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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~wJAy
s 3.4
........................
OJ : Og| Q| < ~wJAy 1.3.4
?q q ? y9Aty Q 9ay OJ Og| Q| Qf 1.1.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?vQ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~wJAy
Qf p 9qzMAy 2.3.4
........................
OJ : Og| Q| < ~wJAy 3.3.4
..
9 ay ?aS < ?DJAT 9<P<Py Qa Ty 9qY 4.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?D O
~wJAy ? Qd 5.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {Wqy
| 9t=y Qp y 4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|;Ty
9| 1.4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qp y
Of 2.4.4
.
}G
vv
269
vv
G(vv
fG vv+vv
G(
fG
vv G e vv
vv"vv
vv+vv
vv
}G
+Fh J
G JG
vv+vv$ vv CGh J vv
vv
vv G
}G
277
}G
G(
fG +
; J G +F
288
G #+!G(
294
QG
v v+v vBG
300
+ v v v G I vF v
v G QG
v! G d
G d
v v
v C Ih v
AG
306
G Ih
313
314
QG
Q +
G(
G d
CG J
Gh I
G J
318
319
319
321
1.4
AG
G #
Gh f
15
( G JGOG
Gh I
}G
( G
h<GQyG {ZqyG
323
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O+I(AyGh B*(ZAyG
329
.................................
330
........................
n
cQAW G b} yG {Wp J:9I
5.4.4
332
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?"*9=ACG IQp(yG
6.4.4
335
..........................................
335
..............................
337
............................
337
......................................
339
....................................
340
.........................................
340
.........................................
J9
340
.....................................
340
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ?zIQy9< ~wJAyG
346
......................
349
........
350
. . . . . . . . . ?"*9=ACG
351
......................
352
..........................
352
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtCG
355
...............
358
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*QZ=yG
361
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+p9\E
363
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h\ yG
363
.................................................
364
.............................
364
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtCG
,f9<QyG e9d"yG ?+"< 4.4.4
J9
"
,}sQyG P+q"AyG 5.4
,}sQyG P+q"AyG JGR+F 1.5.4

+
!+
? }sQyG J9 9 =yG {v9W|
3.4.4
aGOQAS:G
2.5.4
1.2.5.4
! + #$h 2.2.5.4
J 9 9 = yG
(}wyG 3.2.5.4
+HQ=yG 3.5.4
C 1.3.5.4
? | Ot G
+HQ< rF9ch 2.3.5.4
J9
+HQ=yG Q*(a@ ?+z}f 3.3.5.4
+HQ=yG ?+I;Yh ?JY #| utJAyG 4.3.5.4
J9
hC QGOY
+HQ=yG 5.3.5.4
G IOOgA G J9
+z
+ ;h {WqyG W9}!C 4.5.4

w
A(]y9< fGQ+ayG ?zIQ< ~wJAyG 6.4
JGQ C AyG { z
1.6.4
(]y9< fGQ+ayG ?zIQ< ~wJAyG ?}d!C 2.6.4
b9tAVGh
C 3.6.4
JGQgWAT G
GPyG Q
YQ9TAyG U
16
JGAGQs
ZtyG JGQgWAT| : U|9
+*9t|h
C 1.5
?|Ot G
JGhQ
+@G 2.5
1.2.5
{ZqyG
366
q
jhGRyG cQJAyG ?+}v JGhQ+F 2.2.5
......................
? S9S G O9= Gh ?|Ot G 1.2.2.5

n
k
370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 w |9 O ryG G hQ G 2.2.2.5
?v y69v < IQGO G IRv Av G ?v zv Av wv yG JGP ?v v fQv Tv yG JGhQv v G 3.2.5
376 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?t sOyG
381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? QZ=yG JGhQ G 4.2.5
381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|Ot G 1.4.2.5
n
386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tz G QR zyG hQ F 2.4.2.5
395 . . . . . . . . . . LGOAyG S9 t G hP jQZ=yG r zyG hQ F 3.4.2.5
407 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . YQ9TAyG U 9t| 5.2.5
407 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? f yG I tyG S9 s v v v ?|Ot G 1.5.2.5
k
408 . . b T=yG 9 vQ= R O t G hO =yG YQ9TAyG S9 t| 2.5.2.5
eRv vf fGRv v v v| Y v v hP hOv v v v=v vyG YQ9v vTv vAv vyG S9v v v vtv v| 3.5.2.5
410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fGQhOyG
414 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qh9J G ry9MA G QgWAT G JGOGOfE 6.2.5
416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h\ yG b9tAVG 3.5
416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|Ot G 1.3.5
417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IQtAT G ?Z G ?}d C 2.3.5
n o
420 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~wJ}vyG B =DAyG ?}d C 3.3.5
422 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h\ yG J9 |RQG L 1.3.3.5
n
?vv}vv wvv Jvv}o v v yG y?vv8vv p9vv w G IQvvtvv AvvT G ?vv Zvv Gz O y vv @ 2.3.3.5
429 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B =DAyG
? }sQyG ? 9g G 3.3.3.5
432 . . . . . . . . . . h\ yG J9 |RQG
434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? _hQM G ?vQ G 4.3.5
,? y9v v v }v v v Wv v v yG ? zv v v J G Qh9v v v J G E ?v v v =v v v Tv v v v v v y9v v v < hv v v \ v v v yG 5.3.5
436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? zqTyGh ,? sQWyGh
436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|Ot G 1.5.3.5
q
438 . . . VQ G fGQhOy ? hGRyG ?fQTyG J9J JZ@ 2.5.3.5
366
....................
"*
(C
%C
+@
+@
+@
C
+ C
+*
("
v
+ C [
(!
"
"
"C
"C
+ (
(B
C ]
"
17
n G J
3.5.3.5
439
C G G G 4.5.3.5
442
G G G 5.5.3.5
443
e G
G
6.3.5
444
E JGAG
448
449
G O Gh G 1.6
449
G 1.1.6
449
G J G 2.1.6
459
p
k
G
G p G C 3.1.6
462
G GQ
465
p G 2.6
G 1.2.6
465
h
G O G 2.2.6
467
G Qh 3.2.6
480
q
hG G G
Oh 1.3.2.6
481
YQ G
Oh 2.3.2.6
482
h g G h FG G a
G 4.2.6
485
G h G aG G 5.2.6
490
C G G I 6.2.6
491
496
p G J G E JGQ 7.2.6
n
o
G vG G GQ
8.2.6
497
pG e
r
499 f J h o v G G G Q
p G C 3.6
g Gh
G G 4.6
511
G 1.4.6
511
G eG
G G G 2.4.6
518
G G G
G e G 5.6
527
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=vQC ?fQS
9J+JZ@
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+S Qy ?=s QC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+A}Ty ?=s QC
...........................
9AAC K+VQAy #f ?|Ot|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+p9\
Qs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?I;Cp G ?}d!C :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+S9S}
9=C
?|OtC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?I;}zy ?+S9S}
9q*QgAy
. . . . . . . . . 9+<9TI hs(C Q*OtA< ?+S9S} ?I;C ?}d!

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O Py
(Zty9< ?I;C
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qy(V r+y(@
?+S9S}
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Z"C
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*
Ry ?fQTy K+JZ@
......................
.........
Q+@9<
9TAy K+JZ@
9:: O*O;
OI
OI
9qaY:
Q+@
QG! Q+Cz@
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? + S Q y ? I; C
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? I; C
...
9C9v
9JVQ|
........................
9+C OI
(Zty9< ?I;C
?!9g} y
O Py
9 ::
9I
, O A< :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,A}Ty
. B+=DAy ~wJ} y O Py
9=C
9"s
9 +L
9d! ?=S(I
(Zty9< ?I;C ?}d!
h\(zy ?+gFQC ?}d!}
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtC
. . . ,T+_9"j| ,$9: hFQ|
OMAS9< ?+A}Ty ?=s QC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,p Qj@ hs(C O*OJAy ,C9gy
18
9d"y
SO9TyG
{ZqyG
527
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtCG
529
. . . . . . . . ,pGQj@G hs(CG O*OJAy ,C9gyG
1.5.6
9d"yG rYh 2.5.6
9 =CG 3.5.6
hvvvvvs(CG Ovvvvv*OvvvvvJvvvvvAvvvvvy ,C9vvvvvgvvvvvyG e9vvvvvdvvvvv"vvvvvzvvvvvy ?vvvvv+vvvvvS9vvvvvS}G

532
.........................................
539
..............................
O vvvvv
,pGQj@G
:O9g| {I 4.5.6
?I;Cp G
9 dvv!h ,vvpGQvvjvv@G hvvs(CG Ovv*OvvJvvAvvy ,C9vvgvvyG e9vvdvv"vvyG {vv|9vvwvv@ 5.5.6
e vv
541
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OGPyG
Zty9< ?I;CG
542
. . . . . . . \\9qAyG ,pGQj@G hs(CG O*OJAy ,C9gyG
542
.....................................
543
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+S9S}G
Q(
9d"yG 6.5.6
?|OtCG 1.6.5.6
9=CG 2.6.5.6
RgCG ,f9"ZyG Q}ty9< ?I;CG ?}d!C 7.5.6
?+z=tATCG
549
......
552
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U*Q9]AyG ^f IO}AgCG ?I;CG
552
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtCG
1.6.6
554
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U*Q9]AyG ?%=F ?I;|
2.6.6
556
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U*Q9]AyG [F9ZL ?t<9a|
3.6.6
556
. . . . U*Q9]AyG ^f IO}AgCG ?I;}zy POCG
557
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+p9\E
559
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(@G
559
.................................................
560
...................
560
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(@G
563
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9%A+GCh ?*(@G
563
..............
IR
J9!9+=yG
9+azy ?*(@G
?vvv*(vvv!9vvvDvvvyG ?vvv}vvvdvvv!~vvvy ?vvv*(vvv@G
9!9+=yG
;jAS:G 4.6.6
JGAG
Qs
?}d!Ch ?*(@G J9!9+=yG :
9%|GOMASGh ?*(@G
6.6
9!9+=yG
9|(zg| 2.7
9!9+=yG
9!9+=yG
?|OtCG 1.7
9+s 1.2.7
9+}v 2.2.7
9|(zg| 1.2.2.7
9 |(vvvzvvvgvvv| 2.2.2.7
9 9 =y
J vvv! vvv+vvv vvv G J vvv
566
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|9%yG
570
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(@G
571
. . . . . . . . . #v9TyG bj]yGh
9!9+=yG
9s;fh #+!G(s
9tAVG 3.7
9q@Q:G bj\ #+< ?s;gyG 1.3.7
19
h<9TyG {ZqyG
578
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+\Q}G bj\ Q+j@
2.3.7
580
...................
3.3.7
581
.....................................
584
.....................
588
..........................................
590
..............................
592
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #v9TyG
594
.............................
594
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bj]yG A9aLC
596
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=S(AGh ?*(@G
596
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|OtCG
1.4.7
597
. . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(@G
2.4.7
597
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?sOyG
600
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bj]yG
609
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(@G
613
.........................
614
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+p9\E
615
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?zIQyG
615
.................................................
618
......................................
618
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+S9S}G
Y9q@Q:Gh AG(%yG ?p9Dv #+< ?s;gyG
J(ZyG ?fQS
4.3.7
?fQTyGh bj]yG #+< J9s;gyG
5.3.7
N9| OOf
6.3.7
n
IQ*9gCG ?*(@G ?fQTyG
7.3.7
AG(%yG IQGQI ?FQO
8.3.7
?+t+tAG ?*(@G ?fQTyG
9.3.7
10.3.7
J9!9+=yG JGQgWAT|
p
J9!9+=yG e9d"y bj]yG JGQgWAT|

p
J9=zaA|
1.2.4.7
JGQgWAT| ?+"t@
2.2.4.7
J9!9+=yG ?=S(I
3.4.7
W(tTyG ?*hGR JGQgWAT|

p
4.4.7
IQGOEh
..................................
........................
[6G Q9+ayG ?}d!C
2.8
O9=CG
1.2.8
Y9q@Q:9< ~wJAyG
2.2.8
g9::9< ~wJAzy [6G Q9+ayG
w
623
..
g9::9< ~wJAzy [6G Q9+ayG ^f d(zI d9D|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,q*hhQw+CG
20
3.2.8
1.3.2.8
e9vdv!/[6G W(v=v%vyG e9vdv"v< fQvAvtCG [6G Q9v+vavy9v< ~vwvJvAvyG

634
?}d C :
1.8
v
621
?|OtCG
w
619
JGAGQs
[6 9+ay
G Q
4.7
W(=%yG
4.2.8
#|9Dy
{ZqyG
Y(yG O9VQE ?}d!C 1.4.2.8
634
.......................
638
.........................
639
..
641
= y 9 dv v"v vy ,v vS}G QGOv vJv v!:G LGhORG IhQv vf 4.4.2.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [6G
642
.......................................
642
.....................................
645
...........
646
= z y ?vv+vv=vv*QvvGvvAvvyG IOvvI(vvzvvy [6G W(vv=vv%v yG e9vvdvv! 3.5.2.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )}f}G
648
........................
651
..............
653
................
654
......................................
654
............................................
659
.....................................
662
..................................
664
..................
666
...............
668
..................................
669
........................
672
.............................................
673
...........................
673
..........................................
685
.....................................
685
.......................
686
............
d(
Q ayG bL ?+vQI 2.4.2.8
fG +
x
6G W(=%yG e9d"y hs(CG OOI LGhORG IhQf 3.4.2.8
W(v v v v%v v G e v v
6G W(=%yG 5.2.8
?|OtCG 1.5.2.8
6G Q9+ayG J9=zaA|h ?*DQyG J98p 2.5.2.8
W(vv vv%v vv
O}Ay9< [6G ~wJAyG 4.5.2.8
?+f9"ZyG Q9}s}9< W(=%yG O9VQE ?}d!C 6.2.8

w
6G u!9BG ?}d!Ch ?fQTy9< ~wJAyG 7.2.8
=@
?zIQyG IQGOE ?}d!C 3.8

?|OtCG 1.3.8
?zIQyG b+a< 2.3.8

9VQ
Gh
?I;Cp G 3.3.8
Q ayG bL _T; 4.3.8
AGO}G JG| " h fG +
SCQyG fGQ+ayG bL >!G(G< ~wJAyG 5.3.8

O
?+z+jWAyG W9}!}G 6.3.8
9g<}G ?+f9<QyG ?zIQyG IQGOE 7.3.8

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1.1
Importance and role of avionics
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0 0 1
, '
%
+( 0% $G
",
+

f /
/',
/((lb) 0
)

5 0 .
5= (3
B
?
A,
.0, 0.22 +
, "( J, 3
/
" J G RB % 3
3 D
!
E+ ;- (7.1) 0!
! 0.22 5
$ B
3 4
* 1 9 (N/m2) 2 /
O
SI $ , A E5
103 bar = 1
=+ (millibar (mb))

.(Pascal (Pa))

(bar) 61 * J5
9 ,\$/1
% K1 [ A % = E5 *TB

$% .(BARometric)
49
100 = 1

$% 100 kPa 9 105 N/m2 = 1
=

.100 Pa 9 N/m2
. 1
% &' (
! "# $
:(7.1)
*2 $/1 "$% L+ # (foot) ,$ <

P Q &
' P Q & O
(Air Traffic Control)

% 2 1
.,$2# F
,
"$%

# "$%
&
* ,\$/10 "$% L+ # (knot) "\$q J5
9 F

! 1
(nautical ! 1 * 3$% 3
% I
3
= 1 "$% "\$q ! .%I- ' 61
1 ;! O * = 1
3$% 3
% I
3
mile (NM) per hour)
> # 1 O "$%
2$ $
* > #
.* > / " F

*
% .( J 1852 9) ,$2 6076.1155 = 1
= % *
1
O ;! 1 knot = 0.5144 m/s 2I ;

B/ ; "$
1 knot 0.5 $
Q
*
% .1 m/s = 1.9438 knots X'
.1 m/s 2 knots 9 m/s
50

Displays and ManMachine Interaction

1.2
Introduction

$ $ $' * +' (%& )
!"# $
1-
2 4
3 56 , 7 8 +7 ., -.
$ /
:+ 94'" +
: " 9
.," "2 ,=
<
.,=>!
<
. '=

<
. 5'7

<
.,

<
:

.: = = ,2 !"#
<
.
<
51
.,'' ,

<
.,="2 ?
<
.

<
9 $ ' @ ' " A ?" $ & $

$' B= , ?. C $ D $ E
F
+ , 5" , G H8= ?. ' 9,"
$ 5 J $"= .I ., 5 : F =
$ . = . -.2 ,
$2 " :.K 87 9,
: L87 ,M 2
.NJ O
<
.8P + ,Q'
<
.H ,

R
<
. & Q ,
R ,'= P
<
.,
F ,
<
,
" +'8 %
,
%P"
<
.(intelligent knowledge based system (IKBS))

$ , 5 + $P C , 5 5M 2 %J
<
. % 2 5=

+ :" = 51 ' % :+ $
,
56 + %'= Q ," 7 ,S $ "
K $ 5 J
E 48 5 . 7 87 9TP .
5 PK $
'
= 8 H D J = . "
52
H ,
.N" 5' $S %UP"* H ," D J
5 P %
?' + ' V
,= $S 6 + >'
$S ""/ % + 8

K ,
.,'" $ . 5. +
N . A , .,
,'" $ 5' + . 5'
' YJP Z= $ $' * ," /, >WP# ," , D"
8 , ./, $ . 5. + 5 : + .
%P" 5 4. +
5 PK TP2 5 " .=
.$ N[
87 ?
. N . ,6 = 5 ,= " = + $' G $
% 7F -' % 98 .?' ]"# ^ $ $' 48 \
:, N + ,
R ," "2 _ = ,
%
.(2.2 %") NJ O
<
.(3.2 %") 8P + ,Q'
<
.(4.2 %") ' $ # 4 %
<
%") 8P + ,Q' 5 NJ O ,&

<
.(5.2
.(6.2 %") YJP
O
<
.(7.2 %")
V

<
.(8.2 %") ,'8
<
.(9.2 %") ,

<
.(10.2 %")
5 P %`'=
<
53
!
"
2.2
Head up displays
1.2.2
Introduction

+ Y + $S = . % %[ $ C $
O V
5) .NJ O , +. 5 PK $ '
, . + 1962 % , P + P 9N& + 9NJ
.(= ,' + (Buccaneer)
'
$ "
K $ 5 J + ' $["= Z= NJ O , =
a & D B= (man-machine interaction (MMI)) ,S
,
2 !"# ," Q ," "2 ,=
% ,b
5 ' 4 -' : N NJ E" + .
.+. P %
P + R"# YU "c " " % NJ O , $
, $ 5
d ' ,b $ $' B= NJ O + 2
$' F Y " ," "2 , 72 .& OJ
+ +. P %
-Q'# 4 9R"# Y $
R 2 .' 5J a=F = %" 7'/
F , - ,b ,- $c 9(, , " ) ,
F

N 9" 9, ,W' - $ B= O ,'= N 6
% : $ >
e ' T $ a & 8 $' .+. P %

L . 6 ,. = $ = & + ,
+. P
: " ? - 9
H>P : P . F .$
-'
,W' , , = + ,="2 ? $ P E1.
%W] U 7 5 =) . O ,'= $
H 9 H
C= 8 H $ H=
" ? , > .8
, > %P"
.(
H>P +7 7 L87
. O
54

%$(
6<67(06
R R

SLWFK DQJOH
DLUVSHHGEDQNDQJOH

) * .
! % & '( $$

! "#
2- 345 +

,
#- # / -0 1!
!!9 * 5# 45 .8# ( 9 55 67
%!> -> <-# 6>
9; < /2- =+
,
$$
=# 67 =+
,
$$ # 54 ! %- +
,

!
& # 6> ?@#
A57
B 54 - .59 !
&
.
-
> /2- CD
B E59 %"# ! #
&
.9; < #F- $$ (2.2) $ C
.(BAE SYSTEMS )

:(2.2)
$c 9: = = ,2 , 2 ,b !"# %P"

+= % ?' $ $' % ,'
D" P ,' .NJ O , D" P ,'

% : = = ,2 , 2 ,b " $ ,
-J
+. P % N = =
- NJ O , "
56
87 .5 O + 5 + YJP

T" $ $ $' *
," ,
,2 , . >! +& + %. ,
'
,3 9," ,b 5 . 8 $' $ ? NJ O , . "
. a=F E= %" ' 95 =

:5M ? "2 ,
+ $S ' % NJ O ,
,= NJ O + Y ,/ - -1
9 $ P E. 4 H C8 + ," "2
D f
[ & 5M H - $ N 5 C 4b
.,. ,'=/O 4 J
(wind shear)
+ $ / $ $' +S Y -2
%
,& %' 9? ,.
. ,J ,b H
+ L8P % (taxiway) +
. VU] U K Y .+S
. F
NJ O , D" P ,'
%P" ,
R"=# ,b -3
% : = = ,2 , 2 ,b , "K
+ ?Q'# : = = ,2 , 2 ,b !"# $ +. P
!"# $ ,.
+. P % ,
9
L87 ,
R"=# ,b ,
. + , 2 ,b 4
H + $ $' *" , J 7 4.
E. ,
/ -R. G + ,
. ,J ,b
%
) (ILS) +S %
5M O 5= N . ,"

.((MLS) +J'
.,
NJ O , ' (3.2) 5' $3
57
BAE SYSTEMS VGS :(3.2)
.(BAE SYSTEMS ) 800737 ' !"

#$ %&

2.2.2
Basic Principles
G
.(4.2) $ * C =+
,
$$ *; <

,
$$ (combiner glass) *##" =AH#B IJ *#
J /

M
7
7 *##" =AH#B .((windshield) *; C
<#9) =+

5! N-O E9 7
F+-> %+ IJ

-; AH#B 6 .*; C
<#9 *##" =AH#B IJ &

.IJ *&
*#
J / = 5P5B $$ "

=# /!

?$B 2- 5 $$ "
0 1(4.2) $ 6> )#

/ (# - /2- (INS) *F
! 9I? /2- )
&
$$
9
NF 5 / .(CRT) 5 $ <- C 67
7

%J; Q C9 $$
/! A9H
B 57 2- IJ
P9H
B $$
NF 5 ,- ./2- * G
J !

2 *
58
55 /! * 55 57 6> / 1@*R M

90o
4 "
;
# 6> *##" =AH#B 5 ,- * $$

*S -T 5-7 -U

2 $$ "

5!
.

<
67 9 9 *O @* M
+2 .O55 5-7 5 / 5$

! * - 9 4 =+
,
$$ VS$V E9 S

.

. #" "( )

:(4.2)
$ - Z=" NJ O , 42 " ," "2 , 72

.g
% V = $8 : 5.2 D

R= 4b # 8 4 %
E
/ 1"# HR#
4b T" ,
R ,
$ : , .4b T"
$ , &
' 9,2 $ ,- , . ' " %
$ VP
.,
F

, N " " a"
(?) () (5.2) $>' $3
4b T" D ,
O -'
$ , "
-' 5>P 48 4b T" ,
$ % \ .+
59
,M
TP2 ,2 .H=
G \ E
/ E "'
F "
.1"# $ .P H=
G \ ,- . ,
$

$ N
* 9N& + 9" ," $ K .
.=
$ , G ? $ 5
-h 5'
7! # $ () (5.2) 5' $ =>
$ $'

,- C B A $ N
O ,
T" 4 =
.4 = $ $ ,=- F O ,
,b

,- $ (?) (5.2) 5' $ =>
$ $' 9, OJ

F C B A $ N "J
+7 D ,
!7 # $
.5
F
.

