two types of ratiometer indicators, both measuring the ratio of the current through the bulb and that through resistors in the indicator. By measuring a ratio of current, the indicator is less affected by variations in line voltage than a Wheatstone bridge. ‘One form of ratiometer uses two coils moving in a non-uniform air gap in a permanent magnet, Fig. 30-A. When the bulb resistance is low, current flows through C ; to ground and drives the pointer toward the low side of the scale. When the resistance of the bulb is high, it is easier for current to flow through Cp to ground and the pointer will move across the scale to the high side. Fig. 31 illustrates a more rugged type of ratio- meter indicator; rugged, in that the moving ele- ‘ment is a small permanent magnet with much less mass than the two moving coils, and having no hairsprings since no current flows in the moving element. When the bulb resistance is low, current flows through resistor A, the low end coil, and the bulb to ground. The magnetic field of the low coil pulls the permanent magnet over so that the pointer indicates at the low end of the scale. As the temperature and the bulb resistance increase, current begins to flow through resistors B, C, the te To ground wus | thou tow end ‘co MOVING MAGNET RATIOMETER - Fig. 31 high end coil, and resistor D to ground. The pointer will then move over to the high end of the dial Most ratiometer temperature indicators may ub MOVING Cll. RATIOMETER - Fig. 30-4 thermocouple system i propertons the temperature diflerence between the two ends - Fig. 32 - be used in either 14- or 28-volt airplanes. Hit is installed in a 28-volt system, power enters the indicator through pin A so that the voltage can be dropped by a resistor to 14 volts. If it is installed in a 14-volt airplane, power comes in through pin D, bypassing the dropping resistor. ‘Troubleshooting these systems is not at all complicated. A small drift magnet in the fixed coil meter and the hairsprings in the movable coil models pull the pointer off scale on the low side when the power is off. If the meter fails to operate when the power is turned on, the trouble is either no power to the indicator or else the bulb is shorted, indicating zero resistance. To tell which problem you have, tap the instrument case; if there is no power, the pointer will bounce up slightly, but if the bulb is shorted, the pointer will be held off scale so tightly the pointer cannot bounce up. If there is an open circuit in the bulb, the indicator will see an infinite resistance and will peg off-scale on the high side. » Voltage Generation If wires made of certain dissimilar metals are welded together into a loop, a voltage will be generated between the two junctions that is proportional to the difference in temperature between the two ends. The voltage is in the order of millivolts and varies with the metals, Fig. 32. ——_—_——_—_—_——— QUESTIONS: 19. How can temperature be measured with a pressure gage? 20. Does the resistance of most metals increase or decrease with an increase of tem- perature? 21. What indication would be given by an open circuited resistance bulb?weceen =z, Constantan*, an alloy of copper and nickel, may be used with either iron or copper to form the thermocouple for measuring cylinder head temperatures of reciprocating engines. Copper and constantan have been used in the past for this purpose, but the range was somewhat limited, and since the combination of iron and constantan has a higher useful temperature range, it is presently the most widely used couple for reciprocating engines. Turbine engine installa- tions use chromel and alumel to determine exhaust gas temperature or tail pipe temperature. In reciprocating engines, this combination is used for exhaust gas temperature and for turbine inlet temperature for exhaust-driven turbochargers. Fig. 33 shows the millivolt output for the three most commonly used thermocouples. The junction of the thermocouple at the engine is called the measuring junction, and the end inside the instrument case is the cold, or reference, junction. A voltage is generated at both junctions, and when the temperature is the same at each end, the voltages cancel each other If one end is hotter than the other, a voltage will be present and current will flow in the wires, For the vast majority of temperature measure- ments in airplanes, it is this current that is measured. Voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions, and for current to reflect this, the resistance must be held constant. Two standard values have been chosen for aircraft, thermocouples: two ohms, most often used on single-engine aircraft, and eight ohms, more often used on multi-engine installations. It is not normally practical to cut the leads with exactly the correct resistance, so a resistor, Fig. 34, consisting of two spools of contantan wire, may be inserted in the negative Tead to adjust the resistance. The lead is installed, and the negative wire is cut at some convenient location THERMOCOUPLE LEAD RESISTOR Fig. 34- Chrome slamel 2 Iron constanten as 8 Copperpaoor>rueyszeomrorvunnoosteeryos