:(5.2)
" " E 9N& + 9, "'

F NJ O , 4 %

$ 5. $ ,2 " %" % .(6.2) 5' + $3 4 " %
A

$ N N , E O D
!7 # T
$ "J
+7 E O D
,b
- $ ,=> $' .C B
60
) N F 8 R"# , .C B A

9 " a
.
,- $ (5

, ,
4
3 $ ,M
,2 $2 9,
F

' ,
." %
$ .P ,- .
.D= 5' 7" ?. , $ K .
,
$ % :
%UP"# D (decollimation) ">
.," D" 5 ' - 4 %
C F , ,
3
4b H :+" C8 9ZJ 9N . $ : $'
87 ZP $ =2 Y + . O C=
, %]
U
.$ MG 4b $ = $' N . , = + 9i % C"
(field of view

& '(
) ! "! ! # $ %(FOV))
* !
,/ 0 "! .* +&, (
- *("
00 8- 9: 4!
5 6
-7 1*- 2/ 3
" 8- +& 2 2; 0 *0 +
' !
. <07 9' 1'
.*+
"
, -
& :(6.2)
(instantaneous field of ,= ,b 5 . $ - % $

, (total field of view (TFOV)) ,' ,b 5 . view (IFOV))
61
4 "'
F \
, = + Y 5M " $
MF $2 NJ O
.NJ O ,
b $' + ,3- ,6 7 ,= ,b 5 .
+ " +P %" + ,
3 +7 ,
3 ,= 4
3
!7 # ,"
+
9L 9, " 9D 9" ," & $ "= $' .() (7.2) 5'
." ," $ !7 #
IFOV = 2 tan 1 D / 2 L
+ CRT , ,' ,3- ,6 7 ,' ,b 5 .
$ TFOV ? "= $' .!7 # +
N C= Z $ b $'
.F 9" ," 5 3J 4b 9A 9, &
TFOV = 2 tan 1 A / 2 F
5' + D 7 ' ,= ,b 5 . - L , & YJP
$ , J' E !7 # , $ N ? $3 48 (?) (7.2)
O 87 $c 9C8 N .TFOV N IFOV T " $ 5. $ " ,"
. "'
F %P" NJ O , $ 4 \
N &
,= " & $ N ,"
7 & ?" 87
.TOFV +MM = +7 IFOV $c % 5' ." ," &
O C= E
(V) (7.2) 5' $ =>
$ $'
5 . $ aJP :-. T $ $' !7 # $c ?
. 5J"
.6 F ,= ,b 5 . $ $ %G 9,' ,b
62
.(TFOV) 0 (IFOV) / 0 :(7.2)

- PW @H9 IJ
2- O
U
( *J $ FO .(8.2) $ * ( O 155 5
5!

# 1(!- =!) - I *&
29
#
.
# 1* 67 6- G
*&
29
+ Uj # %*P 5>P $ %& ' 7

:. $'
# G NJ O , ,b 5 . f P L87 9V "
.(knot hole effect) U# %*P M/ %"
.L
P -. NJ O , % + ,
R
63
?
, & +7 ," 36 9,
3 ,' ,b 5 . 4
3 2
5= ." ," %
5 3J 4b (CRT) M ' ,
4b # CRT , 6 & 7 ? $c 9+ %.= $-

' & 8 " ," ,. = 5
- % 5 L87 .&
$ = " $8 9' 4b # ,= ,b 5 . & 5=
75 mm $ = % 5' " ," & .,k&! & 5=
,= " & ," ( 7 3) 175 mm
= "' ,UR . ,M ' " .,J F
.,=
. 0 1 :(8.2)
+ " " &! NJ O , N1 .

U # 5W6U
%.= .\" ? .=
, 2 ,b P -' +
9 ,"
7 ,G ,b 5 . 5>P $ = N1 .
U #
4= NJ O , +" "2 %". . N& P
64
+ +' -.2 ,= HP L G ?.

'K
N.) ,
N :
M , R G ,= ,b
.((8.2) 5'
5>P $ = NJ O , , $ N
+ 9YJP
O ,
-. ,b i
C
7 9, + .+. P % T ,b Z= & OJ
," $' 6 $' $ $ ?

. H8 P f*P
., $ N & $ - 9H8
NJ O ,
18o 13o = $ J ,.8

,= ,b F .
,' ,b 5 . .25o 20o = $ ,' ,b F . 5
? %P" 18o = E - $' NJ O , ,
% 9 .(venetian blind) ,3"
J " = E N1 .
U # V-
. $=- $P $3*'
O , % $ 7 ,"
7 ,= " & M/
, 9 \
$ \
5' ? ?"= $' $ ?. NJ
\
$ T $ 5 , & $'" + ," NJ O
. = " ,JP
,Uj
W E , "'
F NJ O , + 4 +. .- N1 .
U #
$ ' :-. 8!J
j * R"# , $ :-. O'
$
48 .. 6 ,b + J $' B= 9+. P %
\" ,"
+= % 7 " L87 NJ O , + N1 .
U # 5>P
?
\" $ , + 30 ,"
R"# , ?' B= , + 70
D N 87 .(O '
F 8 J
l ,.8
: J' 8P N ) M ' ,
\" $ , + 30 ,"
= jW %
" " 7 (9.2) 5' +
65
7 , + 70 $ ' 9(,"

N m ' )
+= %
.M ' , ?
, \"
.
2 , 3 -4& 5 6$ :(9.2)
)+
T 5-7 % 8# $$
E9 &I - 3!9
5! $$ ) 3!9

-0 1$B 9 8# *
.5 $ <- (10,000 ft L) 5-7 (2
/5-4) 30,000 Cd/m2
5 5 $ <- /5J 5 F O ) < 0 1!!9 *

* 5#
%+ = 69 1YI!
4 Q

.(holographic) P#B

- IS !!9
,b 5 . D $ $' G7 Q ,

%P"
5 . ,= ,b 5 . 4 " N 9M' $
M L& 5 - $/
$' +. P % ,b + 5U # n WJ . , " .,' ,b
66
5>P + 4 8 J

K .+ %" + E= %" ' 9 =
. "
6 H72 -= $ YJP +' ? N1 .
U #
. j
W + B= $ 9C8 N 9 K .
NJ O 1 .# ,R + ' 5- (Rugate)

5
o 8n J
c . , " 5= D $ $' , , "'
F
,j
W ., R". NJ O 9N& + 9,
+. P %
. 6 "'
5 ,j
W +7 + ' 5- .
$ . = , , -= 8 O '
,j
W N
$ $' U * C #" N
, ?
2 J"J B
8
15 nm = + 9+. 5

F , R". j , 8 J
K O '
F %& OJ
,j
Q C .M '
., V
N" F
. 3 / 0 :(10.2)
67
.7
& / 0 :(11.2)
N1 .# %P" , "'
F NJ O , ,= ,b 5 .
5M E - $' F 9 "J
+
5- F + ' 5- . ,j
W
.(+G) %R". NJ O ,
,b 5 . , & & $' + E
c 9C8 $ %G
%P" , "'
F NJ O , $c 9aF 20o = ,=
.. ,"
F
a = %1# $ $' + ' 5- . j
W
Holographic HUDs

3.2.2
O , %P" \ ' ,b 5 . 5= ?

, 2 ,b !"# VUPU $ R"# ,
-J Y NJ
, ,b 5 . 5>P $ T $ $ $' : = = ,2
., + = E. 9,J ,b H + NJ O
$' : = = ,2 , 2 ,b !"# $ K .
68
, $2 ,
R"=# ,b , H $ ? 5P $
% N ,& = = ,"
?' : = = ,2 , 2 ,b
"
,

," ,b 5 . ,. = .+=
, " ,b 5 . .(11.2) (10.2) $' + b $' ,JP

, =
4
U p .I ) . J
+ T +' ," " * N"2
+ D ?. = (Hyde Park Corner) C 7 $' 5= " &
.(8
5>P %P ?M = Cb N %Q= H J
. 8( -& 7

:(12.2)
% 9," ,b 5 . 8 ,M= , R". NJ O , +

% B= (:
=
) , R-U # N1 .# ," , " :.
O , +" "2 ? (12.2) 5' D ., " 8J

M ' , ?
, -' % .= N1 .# 8 ,M= , R". NJ
R-U # N1 .# b
," $' ,1=# " ,
,"
5 87 .N1 .# +
] q $ ," C8 O'
.
P2 : O' 4' D" ,JW , R". ,j
Q $2 1"# '
N R"# , $' % M ' , ?
, $
. , $
69
' .O' 4' D" " 5 , (13.2) 5' D1

.O' $
?'" 4 ? 9N& + 9+7 " 5
., 9"
"

:(13.2)
M' ?& $' 3' $c 9N1 .# + N "

$2
$' "
., "'
F NJ O , 5M % $
$ , "'
F NJ O , " ," $ M' ' E.
5 E - $' + ,= ,b 5 . . OJ
$2 9$ " % 5' ,' ,= ,b + . $ 9M' $

M L&
.,b 3' 5P 7
%" $ =2 Y + E NJ O , $ \
87
.bb 5' %" ,& " 3' 8 NJ O ,
8 .O ,'= Z
$ 7 $' 9N& + 9,
N 5= rJ + 2 +M>M Z
V P O $
'=
, =' & D . P" 8
, $c 9 O 4
70
% % .O ,'= Z

=
$S 77 F $S 77
95 %.= 48 O ,'= Z
,M= , R". NJ O
' (14.2) 5' D .%> G =
3 $' F B=
.O ,'= Z

. ; 6$ :(14.2)
,= ,. .- D J $ E.2 ,- $ N1 .# $3'

,j
Q .
4' +
D" , R". ,j
W ," ,"
," ,= ,. .- ,=J 4' D"
' % , R".
, R". ,j
Q U" $' B= G = +. .- D" 5'#
: O' B= = , R". ,j
Q H % .N1 .# $ % '=c
," '
M ' , ?
, $ = = +. 5 P2
: J' TP2 ,. 52 N . : 8!J
*
' , + 80 $
% 5' M ' , ?
, %UP" J"J) ., + 90 =
9540 nm -7
" +. 5 P2 : B P53 P43 7
.(+. 5 87 , R". H %
71
E.2) .N1 .# 5>P +. P % . . a8 J

+" 87
4 L C
7 $' F B= ,- +. .- N1 .# ,. P
P 4 $ N1 .# 5>P $ + +. P % .(+. P
8J
U F 540 nm -7
+. 5 +. P % P2 T= $2 .
- , & 9N& + 9, "
R . NJ O .N1 .# 5>P $
.N1 .# P2 M2 ,"
C
7 $ F , " % N1 .# O' 4' D"
L87 4 s- : P . == ?. 7 ' 4 s- : P
4 = P $ ' = V P ,- ,.
+7
== Y :. $' .NJ O , ? $ A
N1 .
= . F E
F ,1=# " ,
," , r- L8
:. $ , ,
E= $' 48 D= ,
Q j
Q $ , P %P" E % 48 7 87 .,' D"2
D=
' B= ,j
Q $ , 5 P ,
' 4
] 9 G7
m ' M/ V
c R-# , R". ,j
Q % .s- : P ,
s- : P D= N1 .# O' 4' D" :
=
+ ,= [6
, R". ,j
Q - % .,"

: = Z $
N- 5." " 4 %
%P" Z $ ,"' C" B= ,
.5& 87 i %" .N
, :
M N1 .# D" Q 4
, R".# ,
. P Y % + %
.,
," "2 _ $ , ' : K
O
5U&! $ 1947 % + \P (holography) %R".
$ F .= ,' + 5 4 "
% 7 9(Denis Gabor) .
+ $ $
" + T" % % \PF 8 ,
72
H-. (Emmet Leith) Bt 1 9$ ' $ %P"

$ (coherent light) a : 9(Joseph Upatnieks) O'

., R".# 5 5." aM= R -
+ , R".# O '
F , R". NJ O %!P"
Z& + >7 : G $ ,.
"'
F 5 [6 9 + 9
9= --= 7 ,= + 87 .V .- $ $=J $ \
% .,= NJ O 7 ,
2 L8 ,& M'2 %"F $c 8
+
M %>7 $ Z& : G Y Z $ , R".# O '
F ,j
Q 5'
, ,.
. - : $ $ -= : O "= '
5 ' 5>P ,P ?72 $ ,"" $' $& " ,2 + -=
$ " ?72 L87 5= 9 , :
M .+ > : 6 Z
$c 9 ?&2 .: 6 D" ,- ,JP
, "'
F >
p U , O' +. 7 " $ "'
F 5 [6
(step ,R.
A!
* 9 , :
M . Q ,= function)
H Z= .HW +. 5 + - , > P J
F
+ 9C [" YJP 5 48 : 6 -]P
W 5>P $ , R".#
+ %1 % ., M "'
F > 8 " $ "
.-]P
W " ,
3 ,-
+
p +. 5 =
$' "'
F 5 [6 " (15.2) 5' D
., R". ,j
Q +
," = 4- O '
F T (bandwidth) , -= Y
, :
M E %'= $' [6 87 . "'
F 5 + [6
.(hologram modulation) , R". $ H
73
.7
& < "
% :(15.2)
T $3 +. 5 ,j

Q O'" D" ,
4
3

," '
F YJP
" 9 - $ T 87 V P ." - $ 6
,= 7 L87 .,j
Q 5>P +. 5 C8 : 8J
" = 5'
$ H
n ' G =
$ & 3 1 $ .(17.2) (16.2) $' +
, ,-
" 2 \
9 " '
% O '
F ,.E" '
%
. + = > #!3 + :(16.2)
74
- + + , R".# ,= G TP - C

7
HW +. 5 6 +7 C 94 %
+ ,
R
$ ?. O '
F ,j
W $ (12.2) 5' $3 .O '
F D" %
5'
C $ Nu .# \ &
,JP " ,-
, +. 5 O'

' $' E
2 , R".# M/ 87 Z= $' $ .2
+
., $ N $
.7
& < "
% ? :(17.2)
L87 .L
P ,P R- %R". N1 .# V
,
:, 7 5= B>M ,
(computer
' Q , R". ,

%
<
.generated hologram (CGH))

.," , R". V

<
.%R". N 1.
vU"*
,J
<
ZP % :

p ' Q , R".
D " .," , R". V
K , Q ,.
75
D 8 9N1 .# = --= %`'= ' Q , R".
" ,
V
4b 4 L $ T" D=
.," ,1=U #
% $3 :/ ' Q , R". %
= %M $ N1 .# : = %UP"# 87 .,1=U # ," 5RJ
M' ,. $ , . ,
+ 48 9:
p :
= ,' '/ , . ' Q , R". = =
,= + ' Q , R". .5= N . + 5= Z=
," +. .- ?" D" %' $ , + J= = --= +7
.
'K $ , -=
,R." ,. %P" ," , R". ZP %
V
K ? ' %UP"* 94' +. .- ?" D" , >7 ,
.N1 .#

+' D" % B= +=" Y ,
,JU , %!P"W
D" N E % & 48 H! ?" D" - , -=
.," , R". O > ,P"*
V
K +" ?"
, +7 , R".# , ,
2 % $ K .
. $ . , , . $ % $ $' F 9, -Q' , '
%2 $ ?Q , % . ., %
:P , ' = 7 %R". 4 % $ ' 9, .
N
w
ZJ . ZM 5 5 F .$=
NJ O , ,G (18.2) 5' $3 .+" " , R".#
. R- %R". N1 . = V P = N1 . 8 ,M= , R".
76
6!" #$ % +
0 7
:(18.2)
.(BAE SYSTEMS ) Eurofighter Typhoon
N1 . 8 NJ O , ? % 7F -' % &

7 87 $2 R- , R". %P" = V P =
,' 2 = F + ,M= , E
4. 48 ?
.2000 % N + , P 5P" +
= N1 . 8 , R". NJ O C
7 $ K .
L87 $ F . , $ + , P + = V P
., $ , R". a %!P"
%P" ,= E K ?. 95 = ,3
. ' s- : P T J L87 .
%R".# N1 .
30o =) ," ,b 5 . Z= $ $' * = V P +

O '
, R".
%!P" .5 O ,'= Z
(+ "
, ,
? 95 = ,3 9
F ., $ ," , R".
77
% ,b Z $ $' 48 ,M>M

N1 .# . , P
6 $ Y .,
3 H + +. P
$
5>P $ E7 % +. P % $2 +. P % 8 J
+
.N1 . + $ "
R .
V P = N 1. $ + 5. H
?Q $
- 8 J
K f P N R- , R".# 56" + =
., E $ >
a J M' =

4b
HUD electronics
4.2.2
, +
'K %
," "2 , 3J
(19.2) 5' $3
, %
$ B= J6 $' , 3J ,
M = L87 .,M= NJ O
H6 ? 87 .= = + Lb= $' >
a ' NJ O
F
a .(smart HUD) ,'8 NJ O , %" $ =2 Y + E
.
'K = , = 4
] 9$=' %
$' 9C8 $
, ?
9NJ O , , , . $ , =
.YJP
. + . & >
a ,
' 9M '
+
9- 9, ,. % -.

'K =
. ,
2
' % + . 5. H6 B M ? C
7
9 L87 5M + ., ' , $
' ,
/
NJ O , ,. % + , (modules) >.#-/'

' ,

U-P
! = + H +
-P %" - %
. , Q'= $
O ,
'K ," "2 , 3J
H L
%
.- .c NJ
78
CJ (data bus interface)

N" 5&
+
%
5&
)
N" 5&
$ ,"" , &
J
,
2 $ ,"

5= (MIL STD 1553B

., At
L87 5 P ,
M

%
$ ," "2 ,=
,P#
5
," 9,. ," 9\ JF 5M 9+8 ,=>! %
,.
E. 9$ P 9L .F 9+
. 5] ,- 9=
F ,- 9,"
%
+S %
5 TP2
.,"
, = + ,="2 ?
9$- P 9+J'
.v 9
9 2 5M ,J
K 9,
.(HUD) @ :(19.2)
, 5 ' Z F ,WP#

L87 ,. , At %
.sU
! 9>! 5= 9= 5= 5M % -.
p
9,"

:, H + %`'= At % 9C8 H
79
.+8 f=J
<
.(,JP
\" "
, P ,J % 7) \" %`'=
<
.
?*& 8J

<

<
. %`'=
<
$' ( &) , +. 5' V

, 8J
- %
' $ (v 9, &<,. 9 9P >
a M ) ,"
, -
.M ' , ?
2 NJ O , (stroke) ]
W 5'
, D" ,"

$ 5 , " P NW&! $ - $3'
- . 5 J2 ?' +
$ 5! , E ?" +
(? ?"= % .=/) 9, ,P 9, &<,.2 5M 9, M
$ , >= .? ?"= - '8 +
-P %
5 '2 VPc % 48 - + 78J
% 4
+ &
,. 5 '2 N" 4
y x H=
F . ,"
,.
.M ' , ?
2 NJ O , = %'=
,P - " N
% 8 M ' , ?
, -=
, ' ]
W 5' , ' %" , ,. +7 9, "
.(cursive writing) ,
,
56
2 , , ," , , '
.NJ O , ,
, " , V
K , , , ' %
V = ,

30,000 \" : , =" ,JP L . Eb $' 48 9, J' E

.(10,000 ft L) , "
(2 /,
&) Cd/m2
80
?' ,
- ,M a- ? ,
,
-J D" P ,' : = = ,2 , 2 ,b
,' ," Q - .NJ O , ,
9 ]
W 5' , ' - $ M' HP $ $' D" P
, ' , %UP"* .
>
a ,M - 7 $ ?G
, - %U"* + +
+ 8 ," ,
= , ?W'* .D" P ,' :
M , ,"
Y , 7 ? 5. 87 9, , , ' , ,"
$ 6 8P/ .H=
F %h
(bandwidth) , -=
$c 9aF . aP $ = + 9 5J" $ P
.+ %P"> ,
-J Z ' $' '/ ,
-
, D" P ,' \" $c 9, , ' "

+ \" , %P"F "
2 _ + $ ' ," , , '
9M ' , ?

"= 5 P $c 95 = ,3 .YJP

+. 5 8 ,
F 1 . 9P53 5M , M' J"
N" 5 \" D" P ,' - = " & 5 J
.
%P"> 5 & 7 48 (1,000 ft L) 3,000 Cd/m2=
56 ?. E 48 = " \" " . N" T
\" " .,=> . NJ O , +/4

90.3 Cd/m2 30,000 Cd/m2 $ J M ' , ?
,
.1 105 ,"
T 7
?
2 NJ O ,
' N . , = 4=
.YJP
. + . & = C8 + M ' ,
, y x H=
F 1' , , -= Y + H JF
., , ' NJ O , ,Q&! N Z
81
$ ,
' + . % 4J +

'
.,
-J D" P ,'
5.

," ' %P"* ,M= NJ O ,

D .v 9L .F 9N 9,. ," 9\ JF 5M ," "2 ,=
2 .
Vp= , >" %
8 NJ O ,
O .NJ O , ,JP
JF +
9+ 94. ,
,'" $ 5' ,M= NJ
1109 = + +7 , P Y 5 = $ B=

5. 8 , NJ O , $ = = .5&
+ 2 " ,&
H $' .Vp= , >" %
M
% + 2 ,= + 7 , . 7 $ $ +JP

,
' + ,.U # ,& - . %
," 7
.(19.2) 5' + ,
3 NJ O

!" !# 5.2.2
Worked example on HUD design and display generation
, ,.8
>! a" F
a = F
a M + Y"
:,J' D , "'

F NJ O
NJ O , ," ,= ,' ,b F . ? "= -1
. ,"
7 9" 9M ' , ?
2
.+. P % N , $' N , - V
-2
% Z 5>P $ ,"
7 , : K 7 5 M 87 $ H
., " % "&^ +J T= -- ,& ,
82
:,

(

2) 50 mm(
) CRT
HUD
(TFOV)
20o
(

5) 125 mm

(

4) 100 mm
!" #$% & "'

(* + , )
(

16) 400 mm
!" #$% & * #-

(#$% " ./
/ , )
Z?-W y x '
9-T "# 59 100 *# $ ? Q

<# O#T * 5 $ <- ! /#9 Y
9-
.($$ "
5-7 =! O ; !-) OY OX
9 67 <

x" ," ? 4b 7 -1
x(IFOV) ,= ,b 5 . 7 -2
T $ ?. ,
. 9,J" 9, O ,'= %' -3
x20o s (TFOV) ,' ,b 5 . 5 '
$ N $' $ ?. + 9N1 . , " ?& +7 -4
x,' ,b 5 . 7 7

5] ,- 9 =
F ,- ,F Z2 P Y F Z -5
-' $ Z2 P $' + 0 ,- 9 +
.
.4" %" $ + ,
=
F ,- $'
Z2 P ,
+
M= +7 -6
+ 50 56U Z2 P $/ % N 9+10o +
. 5 ,- 3o
83
-' $ 4o Z2 P $ 9, " ,b 5 . $ ,

x4" %" $ + ,
,- 5 48 ," E. $3 9, P >
a ' %" -7
.+2 P 5J" 4o
P V
K - k $ VUP# +. 5' P >
a ' %" -8
.L> % Z2
A B= 9 TFOV = 2 tan 1 A / 2 F 7 ,' ,b 5 . :(1)

5' N.) " ," +J 4b F 9, &
.((?)(7.2)
950 mm A M ' , ?
& 20o ,' ,b 5 . 98
:,&> # F ? +J 4b $c
F=
50
2 tan 10
.F = 141.8 mm $ 4
D B= 9 IFOV = 2 tan 1 D / 2 L 7 ,= ,b 5 . :(2)

+
$ " ," , # L 9" ," &
.((8.2) 5' N.)
.D = 125 mm L = (100 + 400) = 500 mm :
$
. IFOV = 2 tan 1 125 / 2 500 rads = 14.25 $c 98
9, O ,'= $c 920o ,' ,b 5 . 7 :(3)

:,&> ,
. 9,J"
20o 14.25o
500 tan
]
.( , 1) 25 mm 4
84
?. $ N $c 920o ,' ,b 5 . 7 :(4)

:, ,&> Z , " N1 .# =

125
= tan 10
2(500 Z )
.( , 5.7) Z = 145 mm $c

(x2, (x1, y1) M=K $c 9(20.2) 5' \. :(5)

%" $ + 48 92a 5 Z2 P ,
+
y2)
:, &> 9, -' $ 0 4"
x1 = a cos
y1 = ( 0 + + a sin )
x2 = a cos
y2 = ( 0 + a sin )
.
:(20.2)
85
. = 10o 9 = 3o 90 = 4o $ # :(7) (6)

.a = 5o $c + ., " ,b 5 . 0.5 = 2a
:$c

x1 = 5 cos 10 = 4.92
y1 = [4 + ( 3) + 5 sin 10] = 18.7

x2 = 5 cos 10 = 4.92
y2 = [4 + ( 3) 5 sin 10] = 0.13
(4.92, (4.92, 1.87) +7 Z2 P ,

+
M= $c 98
.(21.2) 5' + ,
3 , L87 .0.13)
.
:(21.2)
5' + ,
3 Y X $= H=
F ,. 5 '2 :(8)

.(22.2)
- %
M ' , ?
, 5 ' %.= H=
F A

.- $ = 100 7 c Y X H=
F 1'
86
7 X = H=
F +. 5' $c 9 % Z2 P %" 98
Y = H=
F +. 5' 9= +49.2 = 49.2 $ =

.= 1.3 = 18.7 $ =
7
.Y X ! :(22.2)
Civil aircraft HUDs

6.2.2
+ NJ O 5J 87 + a "
'8
% +6 9' 5J 7
' i %" 87 .,

.,
56 ,= ,
V
+
F +
$ + $ 5U&! $ NJ O , %P" $

500 = C
7 $/ 2000 % + 1*& & 9 "
,M= ," 5-
- ,
87 .% 5= ,K , P + NJ O ,
NJ O 5" .% 5= ,'" NJ O , 10,000
87
+ T , = Z" .- 9C8 N 9. ,

.%
40,000 = + $' $/ R
:+7 ,
+ NJ O , ," "2 -
%'= 5 + + % 5>P $ - , >" -1
,= - NJ O + Y ,"
.+. P % N , $' B= ," "2
.5J 87 , + a " ," "D f
[ &" H 5'
& . P + 5' "D f
[ &" /
H' (23.2) 5' $3
+ 7= ,' 2 = F + ?' 700 - 5!*&
."D f
[ &" ?" P2
" + B=
." $
# % :(23.2)
! " #$ .

,-/ */) *0 * $$( ."$& "$() *))+ '& % A $ (down-draught)
.3 $% "$ :;# 8 9 76 $&1 2- " $%3 ! 4$5 $(
) .=
- "
++
7*)) > ;# 7B $ 7"<0-
.& *)&1
+ :;# ! "$& "$() > 4$5 C $ 7+ *&
88
48 $ P E1.U # % $ $' NJ O ,

," 9 ," E. , $ D f
3 & M $ B=
.+ +'
C" 9\ JF 9,.

:
M , >" $ - $ $' NJ O ,
.,. ,'= 4 J
9O
. , 3& , P ,
+7 (GPWS) Y2 $ ?&F 8
K ,

U--R Y2 $ ?&F 8
K ,
$ ' 9O 4 J
:
M 95 = ,3 9H + .' =
, = L87 N""
E. $c 9, O $' B= O $ ?

O , Y (flight path vector (FPV)) $ P
8 .F % O #j %" 8 = %R NJ
%" $c , O $ P E. ?W'
$ F
a Pq :. 8 P %& $ ?. , = L87 + 9
.B=" ,b
F

(TCAS)

'
#( .

% &
! "
#$
')"* +,-
/
0 & 12 3 4 '5
6 +,% 3 #
# : .
7
8 9 5

&
.% 3
!)
$ 9- 0& "

8
";< 9 / 9 , 5 5=2 =8
8
(Flight Safety Foundation) 9 / =8 88> /8& ?#@
+,- % 3 #
# 9 8 8 .(
( B )
,
5 0 9 30 F
&
$ DE
" 9
:*
.1989 +$ 1958
- 9 , GD D

/
&
89
= + N" Z $ - K ?]"' & -2

%
,& NJ O , %UP"* . JP
5&2 O
2
-R.* % + " $ $' +S
) +S $ (Category III) III ,J 5 '
.($ M 5J + 6 % +S
$' ,
R"=# ,b %
$ :-.' NJ O , %P" -3
% + + JP
5&2 O
2 = +
95 M 5" .(ILS/MLS) +S
!# -R.*
F + (Type III) III \
(Type II) II \
-.
,
2 K ?]"' & .70 $ 5& . = =
Y 9 a " i 7 ' .. ' + ,
R"= ,b
, % += % , NJ O
= ,2 , 2 ,b !"# 4 !"# $
,W' ," "2 ,= N + ?Q'# : =
.$ P >!
+
. VU] U +2 K Y NJ O , %P" -4
O 2 >
a U =# " U# 9, J E B= 4.
%
," E $' +
. VU] U +2 K .NJ
.+ J +6. N& = +
$ , . ," = F + . ,. ? . Up .I
%UPW" ,
R"= ,b %
.1992 % + (FAA) , =F
= ,2 % ,& !"# 5 3 N 35 GHz
5
%R& : = = ,2 !"# .(, K :
) : =
T M' - . T
, , , H + J
90
% T $c ?=" , H 5>P V[ 9C8 N . +

935 GHz 4 !"# .$ ," , ?=" $ 5 $'
V
i 9O 5= N . = i .
5 & $ ' 95 = 4
3
2 T
,.W , $ VU] U ,

E $
48 VU] U = $ & $ $ ' .5 2.5
= $ +
5' $ &
' ' . 5 1.7 T
%P" ( & 700 VU] U ,b T / & 50 %"= \ J) IIIa ,J

,= - ," Q VUU NJ O ,
," E. Y .
'J 8J
= ,"' ,W' ," "2
8J
5>P f P 5' " E
/ p.# NJ O ,
%'= , i ' 9+. P % N CF %!P*"
9'J
.,& $/ $ P
3 (Cooper-Harper) 7' % %

?
2 = $ Y $
"= $ Y
h # % 7)
.(?G :^ ,"
,&1
' 9,=.
A
OJ
95 GHz % %
.&2 +. 5 ?" 35 GHz $ 95 = ,3 95
: = = ,b " ,
$ 5' 5 J
.% + N& ,
,J , P + P $ ' 95 ,
R"=#
- N NJ O , ,
R"= ,b , (24.2) 5' $3
.," "2 ,= ,W'
91

%$(
6<67(06
3RLQW 0XJX ,,,

,

F = :
M O iU. 4 J + 4 56 $ 5' , ' ,>
7 4
3 4b F Z& 4' N1 .# $ ,=> ?. .%F
,j ," '
F ,8 J
%& $c 9 a " '8 7 ' .+. P % ,
N1 .# = V P ,- .(,G) , R". j
Q , " .
C $ O Z ?' M' 6 +7 917o = +7
V P D= .30o = s + ((12.2) 5' N.) ,'"
+ , 9, ,1=U # " $ ,"" Lb. $' =
. V =F % F , R".# ,j
Q ," 7 $'
.(BAE SYSTEMS ) & '() * :(25.2)
" $ 5
d ' : ?&
' NJ O , 5
$ R= 9%
, >" $ B= ( a " i 7 ') +"' + 2
O C 4 " 9 P , Y B=
.109 , YJP

$ E
"= +S %
$ E& $' 2 $
N& = + %

$ , , V- Z
$' L87 K .,"
-P %P" (GPS) +6.
93
N NJ O , (cursively) , , ' "

,b %" H# %
87 5M .,"
- %P" ," "2 ,=
(enhanced ,
R"= ,b $ - ' (synthetic vision) ,
F
= ,2 D" ,
%!P" P2 %
87 .vision)
N ) D" P ,'
%" % 9i 7 ' 9: =
.( ]
W 5' ,' - ?*'
, L8J
$' (IIIb ,J P IIIa ,J) 2
,= ) ,
F ,b
Y % NJ O
,U&W ," , c 87 Z= $' ., , >" , (," "2
, 9,& M' 5' 9 NJ O , ,
M
& $' & ,
M
, $ HQb N . .(fail-passive autopilot) 5J +" +q
,b , N" = >
e = %1 5J +" +q NJ O
.4. 5
, $ ,J
Helmet mounted displays
#$ %& '

3.2
1.3.2
Introduction
,
,= NJ O + Y -
9NJ O , .Z " %" + =p
* & " , ,"
= + 9 , 2 ,b 5 . + Y % 95 = ,3
30o = = , R".# NJ O , ," ,b 5 . N

" L87 ,b 5 . + ' - . + 25o 20o " +
. ,"
7 & ?" ,
4
3 +

O ,J , V =
(helmet 8P + ,Q' , E $' ? 87 9L .

.mounted display (HMD))
94
NJ O , ,b + . $ ,

(26.2) 5' $3
.8P + ,Q' ,
%
5 $ $' 8P + ,Q' , 9 " +
R"# ? ? Y % 8P + ?Q' " 7
= + ,.8
,b 5 . N 9," , &<,.2 Y
, (LED) : ,M $ ,J %UP"# .5o
+ ,Q' , 6Q
U . aJJP a
- Z= 9Y U ' E.
- H72 %. D 8P + ?Q' 7 %
.8P
.E= %" ' 9' (off-boresight) K ?M V P
H %UP"# (boresight) K ?M D $ ,=> ?.)
7
" 9 +JP + 2 = E 48 L .F
.(
" = ,RM ,&
" ?M 5>P !

.

:(26.2)
95
+ 9% $ $' 8P + ,Q' , $c W +

% $ $' L87 .8P NJ O , 9N&
N $' 9NJ O , % + '
.( P N ) L . 4
3 +
$/
$ i N" ,b 5 . C $ 8P + ,Q' , $'
. $ .' 50o , 40o 35o
5 . $ 9NJ O , a>P 9O N C= ,b 5 . $ ,
+ ,Q' , + O ,=" ,'= YJP 5 '2 ,b
5P ,= i " 9C8 N 9. J 5- F E
' .8P
., -.^ C " ,b 5 . $ B= 9$

. 5 7 %
Z= D 8P + ,Q' ,
" = $ ,
-J Y 5>P $ ,J/, ,b
. P N[ N ' % : = = ,2 5 , .
" %
," E" & % 5'7 ,"
P
N -' -. 5 $ $' 8P L87 .O N
.5 ' 7 %
4 VUP
j U

2.3.2
Helmet design factors
$ E
2 %& , 8P ," H , % $
& $ 8P 8P + ,Q' , %
A , 5 F $ 4
:+7 ," "2 H L87 .$ ' H L87
., ,. " H8
$ +
O , = -1
+ % '=c >
a J 5 $ ?. (visor) 8P %1 95 M 5"

E
% 48 .J
F 6 Y
+J" N
96
8P' 5 $ ?. 8P . 650 ,

R ,. "
.+ F
$ ' K & O + = %
%P" .8P 5 $."'2 \
& N +
-2
.g \ " ,
6 HR' f P O`J
%
,
F F -. N + >' + " +
- -3
' % + O " $ V- 8P 5 .,
% ' . ," P ,"
F F
& V P N
+ A. $7 ,& ,3
82 8P %
+ >' +
% .$ ' K & +JP
.$."'2 \
& + AU # +j=
U $' ,"
Z
n 8P 5 $ ?. 9H J 8P %1 , K -4
.Z O : $ \" $7 % &
2 $ , & O> N , $' $ 8P ?. -5
(nuclear-biological-chemical
, ' 9,. 9,

., ' 9,. 9,

,
&2 : $ $' * (NBC))
F $ ?. 9, "K %UP"*
98P %1 ,j
W 4
3
H ,b 7
$' + , " 4
] 9(Tally-ho) 7<+k , " YJP
$ 5U&! $ , G j
Q $ ,.
$ M/ .F
a
., M' , j
Q 53J*
9, 7 P 4
3 A!
# F $ ?. 4 %
$ '
(binocular) ,R
+
M %
+J
%P 8 95 M 5"
$ ' $ =) 87 7 P $' $ ,
' ,-K 7 87 .Y
.
:
M Z^ zP (
97
F + 8P/ $ 8 ?. 8P 8P + ,Q' , A

9 i F 7 9, & 9OJ
F F -.
., + :2 , K
5
"
' 8P + ,Q' $ 52 5.
98P + ,Q' , , ,
+ "
$ $' 87 . %& 8P ,=
'K 9Y
$' 8P +' $- $ ' (bodge) m" 5' 5 $ 5& 4b
. $' $
N AU # 8P + ,Q' $ . B= +
M 5.
N . + $R"=# , ,& ,=J $ : 8P %
,.U # 8P R= ,' .+ . $-
5= L>
.K YJP $' 5& $' $ ?. 8P + ,Q' ,
$- %& ,M= , 8UP .
:
M ,& >
5>P E" E
48 $- $ B= (
2.2) 1 kg =
+.8
$- . 5 87 9(
20) 9 kg 4 " 9g $
= 7 ,R
,
M 8P + ,Q' , 5 + ,.U # 8P
, = ,
," = 87 .( 5.5 3.8) 2.5 kg 1.7
,
N , " $' $ ?. 8P 5W M! -' .
5&2 $-
$- 5>P %-
C
7 $' B= 4J O $
.,& > ,8
H I;H 5 FJ K 2
)-
9 )- 9 5 ,, ! .9
5< 9 9 3,
B
D 2 3, ((deceleration) >/
&) 6 ) ,; &8&
/
"
;
M<
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D 5 30o 5 ;& 3
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$' B= ,'= $ O % '=c 8P Z

$ ?.
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8P % '=c M ?. 8P + ,Q' , 4 %

% N . $ , -J 6 N H' ,"
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$ , " )
?& $ 9(eye relief) $ i 9(= ,) 25 mm i
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; 9
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3.3.2
(helmet mounted sight (HMS)) 8P + ?Q' 7 %
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N CF
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99
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$' ., 8P + ?Q' 7 %

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9' K ?M V P - T.* $/ %. , D 87
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K ?M V P ,- & .{ Z> 5& NJ O ,
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V = F 9, - %t = 5>P $ ,=>! %

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4.3.2
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104
$ $' + 9 -' $- . $ , ,b

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.(BAE SYSTEMS
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:$ $ L87 $
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Eurofighter Typhoon $ $8 $ ," %UP"*"

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, % B = , ' P +7 9 a " DERA)
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Head tracking systems
P ,3- M=K O L . O & ,. = $
$ ,=> ?. . = % & 5'7 = ,"

$' 5
$ :" = $' + %". 4
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= +7 O N[ %
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6.3.2
HMDs and the virtual cockpit
Y % 48 (virtual cockpit) , '
4. ' Q 2 ,M>M ,"
= F $ 5
d ' + ""b $ + 5 3 5' B=
.= ,' ,' 2
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$ 48 48. M/ 5" + 7/ 9C8 N 9C $ .,= "
%P"F . , 5 .2 $' $ 5 =
(remote piloted vehicles (RPVs)) # $ ,R. W' -

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K . ., ,
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2 $- $ B= ," ,M J

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+ , + 4.2
Computer aided optical design
1.4.2
Introduction
(computer aided) ' $ # 4 % Z %P"

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= 6 " Z6" A L87 .:2 H7 Z=
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5.2
Discussion of HUDs vs HMDs
1.5.2
Introduction
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5) 8 5
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Speech output systems
9 7 4.10.2
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Display integration with audio/tactile inputs
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%&' ( )
Further reading
Bartlett, C.T. A Practical Application of Computer Generated

Holography to Head Up Display Design. Butterworth:
Heinemann, 1994. Displays volume 15 number 2 1994.
Burgess, M. A. and R. D. Hayes. Synthetic Vision A View in
the Fog: IEEE Proceedings of 11th Digital Avionics System
Conference, Seattle 5-8 October 1992.
Flight Safety Foundation study of 543 total loss and 536 partial
loss jet transport accidents, including 30 years prior to 1989.
Rowntree, T. The Intelligent Aircraft. IEEE Review: January
1993.
Tidewell, M. [et al.]. The Virtual Retinal Display A Retinal
Scanning Imaging System. Seattle: Human Interface
Technology Laboratory, University of Washington.
Tomorrows Cockpit Displays. Aerospace (Royal Aeronautical
Society): November 1991. pp 12-14.
178

/ /0
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Control
1.3
Introduction

+* &
' !"#

$#% &
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! 5 ., - ' ()* . / (
(0 "1 2
3
(9 ) !6#7 '# ' "* ()* (
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.(
; ) , -
' . /
Basic aerodynamics
/0 2.3
&
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3
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1.2.3
Lift and drag
E0 9
(aerofoil)
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@;F" $ &3 "* ,
<# !* (airstream) ,
:E' 1
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179
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$" K"< D'# "1 'L ,0 H/
.* $7 (camber) M / (curvature) I
* 9
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3
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180
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1

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3

90 &3 # ((relative wind) # I 1#

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.(# %)

! "#$ % #& :(2.3)
(drag force)

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#- *( 4$ & 56. 7) (air mass) / 0 12 ,
*( ! / ,. "0 &7 :; - .(,
& = =- >?
(wing drag) < 7 *,-
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. @" ., ABC D- 10 /@ *( ! *0 <
/ 2.2.3

Angle of incidence/angle of attack
#
I 1# P
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) J
$" (chord line) KXB ' (# I 1#) J
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(angle of '#
#
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D"' '# .(angle of attack) ($ incidence)
181
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% ,0 ($ &* " ,0 (
1 ? (#
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. ' :(3.3)
3.2.3

Lift coefficient and drag coefficient
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; +*
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2 VT SC L
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< # <O %
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;

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:, D &3 / K/
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184
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4.2.3
Illustrative example on basic aerodynamics

" #
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185
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1 I 0
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186
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:,

d' ,
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=
degrees 1
15
d
d max
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/
:(2)
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2
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294 103 N = &
'
750 103 N = &
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90 >0
750 103
=
30,000

= R* K< W

#
(
2) 2.5 g = 25 m/s2 =
187

/
5.2.3
Pitching moment and aerodynamic centre

(center of pressure)
!" #
$ %" &
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2 # 34 564 '" ,/
(pitching moment)
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(= %>'3*? (aerodynamic center)
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6.2.3
Tailplane contribution
(center of gravity &

' ; * ," * % (1
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3 ,0 e$ (
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.&
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.
:(6.3)
:
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189
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(3.9)
90 .($ ( d*[ (nose-up moments) W

(1)
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:
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D'# &I

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1% ,0 F
< .efficiency factor)

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., ,
#% &
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d
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/ 3.3
Aircraft stability
hR'L < "7 R

* < K (
. # (
.
g (
. R0 K C'L%
* ,0
< # (
.
.C'L / R1L 1
0 ,
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@%
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:(8.3)
.

:(9.3)

1.3.3
Longitudinal stability
(# ' E* $/ &

' 'L /
_
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";
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192
.

CM ( *&+/)
! " #$ %&' (&

.(10.3) 1 ( - 0
,

23!4 ,
( *&+/)
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.(trim angle of incidence) T -$
-
.
CM :(10.3)
2$ * % (1

< >0 T 37 '#
(
&
<# W
* ,0 k
* % (1 +*
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'
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2
# * % (1
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193
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dCM
CM = 0 , ' , # #% $/
# / C$
d
. = T
1
(
/ / C$ &
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2L/ &
?U $
., # #% $/ "
&
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(static margin and neutral point)

, ,
P
$ ,0 5" * ; *
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= 0 +* ; 9L ., # #%
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5B<[
d
5d<O ."
&
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/ 4 _6; , ,

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1 #% (1 (11.3) ? DL
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.

:(11.3)

2.3.3
Aerodynamically unstable aircraft
25 ,
- 6 0 6 & * 7 (12.3) 1 -
9&: ;: <=& ( ,> ? @ -$ .(8 ( & *

(0 ! #A -
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195
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5 6- CL CD = CD0 + kCL2 ) .
KY
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g &
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'# / $ 1# / I 0
; #
@
"1
219
? @

"1 #
@
< .f J
$ / ,
"<$ (
2L/ * @%
< .f ] 1#/(1 ? / 1#/&3
.f , (1 / &
' " "1 #
<%
0
; 1#
# ?

&
' @

$# V#
,0 "* P @X0A O* 3 .f , " ($* I
.'#" C

<6 @%
< @
? 1 0< ,0 g I
.
,0 0
LU @I W$ (

5.4.3
Equations of longitudinal and lateral motion
Xa @" (3.30) (3.29) (3.28) @%
< <
., "1 (3.26) (3.24) (3.22) * @%
< ,0 M Za
:,
* "1 1 D & @
'L6 ' * @%
<
X u u + X w w mg = m(u + W0 q)
Z u u + Z w w + Z w w + Z q q + Z = m(u U 0 q)
M w w + M q q + M w w + M = I y q
(3.34)
(3.35)
(3.36)
@" (3.33) (3.32) (3.31) @%

< < ;

., "1 (3.27) (3.25) (3.23) * @%
< ,0 N L Ya
:,
* "1 1 D & @
'L6
$ * @%
<
Yv v + Y + mg = m(v W0 p + U 0 r )
(3.37)
Lv v + L p p + Lr r + L + L = I x p
(3.38)
N v v + N p p + N r r + N + N = I z r
(3.39)
220
@ "L
@%
< 1$
&
1 @%
< P
9$ ' '
< 7 ? 1 <" 7 $
5* DL" ' @%
< '# ( 3 .1$ P ,0 @
Z w w Zqq *
(3.35) (3.34) @%
< ,

. M w w
:/ $ & @
'L6 q = / 0< (3.36)
X
Xu
u + w w Wo q g
m
m
Z
Zw
Zu
+
w U oq
u+
w =
m
m
m
Mq
M
Mw
q
+
w+
q =
Iy
Iy
Iy
q
=
u =
(3.40)
/ 0< (3.39) (3.38) (3.37) @%

< ;

p=
:/ $ & @
'L6
N
N
+
+
Iz
Iz
Y
Yv
v + Wo q U 0 r + g +
m
m
Lp
L
L
L
L
p = v v +
p+ r r
+
+
Ix
Ix
Ix
Ix
Ix
v =
r =
=
Np
Nv
N
v+
p+ r r
Iz
Iz
Iz
p
(3.41)

! "
# $ % % & '(
# )$ &*
%
. -% % + ', !
.%
221
@ ;6; ' , 7 $ @%

< / 0 '#
;
:, z y x
x = a1x + b1 y + c1z
y = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z
z = a3 x + b3 y + c3 z
O nt 1 x 3 ,0 &
K
# t / 0
. xn

O nt 1 x 3 xn

:
36<
'< x(n+1) K/ (n+1)t 1 x 3
x( n +1) = xn + xn t
:>0 ,

.( ,0 & &

( t / 0
)
x( n +1) = xn + (a1 xn + b1 yn + c1 zn )t
1 < @%
< P .,3 ,0 " C#
? ,
:,

0 ? "1
x a1
y = a
2
z a3
b1
b2
b3
c1 x
c2 y
c3 z
:,

(3.41) (3.40)
< 1 < ;

Xu
u m
w Z u
= m
q
0

Xw
m
Zw
m
Mw
Iy
0
Wo
Uo
Mq
Iy
1
g
0
u
m
0 w
M [ ]
+
0 Iy

222
(3.42)
Yv
v m
p Lv
=Ix
r
Nv
I z
0
Wo
U0
Lp
Lr
Ix
Nr
Iz
0
Ix
Np
Iz
1
Y 0
v m
p L L
+ I
Ix
r x
N N
I
Iz
z
0 0
(3.43)
2$ &N @< ,'< * @%

< 0 (#
@%
< 1 < .@
0 $ (#
@%
<
(* D
:,
* "1
1
= AX + BU
X
.@
0 U B A X / "1
5*
.
* @ V?
<
* R$ 0 , X
.
*
< 0 , A
.90 0 , B
.(* XO @ ?
< (* XO R$ 0 , U
r p v
* @ (3.43)
< ,0
; # "1
:,

* R$ V?
v
p
X=
r

:,
*
< 0
223
Yv
m
L
v
A= Ix
N
v
Iz
0
Wo
U0
Lp
Lr
Ix
Nr
Iz
0
Ix
Np
Iz
1
:, 90 0
Y 0
L L
B= I x I x
N N

Iz Iz
0 0
:, (* XO R$

U=

E
' T
,
* 0 @%
< 0
LU $
<
C
#7
0< R @# K
" ( ,#
#7 5 7
0
LU @I ,0 &
'< ! #
C .
# @
*"'
.
,0
12 % 5.3

Longitudinal control and response

1.5.3
Longitudinal control
( )

' *+ ' (elevators) & % # /!" # $
!45+' 6- .0 12 ' 3 " * ( , ) '
224
.(!' !5+
' : ) .& # /!" # 7 $ 8'
# $ ( 2< ) ;' * 2'
!= $' ! !"' 2< $ 6 & # /!"
$ 5 >= $' ! * # "? .!" # &
B"A *0 '% * @ 2A & = ' @ 2A
.((24.3) !+ E2 ) * C D A 5 $'
.

:(24.3)
D'# &# ] * E' "1 &

'" 7
$#%
:,

, 9L 90 D'# /
* * &
'" , W
# "1 < k
* % (1
'# +*
"; * &
'
2Y * %
* % S# ,0 5'< &
' <$ !
_0 J
$ 90 .J
$
$ * (1 RL
< ; * .* % < F?
'# * % < Y
L (1 '# &
K '#
J
$ '# "1 &
' # @
;
* ( . D'#
D'# / D'# ] * 9 C#
@
; * < &$
;
. 9L 90
225
$ A :% 6- * 8 2< ' ! * " ,
F> $ A ' ' @ 2A G !0 F> 2<
.!" # H 2 2< !%' !8 . 6 1 '% (overshoot)
* % <
7 1# CL
* K
# K< W
#
'# ,0 &
k
J
$ 90 ,0 &
9
2' C#

9 C#
,

* % < >0 ]<
;
/ 1# K
] 7 .J
$
P C#
K 9L 90 D'# / D'# ] *
&
1 6 * % < .&

1 5* 9
` /
' 9L &

1
.
K
g/ 2.5.3
Stickforce/g
'L J
$ '#
o 9 C#

* ]/ "1 J
$ 90
'< K< W
#" C"' J
$ '# +* 1 2 VT2 ,

_Q '0 C"' .' * '' S "1 1# W
% 9 #

< 1# $

<
'L 1 J
$ '# ,0
_'#
.M<
M< ' S#
K1 W
# "' 90 D'# / D'# ] *
h1# W
% 9 # g &

1 * ,

g
In ' * '' S "1 40:1 3 "1/ / ]
.&
'" ,
<
h,
'L 9 C#

(< S
"? ( , @
* C
g 1 K
` /) '" K ? @
*
1 &?
(feedback) " !"
' >0 (
2
@
1# 1 ,

.90 D'# * $ S" &

226
W
# 90 D'#" & * '0 C"' "17
'L
&3 C"'
* ]/ "1 R

< ( K ,
< ,
'L .g K1
1 .& &

1 * / (g "1
2#
1 &
3
1
90 D'#" & C"' L
'L @
1#
,

g/&

1 &3 .
2#
1 &

1 &3 . ,

g
' * '' S "1 "

< 2$ @
'"
; I

.&
<
"'
?
"? ( , ' @
)*
* ]/ "1
(1 1 &?
" !

< @
1# @ @
'"
.<0 D'#7/ D'# * '#
' ( , &

< (*
1 &3
'
' ( M
#* g (* , &

1 *
"1
' CQ & 9 E0 <'
<0 ;/ (* , &

.
2
"? ( , @
* @ @
' '
'#
&

1 5* 9 C#

< ( &

1 &3
(artificial feel 1

' M#* &* '# / '# , A* (
.
^ 1
'% M#* &* .&

1 t &?

' ( unit)
+*
2
2 VT
,
'L ,0 &

1 (M#* /) 6

7 1# 1 * % < .g &

1 &3 Z
0
&

1 &3 9 C#
P ,

( (K< W
# K/) &
'<
D'# / D'#
<0
_
# ?i/

* ]/ "1 .
' '# '
1# * '' S "1 9# E
' "1 @
/ 90
"1 Y
L &
'
$# #*
2"' 3 , - (* .W
%
.g &

1 & Z
,'< ' * '' S
227
"# /!

3.5.3
Pitch rate response to tailplane/elevator angle
() * (
. C"' (* < &
'
$# "* /
' .&
'" ,#
#7 (*"
% C
#* , "*
, -
90 D'# / D'# ] * q &
' * <
. 9L
36< 9 (3.36) (3.35) (3.34) @%
< E
?
KY# .'0 q ,0
< "1 *" w u 5* q=d/dt
:,
* "1
% "1 *
K ( D 3 + b2 D 2 + b1D + b0 )
( D 4 + a3 D 3 + a2 D 2 + a1D + a0 )
V?
; @6
< , a0 a1 a2 a3 b0 b1 b2 K .D = d/dt +*
E' 1 (#% ,

)
%
$#% C
#* ( ." @
?
. ( D 4 + a3 D 3 + a2 D 2 + a1D + a0 ) q = 0 "L

< *
@%
< W * ,

; C +* q = Cet
:"1 * q 1 Cet < .
; @6
< ' "L

(4 + a33 + a22 + a1 + a0 )Ce t = 0

(4 + a33 + a22 + a1 + a0 ) = 0
/ K/
.(characteristic equation) &^

<

?O
< P
" < "
1
"0 < $ ,
< P
(complex
0 N < T/ ;/

""*
:P
/ ]
conjugate factors)
( + 1 + j1 )( + 1 j1 )( + 2 + j2 )( + 2 j2 ) = 0
228
:
< P *
q = A1e 1t sin(1t + 1 ) + A2e 2 t sin(2t + 2 )

(3 K
` / % '?

#* ( @; , 2 A2 1 A1
. t = 0 1 q q q q
?6 +*
# M#7 / C$ 2# (
. ,
2#
^ / E * KY $ M#7) . 9 #7 *
.(&# g
$# , <
9
2#
^ / "
L $
< 9$
* L ,

*
., "1 "' &
$# & &
$#%
_0
I
L
$# ,

, &
'" 7 #
#7
$#%
P &0 .(short period response) & &
$# (#
5<[
1# &
' W "1 < , ; 10 1 E
' ,0 , *
$
&
'" 6
_ ; h
7 1# 9
2#1 C#

7
5 * , & >0 & &

'
&*
; * , &
@
'" 2$ I
L (
1 ? & &"
$#% P .
j ; 10
, m # (
. (L T
*
/ % (&# ) $ ? !"# ,
.1# W
% ,1$ ' * '' I$/ S "1
40
J & 5' I' I
L L
; "*
.(long period/motion) "' & /* (#
5B<[ E
3
;
S/ & (phugoid motion) ' *"
?
2#
#/ ,
' * .
7 1# 9
2#1 C#
,0
229

2 . '#
$ 1# W
% ,0 I' I
L
W
Q 1 9L 3
' * 3
'
$ , &^ g
' (

2#
#/ , ' * Y
L .&
' 1#
? DL .
'
(* 2$ <
"<$ "' & 7 , -
.
$#% ,0 * 1 (25.3)
.
:(25.3)
; , q/
% $ C "1 *" '#7 '
.
7 1# / 0 , &
'" & &
$# E3 ?

I,'
7 1# ,0 Q 7 %
_ < < 0% .
;
.S7 @

& ,'<
7 ,
(# ,0
L1 (# '#7 ' P
.
< &
' !"# (* # @
*"' ,0 &$

4.5.3
Pitch response assuming constant forward speed
D'# J
$ '# * % <
'
"
%
u

P
/
3
? (# / q/ K
` / (90 D'# /)
230
(# ' & @

'L
;
/ 1# 0
7
. # j #
K
Z w w
` / w < 1# ] < $ E
?% *

.Zqq *

2L/ (#

(# M w w
OX &
<
* 1$ (B#[ (26.3) ? W$

5< &
' ; 1 O
&
' 9 * OZ OY
9 5' OY ' ' R$ 9 5' OX * .&
' *
P
$%) &
' ' ' R$ "1 K1 OZ &
' * *
#%
* (#

?O

2
g
* P .(#7 * C$
.* @%
< ,0 '# I$ D ,
.( ) :(26.3)
231
(
;) U K
# OX * ' "1 1#
w K
# OZ * ' "1 1# ,0 &

K
# OY * ' "1 1#
q K
# OY * % * * <
K
# 'L 3 '# ,0 Q
m K
# &
' "
Iy K
# OY * % * * &
'" , (1
:OZ * P
$ ,0 &;Y S F
'# ,0 Q $ J
$ ,0 &;Y 90 &3 ,0 Q -1
.Z K
# 'L 3
D'# ,0 Q $ D'# ,0 &;Y 90 &3 ,0 Q -2
.Z K
# 'L 3
+* w Uq K
# OZ * ' "1 K< W
#
.((3.21)
< 3.4.3 (# 9$) w = dw / dt
:, OZ * ' "1 *
<
Z + Z = m( w Uq)
(3.44)
:; * &;Y (< F

'L 3 D'# ,0 Q $ * % (1 -1
.M K
#
'L 3 D'# ,0 Q $ * % (1 -2
.M K
#
232
* % * * q K

] < $ * % (1 -3
.Mqq K
#
:, OY * % * * ] *
<
M + M + M q q = I y q
(3.45)
: '# ,0 Q .K

] W
# K
# q = dq / dt +*
= w /U
(3.46)
@%
< ,'< "L
@%
0 ! 9 .q 5* '0 % / w 5* '0 u q %
,'< 7 ,'' (#" $ (#
"< P
$ ;/
"F " @
m &
'" ,
!"#" L0/
0 &
:,

&
1 (3.45)
< . q ' ,
q=
1
Iy
(M + M q + M )dt
(3.47)
:"1 * C &

1 (3.44)
< ,0 w 1 U <
= q + + dt
mU
mU
(3.48)
C$ .,'' (# & ,0 (3.47)

< ; (27.3) ?
(# ,0 9$ '
1
&
?U ( 3 @
? @
? / .*6
M +*
2
2
&# &
' 0 (
# Mq .,''
/ ) .
# " ]* ,

M Mqq ]* .
2L/
#
(28.3) ? .(&
?s C#
6
1% ,0 M C$
.(3.48)
< ; K ,'' (#
233
36< (#

'# q \ 1 " SBO1
,0 ] W "
1
# " "1 ,0 i XO o TBO
:/ K/ .(29.3) ?
o
KG ( D )
=
i 1 + KG ( D ) K F GF ( D )
(3.49)
"
# ,
7
#

u KFGF(D) KG(D) +*
., "1
.(3.47)
:(27.3)
:Mqq " &1 F ,

1
I yD
q
=
( M M ) 1 + 1 M
q
I yD
.KFGF(D) = Mq KG(D) = 1/IyD 7

234
.(3.48)
:(28.3)
q
1
1
=
( M M ) M q (1 + T1D)
(3.50)
:+*
(3.51)
T1 = I y / M q
'# (lag transfer function) ,)"
; P
. 7 $
.

:(29.3)
: /q " &< '# ;

(28.3) ? W$

235
= T2
1
(1 + T2 D )
(3.52)
:+*
T2 = mU / Z
(3.53)
(# . 7 $ S/ )"

;
0 &< ,$
XO R +*
2L/ .S7 *

.C'L6
%
$#% " &1 # ,0
.
:(30.3)
:"1 * (3.49)

< E' (30.3) ? W$

1
Mq
= M
(1 + T1D)
1
Mq
(3.54)
T2
M
1+
(1 + T1D) (1 + T2 D)
:
'#
< P
236
I yT2
(1 + T2 D )
1 1
M
1
D 2 + + D + +
I y T1T2
T1 T2
(3.55)
:/ K/
q
K (1 + T2 D )
( D 2 + A1D + A2 )
(3.56)
:+*
K=
M
I yT2
M Z
(3.57)
I y mU
A1 =
1 1 M q Z
+ =
+
T1 T2
I y mU
(3.58)
A2 =
M q Z
M
M
1
+
= +
I y T1T2
Iy
I y mU
(3.59)
:"1 * (3.56)

< ,0 =
KT2
= 2
D + A1D + A2
T2
q <
1 + T2 D
(3.60)
.(31.3) ? ,0 ] k
(
< ,'' (#
.

:(31.3)
237
:"1 * (3.56)

<
( D 2 + A1D + A2 ) q = K (1 + T2 D )
(3.61)
:
"L

< * '<
%
$#%
( D 2 + A1D + A2 ) q = 0
(3.62)
:&^
< $ 6 * C
#* (
(2 + A1 + A2 ) = 0
. = 1 2 A1 A12 4 A2 / 2
+*
& "1 N $ , $ P " @

' ,0
. = 4 A2 A12 / 2 1 = A1 / 2 +* 1 j
:/ K/
2#
^ / "
L $
<
* P ,0 *
q = Ae 1t sin( t + )
t 1 q q 3) % '?

#* (

; A +*

$ Y
L $ C#* 1(=A1/2) 3 C#* A1
< .(= 0
* C#* A2
< .C'L6
%
$#% ,0 5
.
$#% 1# (; = 4 A2 A12 / 2 I
L "

!" #$ % & #'( )%
*& + & , -
. A2 A1 0(

1' 2&
1' 3 . .
@
2
2
&# g &
' >0 ! M< "1
E 6
_ *
_$
_#
] i/ ! ,'<
# A2 KY / $ M
. 9
2#
^/
238
"
< % ( D 2 + A1D + A2 ) ,<
< 1 < ,
:+* ( D 2 + 2 0 D + 20 ) & "1 K
` / 0 ]
1
.I
L g ,<' K
# 0 = A2
:/ K/
A1
2 A2
(3.63)
$" '? g

$# KY T* Y
L )
.( A12 = 4 A2
1 +* ,
#

; $ (
1 (
. , C'L%
%
$#%
? ,0 # ] K
] / , x
1 ( D 2 + 2 0 D + 20 ) x = 0 W
P . T = 0t K<6 Y
L # (3 S (32.3)
.
; $ (
. K
] 7
# @
*
D'# /) D'# &
'< K
] / E' "1 #%
* (3
9$ &
# '# * % <
o
"1 * (90
q >0 (3.61)
< ,0 .
] @%< L , *
ss E*" (B#O .#%
* ,0 K
#
<$ q
:/ K/ h A2 qss = K ss R K #%
* (3 &
?s
qss =
K
ss
A2
239
(3.64)
.

:(32.3)
R"1 * ss J

$ '# ,0 #%
* ,0 ]
:
36<
'<O (3.60)
< ' M
ss =
KT2
ss
A2
(3.65)
S "1
@
? ,0 @] / .*6

$#% Y
L 1#
o "1 <# ' * ''
J
$ '# #%
* .C'L% / D'# *
%
,

2L/ # &
'< (90 D'# /) D'# * * % <
.' * '' S "1 g &

1 &3 #

q/

5.5.3
Worked example on q/ transfer function and pitch response
L1 "; &1

3 @ , P
/ &
@

( 3 @

P . * @
1#
"
@
'" 2$
240
(* (gearing) C# 0< #< # "<

3
?
& @

$# (g/R$ D'# * 6
_ ;) ' (* . / ,0 ,$
.Y
L # I
L g ,<' % @
'" "< &

@
#
#/ 9$
* "*
; 5
I
'1U
' DL - *
( , &
' ()* .
., - #% $
*
2L/ &
'" * %
$#% 1 0<
(
@ 3 9 E
' @

#* @

"1 < ( 3
.f '
L % @;F
( 2; , ,
!"# '#
&0 # L
E
?% @

* ,0

@
36< < DL P' ( 3 P
/ "*
; .&
1
.

Aircraft Data

(
55,000) 25,000 kg = m &
' "
(
2 &1 500) 250 m/s = U
7 1#
6105 kg m2 = Iy * % * * , (1

2107 Nm/radian = M '# $ * % (1
8 m = lt D'# (1 W
_1
# kA [ &1 500 1 J
$ '# ,0 &
1.6o :g/J
$ '#
1g
_1
1 1g
_1
_1
# kA [ D'# ] * 1o :g/ D'#
&1 500
241
Questions

.
;
7 1# /
2L q/
E? H/

$#6 Y
L # I
L g ,<'

HC
c&
'" * %
/ C'L%
%
$#% 5
$ # ,
HT
c()* @6XO
q
K (1 + T2 D )
( D 2 + A1D + A2 )
.&
'< @

A2 A1 T2 K E
? C"'
=
A1
Y
L # 0 = A2 I
L g ,<'
2 A2
.A2 A1 0<

#* 1
T2
Z = m(ng) K
# J
$ 90 ,0 &

K< W
# K
# (ng) +*
.&1 500 1 1g
_1
_1
# kA O J
$ '# ,0 Q 1.6o
Z 1.6/60 = m 10 ,

(g 10 m/s2 1o 1/60 radian F)
Z = 375 m / K/
T2 = mU/Z = m 250/375 m
T2 = 0.67 s / K/
242
M Mq
6
_
!* D'# 0

= M D'# Q $ * % <
q = ltq/U * % < $ D'# '# ,0 Q
M lt q/U = Mqq * % < $ * % (1
Mq = lt /UM

!* D'# ,

U = 8/250 m/s lt = 8 m
Mq = 8/250M = 0.032 M
Mq M
K
# * < 9 E0 250 m/s
/ 1# 1g K< W
#
(g = 10 m/s2 F)
2 2.4o/s K/ 10/250 rad/s
* C"' 1g
_1
_1
# kA O J
$ '# ,0 Q 1.6o
1o D'#
.Mss = Mss = Mqqss (ss
)

M1 = (21071.6)+(0.032 M2.4) >0 @

$
<

M = 3.5107 Nm/rad ,

Mq = 0.0323.5107 Nm/rad per s
Mq = 1.1106 Nm/rad per s / K/
T1
T1 =
6 10 5
1.1 10 6
.T1 = 0.55 s / K/
243
A1
A1 =
1 1
1
1
+ =
+
T1 T2 0.55 0.67
.A1 = 2.3 / K/
A2
M
1
2 107
1
A1 =
+
=
+
5
I y T1T2 6 10
0.55 0.67
.A2 = 36 / K/
K
K=
M
I yT2
3.5 107
6 105 0.67
.K = 87 / K/
87(1 + 0.67 D )
( D 2 + 2.3D + 36)
:,

. 20 = 36 >0 Z*

0 = 6 rad/s (0.95 Hz) / K/

= 2.3/(26)
2 = 0.2 / K/
(32.3)

50 ! " #$% & '() * +" ,
-
. -
!

(# ,0 , - #% "1 "*
; ,0 (B#[ 5# @

P
.8.3
244
%1 6.3
Lateral control

1.6.3
Aileron control and bank to turn
D'#7 , ,
$ S# ,0 &
'
()*" #
#7
#
90 &

2"L

* ( P .((15.3) ? ]
) '
<
$* (1
$ KY
- J
$ "1 RL *
$ */ "1
.5'<
2
$ &
'
+*
&3 0 / J
$ 90 VO +* 5'<
2
$ &
'
' ' ^ , 5
'< % * L C$
1#) K
# k
K C$ W
# .((33.3) ? . ) &
'
K/ (5
'< % <) (&
'
KY K C$ W
# . V
T
. ' &3 K

` / ,#< P
$% ,0

< ( , 3 &3
/0 *,* 1 !
+1

, '2 34
2 34 5 6 0 "
7
1
3!
.
<4 1
*
8 9: ; "
.
:(33.3)
245
,0 &

< (*" ,#
#/ ,

5
'< 6 ,
$
.* $7 '#
, & 90 S3 C# ,
$ S#
@
'
* ,0 &
' 5
<L/ <# / 90 &3
D ,

K C$" $
& V .;*

. '3 5
1 g @ @
0
'<
Z sin K
# 90 & 07 V (33.3) ? W$

:"1 * K C$ W
# P &
# .

Z sin = mVT
P &
# . Z cos K
# 90 & < V
:"1 * &
'
Z cos = mg
:"1 *

tan =

VT
g
(3.66)
. g tan K
# 5
'< % * W
# >0 ,

(33.3)

% 60o
!
" #$ . g sec
+ *
* .2g * 1.73g &' ()
10.4o # 1 !
" #$ (0 1 21* 200) ,/ 100
.
4
&
K< W
# 9 * $7 C"' 90
(#
7 1# @
,0
L !* 90 C"' C*d# ,0 *

246
90 C"' ,

v
1 g K 5
'<
.5
'< % ,0
"1 .
*
.&
'" # /,
1 !*
@
1$ 9$ ? C"' ,
$ E% ,;* 5
'<
(90 D'# /) D'# '
< D'#7 K
` / ;6; R$ D'#/
(engine !* E /E

!* ? KL R /
.0
*
C $ &

1 90 %
_ /
' ( .!* 90 () *" throttles)
"1 < $* < &
' T* +* '
< D'#7 !*
E*
1 &

1 $* < D ( .&

1 *
1 C*#
2L/
' ( .5
'< % < "' ,
$
,

J
$ '# &
&
' * $/ 5'" 5" &

6 ' &3 0 W
% ,0 5
U J
$ 90
C"' C#* 0 @
# "1 '# 'L E'
2L/ ( .&
' 5
'< %
.'
< D'#n ,"L
C*d# '# T< % (1 $
,0 &
$ !* 90 &
&L C#* E !*
2L/ (
.$ 1# "1 .
* ,

90 ,0 &
k
C*d#
,0
_*%
' (# &< $* 7 &
'
$#

L I$ 6 / 0< C
#
* ]/ "1 .4.6.3 (#
.,"

$* * '#
$* (1 kA [ 9L '
< D'#n ] *
.5'
< D'#" ] * $ $* (1 E? L +* L K
#
(# 9$) $* < $ $* (1 '# 2
L
:,

, *
< .Lpp K
# K ((23.3) ? 3.4.4.3
L + L p p = I x p
(3.67)
.$* * * &

'" , (1 Ix +*
247
:& "1
< P

(1 + TR D) p =
L
Lp
(3.68)
.( Lp #7 85") (Ix/Lp) 5 "

6 4 TR ,5
R ,
% * 7 $ ,#6 (
.
.% '? 6 * @
; A +* p = Ae t / TR
* "1
$#% '< i 5'
< D'# ,a$Q XO"
:,

p=
L
Lp
(1 e
t / TR
(3.69)
.(34.3) ? ,0 DL
.
:(34.3)
248
* '' S "1 L Lp ? ,0 @Q / .*6

* $* < #
*
$#% 1#
o ,0 ;Y# '
?

,0 /
$ .&
'< 5'
1 D'#
C'L < ,^#7 6*L% 5
7
$*
$#
2L/
.$* <

2.6.3
Rudder control
(* "1 .T< % (1

$ & 6
p E" 0 *
:,"
,

(B#[ 0 '#
2
$ &
' '
< D'#7 * $ T< % (1 $ H/
.
_
# J[?
5
'< 6
.,
$ E% % * $ HC
!* &3 0 6
_ ; $
#
g T< % (1 $ HT
g *"#//
* / @
* &< @
'
* ,0
.(
" /)
@
'
* ,0 #

'# T< % (1 .,
$ E% &
d< " H
P ,
$ E% '# Q KY# 0 *
? . ) 1 &
' C $
$ &3 KY#
9 .DN'# ,
$ ,3% 5
'< I$
$ & D .((21.3)
g *N'# @
0
'< % ,0

< ( ,
$ @
1
# !

* K
] / ,0 .(F? ! ,0 C
(3
' /)
'" *
&
' C $ 1 '# P K ,
$ 90
.(
1 ? 2$ L1 *N'# @
0
'< I$ '0 D#
1 7 M 3 &?
(drift angle) 5$ % E6' % HP

$ * K
] / D I$U .D 9
< '
249
@6$1 ,0 &;Y

$ S K
,

T`B #

.7 M .* 1 (undercarriage) '
1 '# P0 ( ,
$ S# ,0 ,
$% #%
*
v ,
$ E% % 1# >0 (21.3) ? W$
.0
/) &
' 1# R$ '# 1 &
'" ,
7 ,"
>0
_
# Ja[?
.
$ &3 Q' KY VT (# I 1#
M # I 1# 9 &
' 5
'
$ 1#
.J
&] ,0 ( , '

3.6.3
Short period yawing motion
9:; ) ) 5 % #7 # &)< = 2> 5
%; * # ) 2:!9 ) @1

> #! 8 65 ?!

5 C ! # 5 &)< 95 .0A@ B
"
.(F) 5 5
" 59 D #'" < @E
.GA H I
J I; 0;7 2:! * I &
3% @;F &F

$
$#% / &
?U $)
W$
.(4.6.3 (# ,0
_*% R' (# T< %/$*" B

:/ .*6 (21.3) ?
(& 7) VT = VT sin = v ,
$ E% % 1#
.(T< % /) P
$% ,0 Q K
# = 7 VT =
. N vVT K
# ,
$ E% % $ T< % (1 >0 ,

'# K
# % T< % (
1 ? R / .*6 C$
* ,
$ S# ,0 , T< % 0 ,
$ E% %
250
1 '0

#
.*" ,"7 P
$% &
'" ,
7 ,"
.&
' 1# R$ P
$ Q (1
:, ; * &;Y (<
. N vVT K
# ,
$ E% % $ T< % (1 -1
K
# E% % 1# $ T< % (1 -2
. Nr r = Nr
:, *
<
=I

N vVT = N r
z
(3.70)
:/ K/ .T< % * * , (1 Iz +*
2 Nr
Nv
D +
D+
VT = 0
Iz
Iz
(3.71)
.

# Nv Nr ? 6A / .*%
I
L g ,<'
; $ (
.
. = 1
Nr
Y
L # 0 =
N vVT I z
N vVT
Iz
$ 9
2#1
#

6 Y
L # (2 / 0 ) &0
B3A KY 1# &
>0 . VT K
` /
7 1#" ,<
., ; 10 3 * ,0 , &0 .Y
L
2L/ &
2 m 1
0 ? I
L / $< % *" & & P
' (# (T< %
L /) T< % * , - #% (
. '#
.7.3 (# ,0 ,0

!" #$

- )* +, 90o % &' (
251
.(
* #- 3 0 !" * 12*) .(Dutch roll)
* )* +,
!"
* *
5 !(6 7 8
(Dutch roll ratio) -
.9( : 7
8 1 1;% <=>

4.6.3
Combined rollyawsideslip motion
$< % $* * @61
B
3%
.2.4.4.3 (# ,0 @B*a [? 3 $
S (< ,
$ E% %
.
2L/
&
?U ( 3 '
< D'#7 @
* 0 @61

' & @
'L < ,
$ S# ,0 * @%
<
(3.38) (3.37) @%
< ,0 5.4.3 (# ,0 @A[ 3 j # (#
., "1 (3.39)
* 1 %?* 6 @-
@ .*> (A' B * C%A
.@ ?
D:D E
!" 76 -((

(D
1
1
+ 2 0 D + 20 D + D +
TR
TY

1
D +
x=0
TSp

.r p v @] K/ ? x +*
:& "1 ,
% *
x = A1e 0 t sin 1 2 0t + + A2e t / TR + A3e t / TY + A4e
t / TSp
.% '? '# * @; A4 A3 A2 A1 +*
252
FA G % -

+=
.H
> TY
> += TR $A * 0
(spiral
, " 5* 6 , @
; ,
# &
1 TSp
&
' @Ba ['L
, 1#" M
3
2L/ , .I,' divergence)
'# $* (1 $ , M'g T< T*#
>0
3 0.5 * ,0 , " 5* % , @
; .T< % <
.(, -
' /)
' '# # R** ( &* 3
Powered flying controls

. 7.3
1.7.3
Introduction
%* % 1,

IA >" ( @ 6 C*
(mechanically signaled powered flying

70J 1 7
M * N IA L # 8.3 )* % 5K controls)
.:*K %* % ( )Q
IA L # O =' PA
1 2$ & D ;

&
' R$ D'#/ !* "' S
"? ( ,

R$ D'#/ .
2
2$
1 ,
< @
1#
C$ (actuators) @6V? h,
M1 K
] / & '#

.(flutter) l
<%
? K
(irreversible) #1% /
2L/
R$ D'#/ !^* , , , - Y ? . /
.(power control units (PCU)) & (* @* (#
5B<[ #
!
h!6#7 '# ' ()* (
. I$
2L/ & (* &*
,0 (#6 & (* &* 5 "' @6< 1
* ]/ "1
. ,0 R*? (#
!6#7 '# ' (
.
253
?
&
?U
' ()* (
. (35.3) ? ]
.,$ (
. 1 & I
'1U Hawk @
' BAE SYSTEMS
.(BAE SYSTEMS )

:(35.3)
* .& (* &* 1 &

_*L
_# (36.3) ? ]

'
L 6
" ( (0 CL3 /) (* 1
(* (
$
*U .& (* &* , - Y (* (

V? M ,
$ */ ,0 ;F
, 9
" ,
< 'L" D#
. " (] /) (
< 'L M" - C
$
. :(36.3)
254
+*
" 6

< * P M !*
m '# 5)" (* 1 * ,

M V? 9 .(

/ J? ,
,1 (# .'# 9a W , m aY
.

E
? 9 & (* &*
20 / 200 bar & (* &* ,$ , 'L
"1 <
'/ &< &3 V?" +* (3000 psi) MPa
& & (* &* (
!* "' S .M 9' *
#
"1 50 kg &3
* ]/ "1
'" .3/ / ($" * ,0
"1 .C" (
"1 C"" 7 C"' , - Y (* (

'" *6 @
'"# / % 2$ * g +
* / (g
C" S/ @ D?
$ K
3U !"# <'3
* ?#
,

hE
< ; 6 Z" 0
< 50 kg &3 .(* (

(
. ,0
& (* &1/ /
2# L a
B
.S P ;
' , (* /' CL3
(* @

@6V?"
20
2 & (* &* (A#X
"
2
"# `B V
"? ( , , - Y
. / ,
&
?U
& (* @* .6#
7 @
"'
@
' ,0
2
1
( +* <# ? & @<B$
B 3 2$ 3;
. ;
@
' ;* #<
PCU transfer functions

2.7.3

xi (36.3)
1
l
xi '
xi !"#$ %& .A AB
G +1
Gl + l
/ K M E0 CXA (

@
D / $
B * * ' <$ .
L P
$% ,0 !*

255
* x0 +*
G
Gl
x0 K/
x0 K
# (
* KY
G +1
Gl + l
:36<
'< x (
*0 ,0
>0 .V?
x =
1
( xi Gx0 )
G +1
(3.72)
.(V? H H&

1 C# G +*)
"1
3
? x (
*0 x0 M 1# 36<
:
@
L0% 9L 6 ,
*

x
! "# $ a
. # )'* # + K1 a = K1x % &' !(
.'
L 6
3 g R F BO , 9
HC
* g M / K/ & M ,0 &;Y $
S HT
(torques) (1) .

R$ D'# ,
(<

21 & (
1 ? *" ,
.(R K V?
'L &
1 , K" P0 ( /) (
< 'L H
.P0
+* Ps 'L
K$
V 1# / (Bernouilli) ,
< '# DL
1 'L E ,< $ 9
2' C#
*0 6 E0 9
"
:/ K/ *
V = K 2
* 1
1% ,0 F K 9
0
; "1 < @
; K2 +*
.(w
<)
256
V? E0 ,

. Q = aV * 6 E0
. K1K 2 x Ps P1
K
#
(
<

V?
E0
. K
# R F a[0 P0 7 K1K 2 x P2 P0 = K1K 2 x P2

> P2 = ( Ps P1 ) +*
# V? @
0
*
# A +* P1 A = P2 A >0 *" , $

*7
P
. P1 = P2 = s ,

.M 9'
2

Q

: Ax 0 = K1 K 2 Ps
x ! "# . Q = Ax0
x0 = Kv x
(3.72)
< x < . K1K 2
(3.73)
Ps
A 2
V? 1# @
; Kv +*
:"1 *
x0 = K v
1
( xi Gx0 )
G +1
(3.74)
:"1 * R
x0 1
1
=
xi G (1 + TAct D )

>0 .
(3.75)
(G + 1)
K
# V?" , @
; TAct +*
GK v
. 7 $ '# )" , V?
+% .0.1 s

$ $% &'
&
$# () *+# '
.(10 rads/sec) 5' 1.6 Hz ( 1 23 3dB)
,- /
257
# V? I7 M

(B#O

2
g 1 Hz 1 ' 5)"
.P61/ &
* ,0 32o
%

2 3 8.3
Auto-stabilisation systems

1.8.3
Limited authority auto-stabilisation systems

* 9$ * #% Y
L #* "* $
*
# (
. '# R* .
# (
#37 ,0
?i/ 3 ;6;
.#% (
.
*7 < ,0

?O
/ , m
(1# 6 78 $ ) 98# $; '< 7#
*# ' ++ *

=11 )6> &' &1 98#
$ #B *

8 *
/98# ? @<
$ .(4.6.3 ' 23 /*)
C* D 2)- E

# => @ 98#< 6> 7# 8 6
&1 98#

2)- @ F &- G
)G H &'
. /> 8* 9 9 /@ $ &'
# (1# 6 78 $ > 7# % 98#< 6> 7#
.H) I - 23 J @ )6> F &' &1
G
6 ,8 $ K F @ 98#< 6> 7# ='
? @< (L &
#*G $8* < +
@ (*
) $; '< ) *
6> 7# *
/98#
/*) &' &1
# *<
,1# J> .5> =>
$; '< )
#< 6> 7# H 5> H) @ (5.3 ' 23
258
78 $
(( + $M ' 7# H +B .(
#
.# (1# 6 5* 8 $ CG - 8 (1# 6
< ,0 &* &

3 &'# * , m # (
. (B#O
S "1

21 5' Y
L '*
$#
, @
'
$ % R / , < &* &
., m # ' * '' I$/
.? I

( j / ,'
* (
.
&* , - #% '# &'# / (* $
/
' >0 , - #% (
. ,0 ?0 K/ +*
* ,0 R +*
* &* , - #% (
. $ &'# .
Z"

$
.5g E0 R$ D'#
7# . $M P 7# 5
> 5 (37.3) O N
'<

&6) N 8 8O $- H*
QRO
.$; '< QRO
#3 &
/ 9? $;
/ ("* S QRO) $6 $; J QRO $; '<
.)>1 / S ) &- )>1 M -

&

1 XO 9$
* ,

, R$ D'# ] *
, R$ D'# * , - a (
. ( ., - #% TBO
Y
L (1 (; # * * &
' < 9 C#

* 93 ,0 .* ! * &
'" K
] < 9 C#

, - #6
L * * ,0 .Mqq / Lpp / Nrr ,1
'%
1 C# (&
' <) (@
;) '# * 2< ;/
K
` / ;# K
$
* , - #% Y I/ ;
'# I$ / R ; ) C" K ;F
V? '# & $ 7 ;F .(,# I$ "1
.&* 6 R K &
' ,0 S/ & ;Y R$ D'#
259
.
:(37.3)
K$ <?# '# P

<?# &
' k
I %
&
1 ( (auto-stabiliser rate gyro sensor) , - " ,1#
C#
" K ' ;# / ! V? R
, - #% . /
* ,0 .
R0

2
1 K ' @ 1

$# (
1 ? , R >0 , - "
2# C#
D"' . '
7 K
,
1 9'3 D? , - " ,
<
D'# R F 5d<O (auto-stabiliser gearing) , - C#
.&
' <
; $/R$
d=";X @
*? k
2L 0 , - " "1/ C#
.(#$ ' ] R' (# )
.(!6#7 '#
&
? ( &'# &* '# T< % @6
L (.<
] < <?#

,3
' D? 6 , - V? K
.((38.3) ? . ) ,

1 9='X (band pass filter)
K
` /) 1
2
% D
9 ,3
' U D?
260
I
;/
' 0 / L
< , - a V? 9 ! (?

(dc ?

(#

2
g 5B<[
P) .@
; 5
'< % <
U @ S ,0 , $< % * .(blocking)
& T< * $
K
] < <?# TBO &
? .,3
'
,0 ! ' ,0 * / D? 6 ,

&
. $< % * I
L , - V? "' &
?U 0

2
g ' (* . / ,0 @
*? W / .*6 C$)
,0 Z R$ "1 (wash-out filter) 5`$
B D? (#
R
?O
.(?

$# 5$
< ( R 7 &* @
%
. !

:(38.3)
261
' * '' S "1 (*

<0 &
'
$# ,0 Q
$ 1# W
% ,0 , - C# * C"' 3
." (3 +6; / ;

1.1.8.3
Worked example of simple pitch auto-stabiliser
* 6 '# , m ,$ ; "1 "*
; ,"

C# 3 "1 *" 7 @

#* I$ DL
C#) 5.3 (# ,0 ?

% (#
C"' , -
<
;/$ @
$
D'# R F 5d<O , -
$ " 2$ &< k C"' R / &
?U $ .(* %
"1 .2< ;/

1% ,0 7 "; (3 "1 *" &

*
:
; #
.@X"A i/ 3 @
? < H/
g !"# K
] / 0
LU
@X"A i/ 3 V?
$# ,0 @
)" HC
.$ 3 ,'
,1# $ &?? "' @
*? K
] 7
% HT
.@BA i/ 3 K &
;# K

D'# q * % <
4.5.3 (# W$

:,
q
K (1 + T2 D )
( D + 2 0 D + 20 )
2
. K = M / I yT2 T2 = mU / Z +*
262
."# $ % :(39.3)
, - V? ,0 @
)"
) (39.3) ? W$

:(f @
*? $ ,# V?
:36<
'< D'# Gqq K
# #% TBO
= i Gq q
(3.76)
:"1 * E#

.&

1 XO i , - C# Gq +*
q=
K (1 + T2 D )
( i Gq q )
( D + 2 0 D + 20 )
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Further reading
Babister, A. W. Aircraft Dynamic Stability and Response. Oxford;

New York: Pergammon Press, 1980.
Bertin, John J. and Michael L. Smith. Aerodynamics for Engineers.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979.
Blakelock, John H. Automatic Control of Aircraft and Missiles.
New York: Wiley, 1965.
Cook, M. V. Flight Dynamics Principles. London: Arnold; New
York: J. Wiley, 1997.
Dommasch, Daniel O., Sydney S. Sherby [and] Thomas F.
Connolly. Airplane Aerodynamics. New York: Pitman Pub.
Corp.,1957.
Etkin, Bernard. Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight. New York:
Wiley, 1972.
McLean, Donald. Automatic Flight Control Systems. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
McRuer, Duane, Irving Ashkenas [and] Dunstan Graham. Aircraft
Dynamics and Automatic Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1973.
Nelson, Robert C., Flight Stability and Automatic Control. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
Pratt, Roger W. (ed.). Flight Control Systems Practical Issues in
Design and Implementation. Herts, UK: Institution of Electrical
Engineers; Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, 2000. (IEE Control Engineering Series; 57)
266

456 7
Fly-By-Wire Flight Control

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+
.7 /: B

W
b
f
KA

!) S
2 SB +@2
4O
6 aW
.7 /:
8:
"N
E )
!" #

!
5Y7W B
4 =6 5 !) &0
6
#B
80 /' B
ZA
/# =6 : @2 ./:

.<A; N9 B
; 6 = = GS
$ 9 0

- #! 4(
:
A N1 O!

? ." 1C 4(
11 PG 2Q 4 $5 $A&
A1 *
S:
" 6!
RS& $A #! (11.4) $!1
(1 + TD )
$A-
( K
AV 6! @%U
) 9?T1U
T
(1 + D )
n
289
n A
K
AV
A .n = 3,5,7,10 $ RS&
- - G
5 0

- #! 4( -
:

7
)X & 4 5 4 47 n W B- A .+ G-
.40o
A
.
:(11.4)
290
E: ZA
4O
!'#0 DA
K# (12.4) W
K'# O 3 <
*@
#6 G DA W @2 . "N
O E > /W_ J7 (< W E ) O "7

:
> KB
6 80 Z
>6 #6 -
4 50E =
.GS #B
!
50E = O E
. :(12.4)

; ( !7
!" '( "&
% "
"% "
/: < /# =6 : O
.!
G
80 =6 :
X 5W
6 * !'S < = A0 &
6
B 1 #: B
0E *

( 2

80 N9 ! 6 O ./' !) /4Z #
P

= B .
4 _ 6 0E * KA 80
.(13.4) W !) Q) %

!
KA
4
<B o `)
4 i & @ 5
; !)
D #6 ,0E <B /' !) 4Z T
#: `)
.#
P #: ,A , %B

291
.
! " #! $%&
'
() :(13.4)
o X ' /W <

%B
D #6
5 =6
< =6
:
; O .K
i *
;
./:
+ *@ 5K 5/:
.(14.4) $!1 4( NM ! $! *
S: #- " 6! +"
5& G . " $! 8( YB J Z5& G A. "
6! .

: : : 6! :
45! C $&
.N ?= 4[ : )A 4( NM 4 ! $!
.
' :(14.4)
f

Q'E < (15.4) W DA
:!2
; . integral !
proportional !
292
1
(1 + TD)
*
c 5 1 +
TD
TD
&
6 (0 dB) / <
<
W 5 ; /:
X 0E *
#` 5:
.< W 5T 5
! # &4

W 3 #
K' !7

/
> 2@0

+@2 .
@O <
> N9 !\
/'
3 @2 .
/' /
6; !)
# < K4 <
>; 5 C 3A !) /' /
./' #B
5/J

1.3.4
Pitch rate command control

; : K
K (16.4) W DA
.(DA
/) &)R@9)
.(7% #3 23456) *+, - #! )/ ! 0 :(16.4)
294

; : /6 B ; : 0 @7

.; : (&B ) B 2)
:
b
9 5K'2 K /
C /' !)
.(
C) 
W
5q 5; : 5 5
!

;
: (3.52) : .4.5.3 5X4 E0 !)
= T2
1
q
1 + T2 D
(4.6)
::
qdt =
1
q
D
(4.7)
B
.
:
2 S
qdt >:
&
6
<

53> !) 5/q
;

qdt = `) 5@S .90o 1/ <
< , T2 >> 1 X
. T2 >> 1 X
5; : O =6 %

/6
K'# <

(7 /# % @2 .< ; : *

qD X 5 q E = ( q D q )
; 3A 7

( ! *@
;
) 5
2; 3A 2 /:
% <B) .S
;
, ; : O !)
;
3A -) B
.(
; : 0 @7

K'# `) 5K'2 K /
C /' !)
5 /
/6 ) KB ? E ; : O

-) 4 1 :W
*
5=4 & S C =6
295
0 @7

&:W
/# % @2 .* : F
!'S
.>4 KB
/#SB !2 5; : &B *
c 5 S
: = E
=6 >4 KA
E &B S
<Y /#SBO =
(6 100,000 = 50,000) /' S ! #
.(fit and forget) ]
b M
3

!'S -) &:W
C % i
.!'S -) !) KB S
 6 ! !'S -)
!) &)
; B
-
!) W i<
G: D <B =6 6A :W

, 4 50

. <B =6 :W

O 3 SB# !'S -) &:W

=6 # ?: +@S (< & : ) < 5; :
A # =6 0 D
@2 .S

BS
. #
*
c 56 # 6 / (4
SB# KA
: F
] * : F

6 6 &6
?: +@S < 51
3
.* : F
K
!:
X S:
8: !) % W ; : * : F

P#
: ! * : F
; : P# .( B C) C*N
.E0 @2 - P K4 : FA 5 =6 5 /
*@ P# 2 5
P# <
=4 / O !0

. 1 =6 :
= P

296
(

< :
A B & < B
., aefW 1 =6
:) !) &7
3
B
; -
W 6 <E B /' 3 :

5\ =

.6
(
(4 % 5 =6 5/' 2 .

./' ! 1
!) B (4 (17.4) W DA
= 2 BS/
&' 15 Hz = 8 /6 2 * @2
!0:A 6 44 4 )
KA 2 .*B &' 4 Hz
5B .K4 =6 =
5 B
G:A 44
##
2 S ) 5((foreplane) D ) @ D
./' S e
S E ('
'4)
.,
9)) ) :(17.4)
:W

/' :W

!

&:W

.
16 !) 3 P#
!
5* G; KA
.K S
: +@2 N96 = &:W
3>
: &B `) 54 5(17.4) W !) 4 !)
297
] (7
C B +B
) =6 S:A ;
`) 5- @2 !) .(0E *
#) /: =6 * : F

4O
% /: 2 * : F
] 3> A)
.
/: = 7

(B 5 =6 54 3>
!
@ E ]> & 54 =6 .:W
3> =6
!) W
S:A F
] &B <
4 &4
N 9
/: /6 2
3A .<E B
:
S
4
.*#

# B
!
@ E 1>
i
B: 3 K <
1 +@2 .!E0 6 %B

D
.%B
D #
!'S ! 7A 3#
!) &7
i<
6 %B
D G 6 D %B
D -)
7A %B
D G 3 <
1 +@2 .*_ %:A

.!
G !) !2
@ E /4
; 1> 4
/4
; 1> .* P#; &4O

6

%B
D 3 B !) A0 B &6 6 /'
&6 6 /' / 'S /4
; 1> .@ D 4
0 ) %B
D ; 5K G0 # !) : B
D (elevons) 0R: :) D 4 K'2 K aB
.aB 4

(ailerons) 0R:
298

. "
#
) & '( !"# $
% " &
# 0 ( 1,( -)/ !+
, (18.4) *+ !
3
,
4 5
4 .-) *+ *
2

-<) !+
=
(46 , " & &78 9:;
-<) !+ " 9
" ? 4 .

>
2= 5B )D ((18.4) *+ A B $,) -) *3# &
.

(de-stabilising)
.5) ;%< 7 :(18.4)
299

1.1.3.4
Agile fighter pitch rate command loop

> /' : /6 =6 4 2 !
! m S :
00 A
)
K
A
) !2 /' O
<B .' !) 12 (
C) <
.
4
&' G
6 /W & =
s 5]; 4Z ; S6 :

4 @2 !)
;
3 -)
D(d/dt) 4Z 6 s 8:

5(Laplace operator)
!) &# /6 % ]; &

.*: !S

( .: B &@ A0
&;: !) '
; W 3 :

<
: !) /7 SB ]; &
): S & @
. S &A

16,000 kg = m

14.5 m = !
11 m = aB

50 m2 = S aB
2.5105 kg m2 = Iy ; !
@ E #6
(K
/6 600) 300 m/s = VT B 6
g/B 2/3 = /6 600 6 g/aB

' !) 12 < = ! m S
5106 Nm/radian = M %B

D G B
; #6
W
5105 Nm/radian per s = Mq ; #6 B
; #6
W
300

!) &0

, R S 5;
< > -
W 5+6 &
.U 5* ? M4$ &W 5 C &4O
5Y7W B

:! !2 Ab
0
" q/ ! :1
T2 T1
2.5 105
T1 =
=
Mq
5 105
Iy
.T1 = 0.5 s *
:/6 600 6 g/aB B 2/3 =:
2 1
= 16,000 10
3 60
Z = 1.44107 `) !
.(K
g = 10 m/s2 1o = 1/60 radian)
.N/rad
T2 =
mU 16,000 300
=
Z
1.44 107
.T2 = 0.33 s *
M
:2
!

c=

50
=

11
.c = 4.5 m *
301

12 =

50 m = 0.124.5 m =

(!'S ! # = 4 # ) ) Z = M

1.441070.54 =
.M = 7.8106 Nm/radian *
(19.4) W !) 6 /' !4

!

= 3B) T2 5T1 5M 5Mq 5M Bbc 9 6 > 3
.(X4 E0 54.5.3 !) (30.3) W
.

:(19.4)
:!
=6 !
B
q/ =6 E
1 / 5 105
q
(1 + 0.5s )
= 5 106
5
1 / 5 10
0.33
(7.8 106 )
1+
(1 + 0.5s ) (1 + 0.33s )
:= S
: +@2
60 (1 + 0.33s)
( s 2 + 5s 25)
302
:
q
60 (1 + 0.33s )
( s + 8.1)( s 3.1)
Y >J0
!2 N9
<A; : /' B

. et / 0.32 *
c 50.32 s *
c 51/3.1 s +> ! # &4 >0
g
:>: =: t2 : G:RA # X 5 e 0.7 2 \
t 2
= 0 .7
0.32
.0.22 s = : G:RA # `) 54

:2
:

Gq = 1 + qE
Ts
O 4 B %B
D &B = Y
< Gq X
/: .; : O qE 5 ! # &4 T 5; :
.!
'2 =6 (20.4) W !)
.
:(20.4)
303
:!2
0 /:

q 60 Gq (1 + Ts )(1 + 0.33s )
=
= KG ( s )
qE
Ts ( s + 8.1)( s 3.1)
(4.8)
:!2 7 /:

q
KG ( s )
=
qD 1 + KG ( s )
:: @B - 6
;

1 + KG(s) = 0
.
, ! (#B S !7 !

60 Gq (1 + Ts )(1 + 0.33s )
q = 0
1 +
Ts ( s + 8.1)( s 3.1)
:= S
: +@2
Gq
Gq
3
2
25 s + 60 = 0 (4.9)
s + (5 + 20Gq ) s + 60Gq + 20
T
T
:= S
: +@2
( s + a)( s 2 + 2 0 s + 20 ) = 0
(4.10)
(1 Hz ) 6.3 rad/s 0

$
) 12 Hz # !"

1 2 " %& "' ' *+
,-. /
0 " g
/
*" 6 7 "8& 9: 1 Hz 0 .( "' 34
2 < <="& .$ $
/";4 $ "
>" ?
"'@ : A $ ="& " 9 0.6
.G <#
DEF /".
<B%. : /";CA $

304
%@B 5 ( s 2 + 7.56 s + 39.7) !

2 < !:
:
. (3.8 j5) (3.8 + j5) 2
S6 E T Gq > `) 5@B @2 =6 ) :
+@2 .@B !S

0 B

!) B W /7 5 =6 5S ; .!
<
*
- P b
:f
# C ( 5

2 6 : <
:
.E0 @2 S !) 3B = FB +@2 =6 F;
/ T Gq > -
W 5 =6 5
.K 6 /6
& +@2 C =6 5
: & :
=6 E # &4 <
/ ) E
S`) 5@ 3
.7 /: B
; @B
:=6 E (4.10) : 0
(s
+ (a + 2 0 ) s 2 + ( 20 + 2 0 a) s + a 20 = 0
(4.11)
= 0.6 > 6 8:

4 s s2 & : /
:=6 E 0 = 6.3
5 + 20Gq = a + 7.56
60Gq + 20
Gq
T
60
25 = 39.7 + 7.56 a
Gq
T
= 39.7 a
(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
E a T Gq SB 44 44 \ &;: +@2

:=6
: O 4 B/%B
D &B 0.46 = Gq
T = 0.67 s
a = 6.58 s1
305
S

!

N9 <A;
; B
;
W 'A
!B = 0.6 50.15 s *
c 51/6.58 s ! # &4
5 rad/s 2 (A !:
) 1 Hz (A C !:
P
.KB (A : B
% * (0.8 Hz
:!2
;

0.46 1 +
0.105s

2.3.4
Lags in the control loop
!) B
!
&0
2` KB K4 4

n DA
2 GS .<E B /' 8
) !
; :

K'# <

KEE 5
.K'2 K /
C /'
;
!) @O (4; * P#; &4O
S E
# !2 7 /6 *
!) &0

:!2 &0

.&Y7W -1
./WW &W :W
-2
. & : !) (latency) 9 f -3
.? M4$ &W -4
:! ) #B` S
W>
&4O
+@2

:

$ % &'$ * + &+" ,(!"# "
)
306
:; 198 !5 678 &/ " .- " ./ !"# 0 1 23
1 (21.4) 1+ &@// .<=/ */ ": >%" ?/* 1=
10o &/ B: $ " 1 Hz ": >% . # : " &/: A"
90o B: $ " > ,10 Hz " .50o !"0 " 5 Hz " ,12o !5
30 C/ .(</B 0.6) </B 6 dB !5 :; 198 !5 678 &/ "
"0 $ " # : " &/: A" 1 1+ +// 6A" &
/DE A $ ,.= F/ G $ AH 11 & 23
.+/"/; F- $ /:G
6
*
X @ /OB) 7
5 =6 5B

2 5 G
!) 'B0 / /# eS9 Y7W
(rate limiting) 6
.(21.4) W !) :

.1 : < G &

E W q 6 X9b

:
&4O
( ; !2 6
G &

.N9 <
: =6
G
`) 51E & (4
, 4 56
SB
@
&>Z W 80 = *Z Y7W B
!) T
!)A_
X9N
@'6 . /6
m S
.@ B
/ !)
&:E

&4O
*0
E
!) E 6 @

5@
!7 E W h
E &
) .1E & !) 6
.' =6 S>
!) 2@ !7 :W
B
; :

&B 54 =6 . b
&:W
F =6 K
6
6;
0N &B F `) 5 &@ 6 *
#

#6 # 16 S (dynamically tuned type (DTG)) K
6 E &B .70 Hz = 60 !) # 8:
307
!) # 86 KA S #

W &@ > \ /
7E &:W
+@S A0 &
6 G
.60 Hz
@
6; !) @Z <
> % ; (5 Hz
6 5o =) K6
=6 /WW &W KA <
> .=6

@ * 2
. &0
= *Z
KA &W +@2 V:W
&Bb9
.

:(21.4)
308
&/"I = $ /I "/+ 2 & E/ /DE A :
,&* E !5 ; J1+ ?H/" ,&//DE & E/ "" .= /" 2+0
(sampling delay) K/= %E &/DE &A .": >% !5 "
(transport delay) 1B E" (F:B 1+ ;K/ L0$ 2/ = /)
!5 0 M- 5 I"" 0 N5 I" &/ E = <- )
: " PK/= %E : " M ": >% (22.4) 1+ "/ .(O
&* E : " M ": >%" .@/= Q$ >. " &* %E
! .&* E $ <" @?"* ?" /" , F </: C /
198 7.2o ": >% !5 ?H/ &* & 10 ms E ,1D 1/
F &" G ,10 @/
! ,= " .36o " >% &'$ 10 Hz " P2 Hz
/DE &'$ " ,:/ >% F 2 0 R " , Q/*
.
"
&"+/ B G *5
."# !$

! :(22.4)
!) !B@ ! M4N DW

B
:

@2 .! M4$
q 6 G
: /# ; .(18.4) W
# = 80 *@ ! M4$
=6 -c = 3 7
%:

.
/#
6 0E 2>
309
10 =

4 /'
,: ,6"
!7
;
/6 !) ? M4$ &W 4

16 !) ? M4N &W 6 = <
> .*
.P:; B
&# /3 & G 2 1+ 27 V /I S/TUD 0
,10 @/
! , &"+ I" .Q/. W: N:
" < QB S/TUD
/DE &
30 C/" ./I 0 !5 $ /3 S/TD9 0
$ / : 0*5 X0 " / : 1/= 1 & Y/" /=/: " .TUD
.@/= L0$ G $ A# = Q 8;3/ = &5 X/0 "D
= S/TD9 0 : " 7 %
?A ,(18.4) 1+ !5 F .2%+0 Q"= ":" C + 1+[ XZ0V
Q" ": >% &
& 2\" . 1B ": &@//
&
G5 ,:B$ F &"+/ I (3 Hz !5 1 Hz D) # : " &/:
.</+ &"+/ &
&+/ S/TD9 0 Q & + >%
5 m 2
;
> !) "

* X =6 &
6 < # 5 =6
FB .%
*@ "
=6 : @2 .KB

-c P
= *Z
n = 3 > 5(11.4) W =
10 dB : &
6 < #
S ; 28o +> =E>
.(!
=6 5
; !) ! # &4 !2 n) K
S 2
X ? M4$ &W 60 - : @2 DA
.
6; !) 2@ 

Tf
b > /: < !) %
# *@ 2 < m 2
G
2 %) *@
6
0 /: <
; 6
9 = !2 B@ < m 2 .(/) 0 dB [ > 180o +>

.dB

6 = *Z *@ !)A_ G
2 m 2
/: < %) *@
6 180o +> G
P
- 6
.45o = !2 B@ m 2 .10 dB
0
3 W 7
,00 'A
* 0E > KB
K4 #
B .!
6 !2 90o X 5/W
6 360o &0b6A #B
X ? M4$ &W *
&' .(n90o = E n B ) .=6 &

S 4 00

. : 3 B
6; !) @Z
6 80 B =

16
< `) * &
6 /
/:
!
&0b6A K'# 180o X 0 dB #B
; <B
0
<
.(180o KA) U 51260o 5900o 5540o *
c V360o
.&
+@2 6 5,4 9 dB 5< < m 2
2
0 /: G
X * &

5&
+@2 6 0 dB < #B
360o &06A 360o

.&
+@2 2 /: 4O

311
.
% &
' (
# :(23.4)
S
): ): =6
6; 6
312
3.3.4
Roll rate command control
0 @7
X 5(24.4) W !) ; :
KA b
f
.; : &B ; : 2 !
b

>; &4O
SB KL )
1 &:W

: 0 @7
.(5.3 ) X4 E0 !) W B
!\
; )
P:; : &B -
W 5r 5P:;
5 5P:; # A
1 .P:

.!B F
] !B F
P:; &:W

.,#- # /

%& )*+ :(24.4)
313
/ C + " 27 V ,0G 1=

Q" $ 10 " +"
.1+" WBG "0 2 </
&+/" .2+0 "0 C + 1/= /"
.?"/ &/ Q"= C + &/" </
S/TUD 0 27 V"
!
!" ##
4.3.4
Handling qualities and PIOs
/6 : %4
b>R /'

(#B 2 .(25.4) W !) !
!) 2 57

!
/: 3
B /:

!B # ; 3A
./'
/> %B
! +B
; 7
!

!) < "7
X` @'6 /' !) 4Z 3) /> %B
.3)
(flight path
& /'
/' B
-
.
/: -C .kinematics)
&0E .( ) /' / Q'E !
B
3
!
/' ! Q'E
SO S0:
/B /
-
. 80 6 (<: ->
Y
.
E
!) !' G2 /B / Q'E
.(
# 0 :(25.4)
314
] ; S6 :

6 (<6 / Q'E /B
= (Cooper-Harper scale of ratings) 2i &
&0E =6 /W6 5/#

&0E =6 X V/W6
1 #B !) &:
S>
W
&
+@2 .

.C 5B 5A &') ; 2

!
S
58 iB 5BiB
4 S =6
W
A '0
. (4 > "#
/6 !)
.# 5G
5:E 4 K > S =6
W
B '0
.F>_ S 4 ) S =6
W
C '0
. * ] 2i &B"
] (1.4) B
% W9 = *Z
E
!) <:
(pilot induced oscillations
4

&@@
SB 6 'W $
C
&@@ 6 /6 +@2 .(PIOs))
&; !) 4 T'
S &@@ +@2 ./'

.1E
@ 4
&@@ /2 SB

&@@ A6 & E (Wright) & /' V/ ?#
!) 4
&@@ & > . 4

ZA
4 E
!) <6 B
6 W
/?#: C &'
/>) A0
/E /
0 80
.(g/E:
315
) :(1.4

2
3
4
"!

#
) ('
&& $%

*+ ,%-
$ / .

0

5
$%
+ $ / 12 .

*+
$%

4 $ / 12 .
"3 *+

'5
637 *+ 0 12 .

83 *+ '-9:
<$ => 1+3 9 .
>@?.

8
'5
'5
10
'5
316
+
1A+3
5&3 3
' 1A+3
>
) ?B 1A+3 #C 1

& &' S 3
4
&@@ & 5 =6 5
p 6 < &@ 0 @7

!) 6
4 C X 8: B
6 W
Y7W G
!) 'B0 /# = *Z 6
.Y7W
SB &
> .
B
!) G
S6 tW

= &
; !) 53> !) 5 4
&@@
&' # Lockheed YF22
&' =6
&' = &
KA SAAB JAS 39 Gripen

=6 .6
&4O
= +@2 &b
R f > .777 [ C17
&@@ = *Z /A ] 6
 A 5KB : ): 0
.KB #B
4O
((24.4) W = 3B) %

*@

. B
!) 4 0.3 !) EO
! # O
2 .
\ :
527
5 =6 5< 5

DW B
:
/' B
6 8:
-c
=6 >
 @ 5@S ./ = /: < E @ /:
6
B
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Further reading
Barnes, J. G. P. Programming in Ada. London; Reading, Mass:

Addison Wesley, 1982.
Briere, D., C. Favre and P. Traverse. A Family of Fault-Tolerant
Systems: Electrical Flight Controls, from Airbus A320/330/340
to Future Military Transport Aircraft. ERA Avionics
Conference 1993.
Coad, Peter and Edward Yourdon. Object Oriented Analysis. 2nd
ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Yourdon Press, 1991.
Davis, Alan M. Software Requirements: Analysis and Specification.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
DAzzo, John J. [and] Constantine H. Houpis. Linear Control
System Analysis and Design. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
(McGraw-Hill Electrical and Electronic Engineering Series)
DeMarco, T. Structured Analysis and Design. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Yourdon Press Computing Press, 1978.
Hatley, Derek J. and Imtiaz A. Pirbhai. Strategies for Real-Time
System Specification. New York: Dorset House Pub., 1987.
Ince, D. C. An Introduction to Discrete Mathematics and Formal
System Specification. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press; New
York: Oxford University Press, 1988. (Oxford Applied
Mathematics and Computing Science Series)
361
Interim Defence Standard DEF STAN OO-55, The Procurement of

Safety Critical Software in Defence Equipment. 5th ed. April
1991.
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. (Prentice Hall International
Series in Systems and Control Engineering)
Military Standard DOD-STD-2167A. Defense System Software
Development. 29 February 1988.
Mirza, N. A. Primary Flight Computers for the Boeing 777. ERA
Avionics Conference 1992 ERA Report 92-0809.
Pratt, Roger W. (ed.). Flight Control Systems: Practical Issues in
Design and Implementation. Herts, UK: Institution of Electrical
Engineers; Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, 2000. (IEE Control Engineering Series; 57)
Ramage, J. K. AFTI/F16 Automated Maneuvering Attack System
Configuration and Integration: Proceedings of the IEEE 1986
National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, Dayton, Ohio.
RTCA-EUROCAE DO178B/ED-12B. Software Considerations in
Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification. December 1992.
Rushby, J. Formal Methods and the Certification of Critical
Systems. Technical report CSL-93-7 December 1993 Computer
Science Laboratory SRI International.
362

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0 1 A R ,#1$ / #/ 07 - 51A J ,07
.#1$ / #/ 07
d
* - *
0 1 2/ 0 $ #
dt
:>Y ./7 -!? > ! >! T/ ,T ,E4 > 51A *
>+ T
& , H
T = H = -
#B > 51A
368
(5.1)
:+
=
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(5.2)
I / #/ > 51A E 4 ] > * ,27 &
> # I # ^? / #/ >" 0 #
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.(precession) 9R @R ,#1$ / Ee4 > 51A /
51A > ! - &
/ * -% #
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0 1 2/ @; G G + 7 B4 >
> >" T74 A/-/= # 1 - /= 5H!
/= H!%
!
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0.5106 / - *
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/ 1! ,Z=?) T *
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8 4$ / @; + , 7 /
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(dynamically F ! Q
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0 1 2/

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& & .4 tuned gyro (DTG))

+ ,9 ! 5H! ,9/ 0 1 / > 5G @7A ,/
@7A 5R ^ / T
& .5Q/R ? 5H! > / * -A
/= H!+ > -!? #
7 % P - M 4 5 I /!

- /= H!+ > #% #
) -
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369
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F ! Q
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N/I87 -
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/ ^ / > 77 F
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- /=
,2=% 4 > 4 4 - .2=% 4 > 4 7/ 5D/
> N 9 A; E / C > / A !; >Y
.#B > O 74 7 74
A ^ /
2.2.2.5

The dynamically tuned gyro
+ ,7
A .F ! Q
7 % ! (2.5) # >0
4 #1$ 2/ !
7 *
0 1 2/ ,0
#
5H! 50 -7 > + ,> ! > (Hooke) 2& 7
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5 - >0 & ,> /
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#/
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51A >A k:! > F ! ] 7 5 T
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7 - @7A >
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370
.

:(2.5)
-!1 # >; ^ / #

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,- .( !?/9 320 9A) 9/ 0 A !A F ! ] 7 5

27 ,#
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@7A H/
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. !

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# :(3.5)
371

7A @7A i ?/ (pick-offs) 4= 5
M& >; ^ / ,
#; / #/ 7 0 > 0 1 /1W
./R
1 ; R 1
@7A > 51A # - 4!$ > 51A / C
! > -& F+ M& > 51A / .
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> 51A B7 !+ N; -

(samarium cobalt) 5
: 4!$ 4 l! - 4!$ #
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372
, 7/ + / ,T$ mE ,T!

m# =
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0 @7A 74 9 > 51A # E 4 >A
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> 51A /
.$%# & ' $ :(4.5)
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> 51A >1 SRA 5 .(torque balance) > 51A >1
373
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1 4N ; >
> 51A / 5D/
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R 1 @7A H/ -
51 48 !1 > 51A / 4 >
/ #/
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.
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n B 5 !% (caging loops) n B SRA 5 9A @0 SR
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2!&
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& F ! Q
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- @; -7? #</ - @; 5? >
R # / I (analogue)
. 8! * > 51A 4! - 9 # $ + (A to D converter)
374
.
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2/ 4 O4% I! ,5H! @; Z4 Z Z ! Z4 -4
+ 8! 4 ]7 $ 5 > 51A 2/ >% > 51A
- I T! # > 51A .? !1 9B ?

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8! A 4 *+ ,f ,8!
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Kf = > 51A 2/ 4 # > 51A 4
> 51A 2/ > 51A ? @7A ? K ^ /
.(s) 8! 9 ,(amp) 8! ,(Nm/amp)
:>Y > 51A >1 4 9 / -
Kf = H
> 3 $ #
d
dt
(5.3)
d
,(kg.m2/s) 07 *
0 1 2/ H ^ /
dt
:>Y ,- .(radian/s) #QR *
0 1
375
H
fdt =
K
(5.4)
,T ,94 !1 9B - > 51A 8! A >Y ,
27 #=
#; / #/ 1 *
0 1 > I F 4 T!
/ #/ Z? Z 1 Z 0 1 Z! #? - 8! # . !1 9B
T74 . -!? 10 @; 1 > J
! 5 #W
8! 5 =
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5=
Z ? > ,8B! #W N !A 9/ !? -&
R
. #W N !A >
c ?

3.2.5
Micro-machined vibrating mass rate gyros
5 - (Coriolis) S ?" #$
M&
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:& > + > A; #=$ 5
.91 A; m+
.91 !4% A; mT
A! E4 X # $ ! =$ >+ > > AW =
> F
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%
=$ 5 B7 8B! > >+ > !+ 2 > 5&% .A 10,000

H!% ,7/ 5D/ #? > 4 !; 4 - 4
- F8 + # ,j7 4 ]
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=
376
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0 " >e8
377
.

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:(6.5)

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2
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P
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378
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Gyro Chip (8.5) (7.5) >= >0
BEI Systron Donner Inertial 4 9e4 91 !! 1
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Systron Donner Inertial ,-# )

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379
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(8.5) # C8 .5A # 1 5 A > > =
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.(Systron Donner Inertial Division

)
.
5 1000o !
5 50o &
R
%
0.004o
& 9 = (threshold resolution) 86 9
(90o ST) * ? (? & ;
15o & 9 )
5
0.7 & 9 '- UV+ '
5 & 9 = B &* .60 Hz &
A ;
7
- & M 0.05
& 9 WA ./
2A ! 9 P- .
100,000 ! * < /N
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AX
Y -9
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4 /N 91
+ - 9:4 I8 EN !! 1
380
, $ 5
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9 -& 7 /
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? ,97 bB! 2=N
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>+ H/= T

5A - 1
& 9O @7A (F.W. Meredith) ^ .. #/
(Royal Aircraft
:47 7 ` - # > !A 1942
- RAE - & B! 5 8W 4 .Establishment (RAE))

1& . .+ !& .M .V # > -8 > > ! +
1o > #+ 9OB ?+ > 7 (Messrs G.H. Hunt and A.E.W. Hobbs)
.
! A #
7A - = M+ A! E4 r 9W ! !;
. / 4 1
!; @7A
4.2.5
Optical gyroscopes
1.4.2.5
Introduction
,* 7
-Q7/ 1 7
#? ,

#! >1+ - p! EB #= > >7 0 1 A
EB & .98 &
- E7$ #/ / 1 7 O8

?+ 5 R ?" & ,7R > A I T! >1 -
* 2!
.V -!B -: 1 B @; ! ,(Sagnac effect) 2!

# 5 F M > > # >+ ,I - ,?+
% A[ F 4 4 F (9.5) # C8 .1913 5A ! 2!

.2!
#
A TA I > > ,T ,2!
?% -!1 EB
@4 (anticlockwise (acw)) A TA A (clockwise (cw))
:=
381
T =
4A
c2
(5.5)
,O8 A c ,E7$ 4 9/ / A ^ /

.E7$ S @7A *A / #/ >7 0 1 A
@4 , 4 / L ^ / ,L ,* #4 - EB
:>+ *+ . L = cT =
4A
(5.6)
c
. !7 H! 5 T74 N7 E E=
L =
.O8B - *: / M!+ @4 ,#/ 0 + @7A ,-/ B 4+
.
:(9.5)
382
> FO 2/ O8 > > b ,(10.5) # @;

q > ,A TA I M
- *: 4 / #/ P 4!
.A TA A M
- P 4! > FO 2/
=
Z ? > > !B7 #!N >1 >Y ,#W # T G -
A #/ > !B > b ,>X . 2R / c = T *
#4 ,P1 @; / > P 4! >Y ,T >1 #= .
>B7 , (2R + R T ) * A TA I 2/ * >B7
. (2R R T ) A TA A 2/ *
:& T ,#!N >1 - EB
(2R + R T ) (2R R T )
T =
c
c
:@7A #/! T = 2R / c >A b
4R 2
(5.7)
T = 2
c
4R 2
L =
(5.8)
c
(5.5) > I >7? (5.8) (5.7) > >Y - A = R 2
.(5.6)
.
:(10.5)
383
* >e !A $ N N M& >+ C 8 >
F -4 !A * 7 - #/ & n M! # 4 >
.Z7$
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$ 2!
?+ >;
2!
# (Michelson and Gale) # G >7 5
,b% > A 600m330m -7 4

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1960

&' ()* + , - . $% ! "!#
. 43 3 (
52! /( 01 2 3 $
1963 5A - 9/ N - bKRA -

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#+
> / 2 ! M 4 5 ,(Macek and Davis) B 2 # >
.9 V!; / @; 5 #/ ` > A 4
/= H!+ - # -Q7/ 1 7
> NX A 2!&
# 0.01o > ?" A H+ , ? Q/R -
60,000 EB #B N/ > -!1 4 1 /!N - > 5A - A
-! ! 5H! F+ & ,- 5 - -Q7/ 1 7
J 5 .A
7QR > A .E7$ * #i 1 7 9
] #A
A A TA I > 7 ! ! - EB E 4 >A
.> >A :! #4+ - EB > >
! A TA
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4 J+ NN A! #
+ > -8 > > !
1 > -

M& 5 .2!
?+ * 7
^ / 1 7 O8 E=4W 1/7 t ! @; 8W
384
7 #= A TA A A TA I > &

N - 2/
7 7AB /
.* 7 > B 9A > > -!4
@7A #/ 5 . 7 B A - 8 - 5 EQ7$ *

N - *
#+ bKRA .% : > #4+
.1976 5A - (Vali and Shorthill) # - # > 9/
(interferometric FOG
-7 -7 ! > #

\ 4
(ring resonator FOG (RFOG)) -7 -Q7/ >! ! (IFOG))

.5 #/ ` > - c
* 7
>
F+ (IFOG) -7 * * 7
#
A 4 p! - 4! - 4 /1; ,2!
#
F
9 $ 2!
4 /1W E T74 .7QR >
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hM
N/I87 -
5H! S I E
!; -7
-
5H!7 9 V![ @% 74 >Y Z JK
5 -7 * * 7
@7A ! I8/M
=
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- @; 4 .1991 5A -
* * 7
@; 9! - /= H!+
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T # - i -7
4 (RFOG) -Q7/ >! * 7
#
4 * 7 ! ! Q7/ # $ I > ,-Q7/ 1 7

1 7 /1W *m > 8 1
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1
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I F 4 T! 5? > > 7 ! ! - EB .> !7 S
.-Q7/ 1 7
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385
>1 4 #1 N -Q7/ >! * 7

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> s*+ ! # B
7
-Q7/ 1 7
@7A 5&N 1 5
- > >1
& > & >% ,-7 * *
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.8/

2.4.2.5
The ring laser gyro
1 7
% !7 F 4 4 F (11.5) # C8
7A > & 5 > 8 > &
- > >7 1 7 1/ .-Q7/
& ,*
>8 > !m5 77 *1$ u B7 *1 7 V!W
& .^7?7 1 # !A 4 >0 E7$ -?7?
4 M 5 ,f ,-4 4! ,-! !
#gR E7$
A n ^ / f = nc / L = @4 ,L ,
7 * #4
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A TA I > / -
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*A #/ #/ -Q7/ 1 7
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> / *
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J #= > - EB & .>
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- (T + T
) EB I T! M
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R7 :
386
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R
.]
7 4! : T! 8! P 4 ( +)
8! @;
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:= @4
L f
=
L
f
:>+
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f =
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c
4 Af
cL
(5.9)
:>Y - , = cf *1 7 #!= -

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f =
4A
(5.10)
:>+ *+
f = K 0
(5.11)
]!+ 27

.4A/L *
#A K0 ^ /
:>+ *+ .-7 -A
fdt = K d
0
387
(5.12)
.
:(11.5)
> 51A >1 ! * F ! Q

/ -
T !1 9B #=

#; / #/ 9R 1 >Y ,-8!
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8!7 - *
#QR *
0 1 >7 F F F
R -Q7/ 1 7
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.- #? - ` > -Q7/ 1 7
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L = 0.2 m ]4 / =8% * -?7?

-
! -Q7/ 1
1 7 -
#4 (19.245 cm2) A = 6105 m2 / ] (20 cm)
.(0.633106 m) = 0.633 micron -!N
388
:* -Q7/ 1 7
#A
4 1.9245 10 3
= 60825 Hz/rad per s
0.633 10 6 0.2
1
. !? 3.39 =
rad * 9/ 8! 0A >Y -
60825

4 @7A E=4W 4 M # 1 > M&
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B
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#? C / # B
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389
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Z8B! */ # 27 - CERVIT 5 -

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390
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7 * #4 # 5
5D/ 5 .
S/Y # (piezo-electric transducer)
9 4 !A 1 7 T ^ / -q K1` 9A 4 9q I8
.] S
> !% -4 > 2,000 / A
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The interferometric fibre optic gyro
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Accelerometers

1.5.2.5
Introduction specific force measurement
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Skewed axes sensor configurations
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1.3.5
Introduction
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Stable platform systems
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R W 5 .-+
7
` ! #H ^ / ,B > T W @7A H/ * -
45o #W / >

R 9W .-% S - ? M
-
] B7 $ 9A; #= > / & #/
n B 5R
& > p! 5 > .
> 51A 2/ @;
0 1 / gR
!A -+
45o /

! *
0 + 5 & ,-+
7 #; / # #/
.-+
- *A G
4N > -

/ #
1` 2/ 5D/ 5
>A /!N * -7
/ / @7A *
0 1 I8

/ 1` 9A # ./!N #
-7
/ #
>
/ O @7A H/ ^ / B !A M& 4= 9; @7A HB/7 -7
#B I! - , H I
/ /!N / I 9
(26.5) # >0 . Q7/ 9! O!?+ *

' + , 9:4 ! ; #

. 9! O!?+ I #
#A 9
! KR !1 91
+ + !1 91
+ #? -% I8 4N
1 #
/ I F / i (resolver synchros)
.9
#1 N 9 ! - /= H!+
Q/R -Q7/ 1 7
H!" F *
]!+ N; ,5N
.5Q/R ? H!+ @7A 5&N 1 5 . ?
419
7 ,2 I ,- /= 5H! 9 ! # $ q

#? ,- /=7 % P J 5 ,3
.5 #B - ,(Schuler tuning)
5 ? Q/R - /= H!+ >+ @; 9W

?+ 4 - .9 ! - /= H!+ > E+
. 7 B7 ^ / > ?
.1
" :(26.5)
! 3.3.5
Strap-down systems
-
5H!7 5Q/R ? #A 9 (27.5) # C8
@7A # #7 X M& .- /= 5H! + I8/M
=
420
, N

I 9 !7 - ! > n7
B7 ?? .x ,>R1i 91
+ ,EN1!N Q7/ ,#
#/
- .>08B 5
/ >1 ,#+ 9 2= ,F ? !e/R 7
.5Q/R ? A; /! & T
!N >Y
4 5
> A > 1 E >
.! 1 5 5Q/R ?
.2&3 * - 4 )

:(27.5)
421

1.3.3.5
Attitude algorithms
5 ,2.4.3 5 ,^? #B - , , 1 <RA

A r ,q ,p 5
7 0 1 A > 4 - N E
, , ) 0 1
,(3.17) ,(3.16) N > > -& (
.(3.18)
, , #
+ > N E >
>A N >
:- /! @7A @4 !

E 4
= p + q sin tan + r cos tan
(5.20)
= q cos r sin
(5.21)
= q sin sec + r cos sec
(5.22)
B 9 - 4$8 # !A > N M&

:-
1 sin tan

cos
= 0
0 sin sec

cos tan p
sin q
cos sec r
(5.23)

%
&' .# $
! "
') . /0 )1 sec tan - = 90o () * + ( ,
" " .(, 56 ) #! 34 '
; <) 30o )0 + 8) / 9:9 :
. ! (singularities) 5 =5 (8) % > " 0
422
1 @7A 2!& > N ^ / # 9! 5H! T74

5 7A T7$ 5 ?=? = * 5H! ./!N
(Euler four symmetrical
% ! = 5 R

.Q I8 parameters)
T74 M
*
0 + @; / > / A
>+ C 8 >
& >+ bB! .T! # ]8 5 / #/ / > 4
/ I cos1 ,cos1 ,cos1 & 1 I! /
#/ , ,F/ Z! b .- @7A ,OZ0 ,OY0 ,OX0 -
OZ0 ,OY0 ,OX0 > / / A

#
/ &
.&
/ TG! - OZ ,OY ,OX / A
I E4
:= @4 % ! =
e0 = cos / 2
e1 = sin / 2
e2 = sin / 2
e3 = sin / 2
(5.24)
@; ! Q I8 / e3 ,e2 ,e1 ,e0 5 :!A >
: 1 = E > .OZ0 ,OY0 ,OX0 /
sin = 2(e0e2 e3e1 )
tan =
tan =
(5.25)
2(e0e3 + e1e2 )
+ e12 e22 e32
(5.26)
2(e0e1 + e2e3 )
e12 e22 + e32
(5.27)
e02
e02
423
:>+ C 8 >

e1 e2 e3
e0
p
e
e
e
e
1
2
0
3
q
= 1
2
e3
e2
e0 e1
r

e0
e2 e1
e3
(5.28)
, 8 -& 4 ?=? ! ,M

N = + 5 ]!; ^ /
:9 @7A
]!Y
e02 + e12 + e22 + e32 = 1
(5.29)
: 1 N > #8+ 1 > >&

.8% I
@7A E4! -1
. N 9/ "4 N -2
,+1 1 > S - F: I # # -3
./ q - # #<R
:9 @7A (5.28) T 9A; >
e0
0 p q r e0
e
r q e1
1 = 1 p 0
2 q r
e2
p e2
0

q p 0 e3
r
e3
= AX /! @7A + # 4$8 > M&
.X
424
(5.30)
0 p q r
e0
p 0
e
r q
1
.A =
,X = 1
^ /
2 q r
e2
0
p

q p 0
r
e3
.(B -& A X >+ @7A # $ 9 /)
,p >+ b 7 E4 4 7/ > M&
.tn+1 >1 @; tn >1 > t 9 !1 9 S @7A ? r ,q
:-& , X n +1 *+ ,tn+1 >1 !A X B7 i
t = X + AX t
X n +1 = X n + X
n
n
n
:>+ *+
X n +1 = (1 + At ) X n
.9/ B -& 1 ^ /
(transition
#!N B T I - & (1 + At )
.tn >1 !A tn+1 >1 !A / ]

> 4 - matrix)
,/!N ,
/ / #/ 9 1 0 1 !
Q
) - @7A R ,Q ,P 1 ; R V!N
7
,-67/ 1 7
,-8! > 51A ! F !
:^ / ,( 7 A
#
-7 *
t n +1
P =
pdt = pt
tn
t n +1
Q =
qdt = qt
tn
t n +1
R =
rdt = rt
tn
425
:-& #!N B >Y
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 P Q R
0
R Q
0 1 P
+
2 Q R
0
P
0
0
1
R Q P
:>Y -
P / 2 Q / 2 R / 2
e0
1
e
P / 2
1
R / 2 Q / 2
1
=
e2
Q / 2 R / 2
1
P / 2

1
e3 t n+1 R / 2 Q / 2 P / 2
e0
e
1 (5.31)
e2

e3 t n
E 4 >A #8+ # * # 1 O+ > / >

+ !?
> (Runge-Kutta) 6mp! 1 5
F8 + ,F
A T74 ^ / ,
> 6mp! 1
.F
# 5 ,t ,# >1 1 bB E 4 >A
#!N B C / e02 + e12 + e22 + e32 = 1 5
/ @7A HB/7 # 7A - / O4%
./
(quaternions) A F8 + -& % ! =

]
I
#/ > > !+ C 8 > ^ / , 8
.9 gR
N >
, , 1 5 T/ 2 >
, -& 1 :N 5 > !A .(5.27) ,(5.26) ,(5.25)

: = @4 = 7 :N 5 >Y , ,
426
e0 = cos / 2 cos / 2 cos / 2 + sin / 2 sin / 2 sin / 2

e1 = cos / 2 cos / 2 sin / 2 sin / 2 sin / 2 cos / 2
e2 = cos / 2 sin / 2 cos / 2 + sin / 2 cos / 2 sin / 2

e3 = sin / 2 cos / 2 cos / 2 cos / 2 sin / 2 sin / 2
(5.32)
B C 8 #7/ #? & -7 :

7A O4AW % = #!N B > I8 E
#+ 5& > O 2:% B T/ - !e8 8
.B FA=4
:-& % = 5 >Y tn >1 !A ]!+ b
e0 0.9
e 0 .3
1 =
e2 0.1

e3 0.3
.( e02 + e12 + e22 + e32 = 0.81 + 0.09 + 0.01 + 0.09 = 1 :E/7)

:-& 5
7 0 1 A 5 >+
(57.3o/s)
p = 1 rad/s
(F 2.3o/s)
q = 0.04 rad/s
(F 2.9o/s)
r = 0.05 rad/s
t = 0.01 s
9
P = 0.01 rad
>; ^ /
Q = 0.0004 rad
R = 0.0005 rad

427
,(5.25) N > tn >1 !A 1 T/ >

! * ,e3 ,e2 ,e1 ,e0 =7 ! 5 b (5.27) ,(5.26)
:@7A #/!
= 36.869898
= 0
= 36.869898
:-& #!N B
P / 2 Q / 2 R / 2 1
0.005 0.0002 0.00025
1
P / 2
1
R / 2 Q / 2
0.005
1
0.00025 0.0002
1
P / 2 0.0002 0.00025
1
0.005
Q / 2 R / 2
R / 2 Q / 2 P / 2
1 0.00025
0.0002
0.005
1
:>Y tn+1 >1 !A ,-
e0 = 1 (0.9) 0.005(0.3) 0.0002(0.1) 0.00025(0.3)

. e0 = 0.898405 >+ *+
:! 4 B7 ?e/ T/
e0
0.898405
e
0.304465
1
=
e2
0.101605

e3 t n+1 0.299785
. e02 + e12 + e22 + e32 = 1.000025 :E/7

> - #/ 5
! & - $ "4
.@%

:-& tn+1 >1 !A 1
428
= 36.918525
= 0.000963
= 37.442838
.7 9 # !A 7 M& 5

2.3.3.5
Generation of strap-down equivalent stable platform
! - !e8 / 7 (28.5) # C8
.5Q/R ? 5H! >8 : 9
T/ , = @7A #/7 = A #
(direction cosine matrix
M
N 5 T
B / C ,JK

7B , , 7/ / # / 9:4 / (DCM))

. ,(local North, East, Down (NED) axes)
.
:(28.5)
429
az ay ax

!"
# !$%
.aD aE aN &$' &( &( &$ !$%
&)* !$% &+ &, -/ 0 &
1*
.&$' &( &( &$ 4 &') 23-"
, 7/ / # / M

N 5 T
B
:-& 9:4 5
/ > 7B ,
e02 + e12 e22 e32
DCM = 2(e e + e e )
0 3
1 2
la 2(e1e3 e0e2 )
2(e1e2 e0 e3 )
e12 + e22 e32
2(e0e1 + e2e3 )
e02
2(e0 e2 + e1e3 )
2(e2 e3 e0e1 ) (5.33)

e02 e12 e22 + e32
, 7/ / @; ! 9:4 gR >Y ,

: = @4 7B ,
ax
aN
a = DCM a
y
E
aD
la a z
(5.34)
) " !" &* &5 / & #

0;# < = - 97 = >*?, 2 .67' 0, " 89: 0
&( &$ 4 A') 1 B &* % # = @(
9 @, & & CD = - E &$' &(
.& &% )
GH;I 3D ) J .CF
.5.3.5
0, 2K
& &% CD &% )

&`
; 5 / / M& >Y 9 ! / -
.Z JK ,! A +

430
b% A / / # / 5 ,5Q/R ? 5H! / -

4W A @; M
N 5 T
! B 4 Q A
-?/W 4W A I
2 5 .9:4 / @; ! -?/W
*` E/= # >; ^ / ,r ,q ,p ,9:4 5
A I M&
, , 7/ / @; ! 9:4 I8 @7A #/ @;
.( :N 4 ) 7B
-?/W 4W A # / M
N 5 T
B
7B , , 7/ / > Q A b% A
:= @4 9:4 5
/ @;
e02 + e12 e22 e32
DCM = 2(e e e e )
1 2
0 3
al 2(e0e2 + e1e3 )
2(e0e3 + e1e2 )
e12 + e22 e32
2(e2e3 e0e1 )
e02
2(e1e3 e0e2 )
2(e0e1 + e2e3 ) (5.35)

e02 e12 e22 + e32
/ #/ b% A / / >+ - 5 - C8!

^ / ,- @7A sin ,0 ,cos -& 7B , ,
.b 4 b% > A -&
VE/R.tan ,VN/R ,VE/R -& Q A / /

A g VN VE ^ / , 7B , , / #/
.b% 4 ! R - - > / #4 @7A 9:4
/ #/ b% A Q A / / >Y ,
: = @4 Z ,Y ,X 9:4
(VE / R + cos )
DCM =
V
/
R
al (VE / R tan + sin )

431
/ 9:4 / > M

N 5 T
B :N
: = @4 7B , , 7/
c c
DCM = c s
la s
s s c c s
s s s + c c
s c
c s c + s s
c s s s c (5.36)
c c
.c = cosine s = sine ^ /
, 7/ / > M
N 5 T
B :N
: = @4 9:4 / 7B ,
c c
DCM = s s c c s
al c s c + s s
c s
s s s + c c
c s s s c
s
s c (5.37)
c c

3.3.3.5
Digital processing of attitude algorithms
0, &*L7 & &#; &- !$% M -;

1* &0, M M- 4 0, = 6 -: .47 / 3 9--;
.&% &; &- #; 21 !
&1*: '*
8W
- : O4% J & -7
.O4% M& > /7 E4 @;
T
- O4% "! :(commutation) -1
77 K
U+ ; 7 I8 1/; 5 . 7 G 0 1 /
O4+ H . 7 T - 5
/ #/ ! >
>Y #!N B #/ ^ / # ]!% ,
- #
432
.? T 7R *

0 1 > 1 @7A F # pt
5 ] * -7B >17 T I I E N &
I8 E "! >+ > - # O4+ .Q - 1
+ !4+ =QR I8 !A n ]
@7A ,Q
5
! @; *` >+ > - , 4 / #?
bB E 4 >A M& #!N O4+ > # 7 > .#!N B
/ 8 4$ 5 ./ # - !e8 1 1 5
/
.- 5 - 1
Y 4
#7/ 5 T # - O4% "! :(integration)
-2
.-7 7/ #/ - N 7 77 #B! T
@7A) 94 # 1 5 O4% M& > # 7 5
E 4 >A (
> 6mp! 1 #? #
.^ / # 9 1
! 7 / # 7/
! -& O4% M& :(round-off) -3
"4 #
& . &+ #% (bit)
4 5
(*)

v K @; /
.9 / - 1 >" -: -

/ 77
v K 32 (double-precision) $ BA8
.O4% M& > # 77
#H3 &$% = N(* 63D J :(quantisation) -4
7* = &$$ 23-" = &$)'* -/ !" ;($ &$
=N !" O3- ;# J
& .0 0,
N3 :)
$ & & .;( #H3 =% M - G+$3
-'I R $; J .

& / G)* 0 (;( =/3
.() binary digit
(bit)
433
(*)
#H3 0, & (( !" 9-S & O B- - 0, 2

63D J = $
.7,D 6 -D #: = &#* !" T 0
.&7 &#*
& / C'3 @ =%

4.3.5
Coning motion
-) 2: B = &3 & $ )3 U( 0$

'* = &5 / & 73" = &3 & N(* .N3$
B & .= = 90o @' =-; = --
&3 & $) 6# * = 3 G) &$ -;
:0 0 # & & & =: C, .((29.5) ( 1* )
r = A sin t , q = A cos t , p = 0
:>Y (5.21) @;

= q cos r sin
.
:(29.5)
434
,ZB *

>+ -& 1 N / >+ b
:>Y ,> $ > 1 & >+
= q = A cos t
:@7A #/! #
= A sin t
:
! (5.20) @;

, tan = , sin = >Y 9 $ 1 > !A

:@7A #/! !?
/ #&Y ,F cos = 1
= r = A sin t sin t
A2

=
(1 cos 2 t )
2
(5.38)
:-& e > A 4 >Y ,
A2

=
2
(5.39)
* -A
7 > > / #/ 4 / ?"
>A #
/!
! 5e
! @; *` ,*
0 1 2/
- .> 51A >1 SRA - 1/ bA T *B I8
C / E 4 4 / T/ *8 > > ,#/% M&
.
R @7A
435
/ >A
#1A > > ,9 ! 5H! / -
T! # O% A #
1` SRA 4 9:4 # &
. !7 - 4 J! #" N !
@; -4 5e
!N bB / 5 - #1

.#&[ 7 T!
H!+ - 4 / 4
! O4% >+ " T

G
! / # / - O4+ >A F+ "! 5Q/R ?
.0 1 !7 7
1o 0 1 / >

! : 4 / ,Z=?
*` : - 0.01 #A "4
4 1 kHz
:* e
! A @;
,A #

0.01 1 1

2 1 57.3 60 60
100 2 57.3
' +
.- /= 5H! - 9 -& ,A # 0.02o *

5.3.5
Attitude with respect to local North, East, Down axes
1.5.3.5
Introduction
C4 @; ! >74 9:47 -!

# /!N - 1 >;
#= 4 eR ,-7/ -+ @7A * C4 *+ ,-7/ S
.b% 1 @; 9:4
436
M
*+ ,- / # @; ! 9A 74 9:4 M
1
9: >A 9A #1 4) .- T4 /! * -7/ #1 4
.(9:47 -/ I8 -!
- > 4 #= b% #/
-& - ,
! # / *8 > ]!Y 2
.-8% -
/ 4; @; ,- / @; !
-
5H! B4N 5 + &
I
?=? 2!&
:> > M& .- /= 5H! + M
N/I87
4 M 5 8%
]
-1
.-7/ -+ / C
4 ,
4 ] > bf 0 1 A ]
-2
5 4 9:4 M
/ C , > >+
F&
>+ C 8 5 .(gyro compassing)
M
N /

1 /! - > 5A > >" T74 ,#/ *
0 + @7A ,0.1o
5H!7 ! G - ! M&
.A # 0.01o > #+
.#+
5 * M
N I87 -

5A # -&
I
> C & bf - 4!$ #
-3
T!
+ # 60o > #% b 44 !A 0.7o >8 @;
.ON 4
9A ,-8% -
/7 -% 4W (30.5) # C8
(local level,
#7 I -7/ S / 4; 5 ] ;
. 7B , , / + North slaved axis frame)

437
.
:(30.5)
! "

2.5.3.5
Angular rate corrections for the earths rotation
0 1 A ]
] E -!
5 (30.5) # >0
:> g @; ]7 7/ > * , ,bf
^ / , cos * # @; * / #/ gR m+
.9:4 I8 !A b 4 1
/ #/ ]
-+
@7A ] 4 T
C / &
5H! / - .9 ! 5H! / - # @; *
4 !A ,#? . >8 ] 4 5 C / >Y 5Q/R ?
438
#/ b% A gR >Y ,(>! 4!) N

Z 51o30' b
* ,A #
15 cos 5130' * # /
.(A # = 15o ^ /) A # 9.3377o
. sin * -7/ -+ / #/ gR mT

.! " !
# $ % &# " '(

.
# )*

)+ ,#- &/

#/ bf 0 1 A7 B gR 2!& >+ H/= T

M
N / B4 ! + #g & ,E @; * /
.Z/N ]/ 5 *

#$ 3.5.3.5
Vehicle rate corrections
> 4 !A O8B - -7/ -+ > B (31.5) # C8
-+7 0 1 > A . b% >% b% C4 E 9:4
:* - / @; ! -7/
A gR VN ^ / ,E @; * / #/ VN/R
.b% 4 ! R Q
A gR VE ^ / ,# @; * / #/ VE/R
.Q
]!Y .Q A !" ; R >0 1 >A >&
E @; * M/ #/ -+

*8 >
@7A VE/R VN/R > 0 1 > A !A # @; * M/
>Y 5Q/R ? 5H! / - .-7/ S - ! @7A HB/7 -
. >8 &`
; 5 Q A / /
439
. :(31.5)
#= > ] > Q A C / / &
(nautical mile (A/-/= # ) 9 / 9:4 A >A

!A 9/ * / -/= # >+ D I (NM)/hour)
.b% C4
& 1 9A 600 8% A 9:4 ,#? # @7A
,9A 519.615 *
' + , V N = 600 cos 30 A gR >Y ,30o
.9A 300 *
' + , V E = 600 sin 30 A gR
440
519.615
A7 C / T74 ,-
60
300
,- / #/ ,A
- / #/ ,A # 5o *+ ,
60
- (5Q/R ? 5H! / - + , /) ! @7A HB/7
# 8.66o *+ ,
.-7/ S
(Doppler 7 #? A7 -

5 >
A -gR EN , #+
! + ,radar)
+ 7 4 > A g .Q A C / /
> - A gR I 9A
5
!
.Z/N ]/ 5 ,
E C F

5
- -+ I
C / F B7 $ > 9 gR
.5 #B - 2 J 5 , 5H! #g
/ #/ , (VE / R ) tan ,Q A C / F8 + 2!&
@7A HB/7 -
@7A ] 4 T
* (#B+ @;) -7/ -+
A C / ?=? / F8 + (31.5) # >0
/
E
5
. (VE / R ) tan
,VE/R
.- I

,VN/R
,Q
,bf -4 / #/ Q A gR # 7/ (VE / R ) tan
:>+ *+ .b 4 1 #= , (VE /( R cos )
VE
V
sin = E tan
R cos
R
4 1 !A F 1 (VE / R ) tan / >+ H/= >
H!+ 5 . = 90 !A > 4 !A Z :!N C b
> %) b 4 1 !A & @7A T7$7 7 ?/;
441
] ; R / & >+

.5 #B - ]/ 5 & .(75o
.(meridian convergence term) #1 4 T / 5 9A

4.5.3.5
Vertical monitoring

'* +,! ( & ) !" #$ % .
4 5 6,3 0 !" 1 0 2 3 -& /
: ;<= .0&7 8 & 9 1 0 #$ .-&
2 , ; >-4 ? ?*, "4 @ 7 2 $
D ?*,- 1 EF G .1 B ?*, C 4 A
0 " +&" +H$I : 1 0 #$
.1 JK JK LH , B 1
#
!
5 ,-
! -+ -
5H!
,-7/ -+ I -:N B4
1 /!N - > 5A + #&[
5 -7/ -+ @; ! 9:4 I8 - >+ >
Q A b% A / / >+ b @7A ,&B

O4+
! >Y ,#/ 0 + @7A ,-7 I - .O4+ > 4 5
-
9 1 - T C /7 8 / E 4 -

$ E 4 -+ "4 7 p 5 5 ; -+ "4
> F: 5 ,I - ./ / B7
.-+7

/= 5H! C 5H! >+ J 5 #B
9:4 >A H! ,F
E -+ I
@7A HB/ -
.(1.2.6 5 @; I
)
442
9:4 A =
Z F I8/M
=
H!% 5
.-+ I
,
! 5H! (#+ ) + ,7 #?

H!% > 9:4 A gR E 5
2 5 ,- /= 5H! 4 B! I8/M
=
+) 7 V1 5 4 M& .-+ I
C / A E
(Doppler (or air data)/inertial A/(

!
.(3.4.6 5) 5 #B - / 5 ,velocity mixing)

5.5.3.5
Azimuth monitoring
8 ,F

C
/ @; -&
N I
B4N
M
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Further reading
AGARD Lecture Series No. 95, Strap-Down Inertial Systems.

Bergh, R. A. Dual-ramp Closed-loop Fiber-optic Gyroscope.
Proceedings of SPIE: vol. 1169 (1989), pp. 429439.
Ebberg, A. and G. Schiffner, Closed-Loop Fiber-Optic
Gyroscope with a Sawtooth Phase Modulated Feedback.
Optics Letters: vol. 10, no. 6, June 1985, pp. 300302.
Lefvre, Herv. The Fiber Optic Gyroscope. Boston, MA:
Artech House, 1993. (Artech House Optoelectronics Library)
Lefvre, Herv [et al.]. High Dynamic Range Fiber Gyro with
all-digital Processing. Proceedings of SPIE: vol. 1367, nos.
7080, 1990.
Matthews, A. Fiber Optic Based Inertial Measuring Unit: Fiber

Optic Systems for Mobile Platforms III. Proceedings of
SPIE: vol. 1173,1989.
Page, J. L. Multiplexed Approach to the Fiber Optic Gyro
Inertial Measuring Unit: OE/FIBERS 1990 SPIE Conference,
San Jose, California, September 1990.
Ribes, M., G. Spahlinger and M. W. Kemmler. 0.1/hr DSPControlled Fiber Optic Gyroscope. Proceedings of SPIE:
vol. 2837, 1996, pp. 199207.
Sanders, G.A. [et al.]. Progress in High Performance Fiber
Optic Gyroscopes. 116/OWB1-1: Selected topics in
advanced solid state a fiber optic sensors, 2000.
Siouris, George M. Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern
Synthesis. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
Wrigley, Walter, Walter M. Hollister, and William G. Denhard.
Gyroscopic Theory, Design, and Instrumentation.
Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, [1969].
448

5
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484
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(6.47)
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1.5.6
Introduction

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GPS system description
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3.5.6
Basic principles of GPS
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R1 = ( X X 1 ) 2 + (Y Y1 ) 2 + ( Z Z1 ) 2
2
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(6.56)
(6.57)
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(6.58)
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(6.59)
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Solution of navigation equations

4.5.6
(K ) ) $2 6 ) Zu Yu Xu >

.T $
3+ 5) r% Z Y X ),$ F?)
+
T-" F

O 6 ) T Z Y X >
: 9 $2 ;0( %
T = Tu + T q Z = Z u + Z q Y = Yu + Y q X = X u + X
6! (i = 1, 2, 3, 4
) i 8 "O
5)
: 8-
Ri = ( X X i ) 2 + (Y Yi ) 2 + ( Z Z i ) 2
539
(6.63)
.i 8 "O 7 F?)

Zi Yi Xi 4
:6 O
" $2
$ $ N%# P-!-
Ri = ( X X i ) 2 + (Y Yi ) 2 + ( Z Z i ) 2
X = X u )" -$
hiZ =
+ hiX X + hiY Y + hiZ Z

(6.64)
Ri
R
R
hiY = i hiX = i 4
Z
Y
X
. Z = Z u Y = Yu
:6 O
" (6.63) ) X 6 -$"- 3' #-
Ri 1
= ( X X i ) 2 + (Y Yi ) 2 + ( Z Z i ) 2
X 2
12
2( X X i ) (6.65)
: )'" ("

hiX = ( X u X i ) / Riu
hiY = (Yu Yi ) / Riu
(6.66)
hiZ = ( Z u Z i ) / Riu
:4
Riu = ( X u X i ) 2 + (Yu Yi ) 2 + ( Z u Z i ) 2
(6.67)
: )'" ("
Ri = Riu + hiX X + hiY Y + hiZ Z
(6.68)
: 8- 6! Ri 5) H!, E i 8 "O
Ri = Rip T Ri
(6.69)
:6 O
" T = Tu + T >-
Rip Tu Riu = Ri = hiX X + hiY Y + hiZ Z + T

540
(6.70)
: )'" ("

R1 h1 X
R h
2 = 2X
R3 h3 X

R4 h4 X
h1Y
h1Z
h2Y
h2 Z
h3Y
h3Z
h4Y
h4 Z
1
1
1
X
Y

Z

T
(6.71)
Z Y X 6 O
(
;0 !, #O )
. $
3 1),$ 7 $2 X
O ;0 J),$S T
.w -8 T Z Y X 8 X-O 6
;0 %
F 1f )8 F$ C!, ) Q
I'
.!$- N0
;0 )" F2)
&" 1),$ %") F-! F$ Y- ' J),$S
) -$ F) $ , F) 6 O
%
#O 6 *L .h% F
* J),$S A-` .( -1
O
hiX Q
I' . H 3- ) hiZ hiY hiX 3' #
% &" i 8 "O 5) &' ;'2 I' hiZ hiY
. 8) $)"( #, H #O ),$

5.5.6

Integration of GPS and INS
% %- 0 O-
Q" GPS Q"
:? -$ 6 .Q" 1% J)- )#$ ( 7'
GPS Q" X 0 O-

Q" C!, X
O
C"? 0 O-
Q" C!, X
O A)' 8)
.h% X* !$- F

541
F'J,L 'J) ZT " 0 O-

Q" %
"O 8 6

)" 4L)
% GPS Q" 7
. OH C!, ZT I-$- ,n

GPS

! % &#!'

! "
#
$ "
$()
*"+( ,- +( "/

.

0 "/
1
2

3 *
#)( 4#56
. 275 "
$#
$ 84# #
!
I'
% O- !, Q" GPS Q" ( I'
.F" C"? ! % !$- GPS Q"

- GPS Q" !$- P* 7 ( 78 F

O
Q" 78 6 )"$+ ' &

O T-" ( 2
\ A
F 0 O-
Q" .0 O-

.F

O ;0 C' X 7 ^0 F-? I"' 6 7
!

6.5.6
Differential GPS
1.6.5.6
Introduction
),$ 7'
7 8) P-$ $ DY*
S %
A
% 0 .\ 16 b (%$ ")) GPS Q"
"2 )8

J Tf )" 2000 6

G 6
.(selective availability)
% GPS

95)
9:
"
&!6 ;( $ 1<"
0 = )) ' 10 0 8"
1< 7 >56 ")6 ?+
GPS 76 1#"

1
0 .,4< )( 2
! (
542
@7
" 0 =A5 ,!+

B " &#5 5( +0 !
>)
'
100 ,6 @7
" 0

5)
"

, <' "/
2 5)/ C
4/
:(2D -E . 4
, 95 ,
"<
,76 ,4
,G% *)

/) 0 1(#
( 9F @0
"
I
16 0 " "/
H% . % "/
") "/

8BJ% @7
"
() ! .1(#
2 0 1) C"
. % 1(# " , ,K #(J 4#
#A A"
))
Q" $- S
! FgS! 0(
))
8) $
(Differential GPS (DGPS)) # T' 78
6 DGPS Q" % .)3 ") F-! )) 78
:
"

" .GPS " # ( ! " )
*+ , + ' & % $
0" # - !12' / - .
.' % + *5 4' 3
))' P$ 6 &-! &Q
% DGPS Q" D'"
F' )8 .k! F), !$- J$S -[% 78 ))
?
A
),$L .-"' cJ)M J )* b !-( F
'" I' A
. T' X$ F-! 7$
" 6

2.6.5.6
Basic principles
C!,

DGPS Q" & 90 $$ )-
A)' -8 8 A"O A8 F8 - -$ 93(' )(*
.-$2 93('
= % -% )
6 %* % $ >- (543
7 . # GPS Q" $$ %# (34.6) %* X

8 4
- 8) A)' ') 6 "%$ ' GPS !

iY3 F"- - A)' P8) %*- ))
% "O 5)
-$
(8* 0)" % I0% 5) F$8 C!, ."O
.9) O2 6 3(' 1),$ 6 ($ - ! F

O
$ GPS Q" )' C!,t A!!, A$ (35.6) %* X
. 3'E- (*8"
.(DGPS)

:(34.6)
3K(' GPS Q" "O 8 :GPS " # 5 $ % 5

% F!
!$- F

O C' A)' 8) 0 F$TO "3 C!, N" )' N0% % 6
.P-$ $ DYS*
.7 '+ ) $ ( 0(- A)'

= % \ 30 6
r% ** )O8 [,)z "2
.J)
1 6 "O $ F*

544
F 7' )- !" "O 78 :5 $ 672 1 8
8) *- ig3 F"- C!, ?e 4
- 78 ))
-$

( 0(- A)' F) GPS Q" "O 8
.Q"
6
.>t 9 9' T -!2 F?H A-$" ,
$ ( 0(- ]8 () #! %*- P$" ( N0% %
.Q" C!,
C $
\ 8 H!- %*- ) F' N
:9' ;<= 1 8
0 >t 9' T #$" , N
(" N0 u#
) F3T C ,- #$" "
* F$' I-$-
6 *- J'S F,H ;0 . 6 9' T )'
.7 C!,
.GPS
!
" :(35.6)
545
-% X
O C' X L2 L1 8" # , F)) ),$
),$ A % 3(' 0 I') . #$" F,H
.(2000 -8 ")
BJ% , NO%' =L % F/G )
@M0
*"+
!
.
" (
&#5 QE % ,4+"' P-
' ) -E <' ()<
!$- GPS Q" "O * -$ : 1 8
F$%" i"% (-$ A % *+ 2 *- O- !, $
O- !, * \ 8 ,H $%" F*+ O .
P
(multipath
)) $ F* $- FGL$ I-$ 0( *-
)) $ C!, .)) $ H!, 6$ '" ** .signals)

** 6 9)e * !"- 4L)
%
-$2 3(' )(*
<,Hl#8 ),$- A?% %* #, .I0% 5) H!, ?
. -$" X* F" (early-late delay-lock) _%-l_,H
GPS Q" -$2 3(' $ ,) ** :> $? 2 ,' 5
.TO C!, ,) 6
%* (" ; %0 C!, Q !- DGPS Q" X
.1),$ -$ 3(' ' !
-$ 3(' % Q ;0 -$2 3(' C!, )) $ C!, FC"?$2
.
" 6

Q" !$- FJ'f 8) ? F"$
(3.6) )' g-
!
- O# F$ . # T' 78 ))

500 6 300 )

6 % % N
1),$ '
. ` )- % 1000 O# F$ %
546
GPS
:(3.6)
(
%) #$ !
GPS
GPS

1.5

2.5

0.4
5.0
!!"
0.2
0.5
!#!
(*)
$% &!
30.0
0.3
0.3
#% '() *+!+
0.6
0.6
()

$ #
1.3
50.0
&"
2.0
78.0
!
2.8
93.0
#" ./.
! "

#DGPS
: (*)
.& $%
.9) # GPS Q" \!$

K - A#Q \!!, (36.6) %* X
O "8 %* ))- %*- ) O2 F
( %
) F"8 J),$S .N
-$2 3(' 6 3
-$"
(HF) F)) (MF) !$ F)) OO,
1),S$ )8 .(UHF) P F)) (VHF) A)' F))
F"- I! )
H!, P
F#* 9)) ^"
.*"2 F- (--$
GPS Q" -$ 3(' "O I0% 5) 8
,$" (-$ "O * - !- P! ;e'
"O C/A #* -$2 3(' !$- )_ -!
547
C/A #* 7- !$- 3 8 8) .#* 7- ),$.)) $ -$ ? ** )O !$- (" ))
A
.*+
GPS
&'% ! :(36.6)
-_%L -8 8" 7- 5 Q- A GPS Q" 3('

3 I$" ."O -
*+ -) !$-
3 8"
."O - !- -$2 3(' !8 O" $ 7 -)
.;0 -) F
3 ),$ -[% $ -$
548
;0 1),$ DGPS Q" ' GPS Q" !

3 % .I0% 5) F$8 8) $
-) ))
3+ F$
l6l"O 5) T 8 "! "3 # 5) 6 -)
8" F) X
O )) &$#" 5) 8 % 2 .-$2 3('
0,H % 8" 7- (O,$ F . `
$- ) 6$ $- J%L -) J)* -) J)* %*
'" C!, .(carrier phase observation) 8" ! )*
-8 8" ! F)* )' ** )) $ !$F$ 7 r% 8) $
.C/A #* F)* N - " w
6 0.19 290 8" ' ! L1 #* ' !
.h% X* F" ),$- ;e' % 8" ! X* .
" #$%$ &

' 7.5.6
Future augmented satellite navigation systems
8- F2O2 !- "O -
Q" (Q
&' 6 F! 8) T-
))' F)8 g) % "O
. ") F dO,

Q" E (- % $ 8) F- ! >-
- !
7' ) 6 )8 % T-" "O 8b !-( Q"- 3(' T F! 6 8) {- O F2
N0
.!
7' (#% !-( Q"- )
Q" ;0( % "O 8- F2O2 !- 7 N*2-
%* K- % )- ' %
-8 "% ) A
.(37.6)
549

1#) :(90
@0 , 8A 1(R "% H% 1:S%T 0
(British
B' ( @

Q<( % " (0
8"

8BJ% GPS () 8BJ% H% 1

:5) .1996 ! " Airways)
( 2( 747 U( H 14#
! SAT-COM
1) ' 2 % 1/" , 14# # ##5 (0
B'
# #5 , 1G +A 0 (0
1
0 .(West Indies) B'
3000
2( ! @ , 8"

B' 1) ' 14#
. % (0

6 2
! 8 "/

.

GPS Q" $ F"% 0 FQ#
>- N" )'
'

$ F- ! 7 P #% -
A)' #,"
2 `- . ` !
!
F2
F"% N" 2 !, 7 F"- )- GPS -$ 3('
.
!, GPS 78 F"- K'$
&" GPS Q" 6 % )2
FQ#
A N" F"% )8
6 )
F2 %$ ) !$ F
%- 9%$ Q"
") 1),$
8)
.1),$ 9
G &" `
% "2 $$ !$- 100 6 ))

A F"% F"$
.F! 6 8) {- O F2
` 0 \-$ DYS*
.,% - # # #% :(37.6)
550
") F! $ J-81 KO# F$) F

FJ
1 L ) 0(
"O 8-
Q" F"$ , 0" -
+ 5) . ) ") !$ F
"O 8H- 3K3
.)3 8) $ A $ F- ! - X $ -8 F*w
' Q" $- ))' Q"- P!" + )8
.2002 0n/ - )
2 %* ) J-81 (Galileo)
1),$ Q" GPS Q" 7 A"- T*
\ -8 %$ ' Q"
8) Q" g) $ .) \) \"O \8 40 )
6 *$
.& T* )" A 1 ))

' F!
D # GPS Q" !
$ 6 \ \8) . "O 8 F$ )' -8
1000 6 500 9!8 O" 5) F!

;0 ),$ GPS Q"
6 O
.1),$ C2e( # F

O $ X
!
5) 6 A) 7- P!" C!,H- )3 8)
.(P-$ $ DYS* %)
)
F2 GPS Q" "O 8- 33 Q" gS! )

$ 33 Q" 6$L (FAA) )
2 ! ' F

Q" % .(wide area augmentation system (WAAS)) $
P! )3 $ Q" 0 $ .(38.6) %* "K- WAAS
-8 %-* GPS Q" "O 8 6 J$L F*+ -8
$ , Q" 8) )3 )
F2 F!

"O 8t ) O2 F
6 # F

O
3'" X 3 1),$ 78 8) % T-" .F2O
.2 # e Q 8) {- O F2
551
T* A3' % $ | ' $

$ 33 Q" C"-
.I -$ %
.#' #
' //
:(38.6)
"
< C #( 5 6.6
Terrain reference navigation
1.6.6
Introduction

" 9
G O 6 )

*$ $ F$ F"- - !- 6 ) "L
!, F"- )8 Q#
F"- (F*$ ) I$"
4
qA-$
78 )
Q" 7 82- Q" T* . 8
6 )
Q" * 78 F))
),$ N0 )-
X* !$- A-$
78 ) Q" C!, X
O 4)

552
$- 6 ! 6 )

Q" ),$ % .h%
F"- P[*S 6 c
)8 , ;0 .A)' 8) F"- )8 I !
Q" $ %
.!, 8) F"- 2 )" "O 8

: $$ ^" ?? 6 6 )

(Terrain Contour Navigation
@ A ,' < -1
!$- $ X 8 Q" 0 :(TCN))

I- Q#
$ X- (-! 9
G ) ^#
.A-$
78 ) Q" !$- \-$ ) ? ! 78
(Terrain
Characteristic
@ A
BC 8
$ -2
1),$ % Q" ^" 0 :Matching (TCM))

9
G ) F*$ ) \? " F*$
-$ 6 .! #$ dO, FT *$2
"- F-T F8! (" F
- P ! ?
))

*% F"- ' N0 )- % .a
*%
.r'# %*- dO, ( T
X- N0 )- (-! % (8 ! X ("
.! K) 78 I- Q#

dO, -! (-'
Q"
= % ),$ %
(-'
Q" 4
!-
(-' FT & % 90 78 A)' )' F))

(-'
Q" 8) E A)'
!$ P
. )
dO, -! Q" % N0 7 q #," %

78 A)' )' F))
0)" g)
.))
$ X (" *%
553
(Scene Matching Area

-3

:Correlation (SMAC))
%# "&' ! (DSMAC) $ ! "#
"# ) '/0 - %* ) + ,' .()
10* ' 0 0$ %# 2 10* "3' 4$' # 5#
' . 10* '0 4
' * 8 6 *'7
8 " 7: %'/ " ,9 "#
6 =7' .8 + 10* "3' 4 ' ;# '<#
>-3 >, 1' 7 $ '0 %? 4$' 6'(
.@
A7 #
'# 10* ) +A A# 6( $ "7'
:
- 50 1'#
TCN
- 20 1C 10 1'#
TCM
6 1C 1'#
SMAC
% # ) ) D %(! 6'( E # =7

6H
7 -( -
F'# G 6 &C > % + @
10*
' >5/#J >D3 D 10* .) +A 0/< # L' > "' >"&#&
10* % # M'

' I /$ 1C " >A >#
.! 7' N& 10* @

2.6.6
Terrain contour navigation

A7 # ) D %(!
.(39.6) D( 8
'
. ' '0 @ " 6 M' 33 G' .@

554
(> 5$ P 9

M ) > C#O F$ $ $ -1
F'J,L "G -,- ) 0 6 O
.F!
) J),$S .+ P-$ X* >-- - G9) ^#2
0 2 100 6
- ) K)S "G -,
.A'Y
l- Q" 9- Q" !$- $ F"- -2

F$ - F! $ %
9
G - ! 0 9O
.> C#O -

Q" \? A-$
78 )-
Q" %* -3
I ! $ 7' A)3 -) ) 0 O.> C#O F$ -$" 7
.0
1 #2
:(39.6)
C"- )+ F"- ;0 ),$ (-'

$
8 !, 4
- N0 )- .! $ #$ $ X
g)8 % ! 7 I- -! X )'+ ^#2
.K) 7 4)
$H% 0)" 0 ),$ % .\-$
555
! (-'

0#" F2
-% )) N"
TERCOM A)' 8)
Q" - )
F2
.SPARTAN TERPROM CAROTE SITAN TERPAC
6 ^' k % Q" ;0 )3 !T )

$ )8
FC (-'
Q" *" 4
- ))
.O# 0 (" +
( )* + , 3.6.6

Terrain characteristic matching
0 \-$ & *+ )8 "G $ X
*%

\ $ $ X 90 (40.6) %* K- " ;0 $ . $
#% 6 ) (position likelihood) 7 A)' J
F3
.X ))
*% )" 7 ) Z$

.5 - 5
% #2 0
34
"! #+%
:(40.6)
( -& # ". 4.6.6

Civil exploitation of TRN
6 )
Q" `- &" Q
I'
% X (" 2 %$ F-! "?$ %*- F1),S$ )8
556
6 (0- 8 A)' 8) "1L

Q"H% ") F! (T$
G) ^# I% .! ' dO, &'
Q" ? A-$
78 )-
Q" I"' 6 ") F! Q
)8 6 )
Q" -% .0 O-

. ?)
"% "- 3(' F"& A+ %1
Further reading
AGARD Lecture Series No. 95, Strap-Down Inertial Systems.

Bergh, R. A. Dual-Ramp Closed-Loop Fiber-Optic Gyroscope.
Proceedings of SPIE: vol. 1169, 1989, pp. 429439.
Andreas, R. D., L. D. Hostetler and C. Beckmann. Continuous
Kalman Upating of an Inertial Navigation System Using Terrain
Measurements. NAECON 1978, pp 12631270.
Britting, Kenneth R. Inertial Navigation System Analysis. New York:
Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
Chen, G. and C. K. Chui, Kalman Filtering with Real-Time
Applications. Springer Series in Information Sciences: vol.17,
1991.
Daly, P. Navstar GPS and GLONASS: Global Satellite Navigation
Systems. Electronics and Communications Engineering Journal:
December 1993, pp 349357.
Farrell, James L. Integrated Aircraft Navigation. New York:
Academic Press, 1976.
Forssell, B. Radio Navigation Systems. New York: Prentice Hall 1991.
Gelling, L.A. The Global Positioning System. IEEE Spectrum
December 1993, pp 3647.
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., H. Lichtenegger, and J. Collins. Global
Positioning System: Theory and Practice. Wien; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 1992.
557
Hostetler, L. D. Optimal Terrain-Aided Navigation Systems. Paper

presented at: AIAA Guidance and Control Conference August
1978.
Kalman, R. E. A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction
Problems. Journal of Basic Engineering Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers: March 1960.
Kalman, R. E. and R. S. Bucy. New Results in Linear Filtering and
Prediction Theory. Journal of Basic Engineering Transactions of
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers: March 1961.
Leondes, C. T. (ed.). Theory and Applications of Kalman Filtering.
AGARDograph: no. 139, NATO Advisory Group for Aerospace
Research and Development, London, Februrary 1970.
Morgan Owen, G. J. and G. T. Johnston. Differential GPS
Positioning. Electronics and Communications Engineering
Journal: February 1995, pp 1121.
ODonnell, C. F. Inertial Navigation Analysis and Design. New York:
McGraw Hill, 1964.
Siouris, George M. Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis.
San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
Schlee, F. H. [et al.]. Use of an External Cascaded Kalman Filter to
improve the Performance of a Global Positioning System (GPS)
Inertial Navigator. Paper presented at: Proceedings of the
NAECON 88 Conference, Dayton, Ohio 2327 May 1988, pp
142147.
Skarman, E. Kalman Filter for Terrain Aided Navigation. Paper
presented at: Conference on Remotely Piloted Vehicles, Bristol,
UK 1979.
558

Air Data and Air Data Systems
1.7
Introduction

! "#
$%

&
'&!
&
'(Pressure Altitude)
$( ') '( & '(Calibrated Airspeed)

(Air
*+ , & '(Static Air Temperature) & *+
$- ! /01 .Density Ratio)

4 ! & 5! +! '2 3
4 ! (! 9 9+, .+ 67 8 9 +
4 : 5&&! 51 5*6 ;3 +0 - +
.& ! ' ( - 9,
>3 ? 8 ' 1! < 01 =3
&( " & '&&: -6
.
559
( 2.7

Air data information and its use

1.2.7
Air data measurement
'&! & '

' >3 "
@ 'A ') '( & '$% &
:B " & < 3& & &&! &
.((Pitot)
!) 9

.(static pressure) &

(total (or indicated) air (F !) *+ $(
.temperature)
.9&&! " (1.7) 3 8
(G !) >
3& & B 'PT

B 01 .J( 9-+ >, K HI < ((transducer)
>, 0
L! '(impact pressure) QC '"<

(static PS '&
5-6 ' H! M4 & N& J( 9-+
O ! '( 9-+ >, 'pressure)
. PT = QC + PS ! L

(G & B ( 9-+ >, 'PS

L
5 5& 8 &
P( Q ( < >
. (
560
.
:(1.7)
& ?I $ + *: & -

I ! P( $- "! & &
.$- 1 & $ < 9-+ 9 R
Q &
< ( & + - S
> Q .= : 9, $ $- 9,
$R > ( (& ! H!) &
(
+ (747 T ) - 7, 'J0 Q .H
- M K .5 U ('L') 0 & &
V &) >& H&: 8 & & ! "R& 1 &
L0 ' H! ! (@ "1@ .( L - 9
& B (= ) - M " 3 "%R&W
" %G & 250 ! XYR 'K, K &
- +: 9, * >, B (Henri Pitot) L1 9&
.6 R 6 9 R (! 1
561
>3 'PT '9

'PS '&
&
:
'&
& /01 >3 " :HP
-1
(standard
L L
9, 0R: Q 'PS
.atmosphere)
.PS 5&&! /01 >3 " : H P

-2

$3 /01 >3 " :VC
-3
& 9
> / >Z3W L0 'QC '"<
. (QC = PT PS )
'( & & L& /01 :M
-4
+3 " ' M = VT / A ! L
O ! 'A '( & M4 'VT
. PT / PS '&
M4 9
& $3
.(*+ & M4 & $- & +I & ?FY)
O ! 'P B
" 'Tm '(F !) & *+ $( L
01 .9-+ >, 9, B 9, HU $( 3& & /V4
9, 9( 5-6 'TS '( 9-+ >, $( 9
$( M4 & '5 ! '5-6 & *+ $(
! L
O !) 5 & *+ I S 9 $( .G3& B
.TT ' *+ $( "& ?%Y (1 = & &
(recovery

M

- ./0 1! (!" #"
! $ % &' (* + ) ratio)
(5! 6)
/ $ % -! +" &!2
!3' 1!4
$ % .TS &"
$ % 6 + % .
!" ;8< &= A 94 !
!/ :8 1! /0 &"

562
%
8 &"! VT !/!/ !
.$ % /
& %
+ &"!
$ % 3"
. VT = MA &6 >?6 %

0
!! AB $ % 3" 0 $ % 3" @!) TS PS &!!"

.((standard sea level conditions) 1
C

2.2.7
The air data quantities and their importance
&! & '
1! "R&
& ') '$% & '(6 /< &)
+ 4 ! M4 ,\ ' & (
.9 , +3 "& 9

1.2.2.7
Air data information for the pilot
+ ;F6 "8 ! 9! 9!" & 900 ! !D E!
&!!" &G :8 H .% 6 & ! & *2 - + < %!
*!*2 & I$ J?6 !/ ! & &! &!!

=
K .L! !
M* K < !4 . !/
K !N & .0 1
C
. M* < M*
+< L! !
.?! ? K + 82= H &"

K !N * + 1
C
!! AB 9 +

M* K (! ?8 M* !/ . %
!N E! +" E4
+"!
F" .L
& I$D &O"0! 8% (5! 6) L! !
00
E / .+4 .= 00 - D" !! ( D%= T
563
+ 1 < " 3! !" 900 ! " -"0 .L

8< $/
.P &
&! -* 900 +3 -4* + (37.2) -"0
:9 , K3 & "R&

$% & 1! H&

'? P( '"<
53 5& "# +! 1
H(& Q, ] # & 6 M4 ,\ '"<
91 & 6) .$- 9, $ V "6 5 -1 5 U
8 & Q @R &\ R *+ >, / 6
] /01
.(K 8 & ! = 9-+ H&
M $- $ " 1 "6 -+

'& P( +-! +& + "^( 4 '$
.A '
3 ']
Q $ % 3" VT !/!/ !
+ < E4 K
&"! @! (/ 200) !3/ 100 *2 ! 9

E NF ;8<) . 12 VT2 ?
! E4 K &G !K 9 !3' -<
1 4! E4 K D !K 9 !3' D
&= 4
B* E! +" M* 0 $ % 3" .(I!6 +
+ !D S! 1
C
T= ! 9* H N *
9
&G 8% .E4 K * ! -6 & !/!/ !

%F
6 % EV" !" :
+ 3U +
M* H $ % 3" !K !" ;8< &= L! !

(rotation speed) &
& 9
;8< . 6
(not to exceed DF
(stalling speed) !%
MFNW
$36 8 ED ! % !"!! C/ S/ K + speed)
.EV" !" & S N 6 -"!% !! & .
564
9, 3 "%R&Y F & ! (@ H

& B B&: 9, 91 F & .>& 01
I R &/ 6+ 9,
I R +! 4 '$%
& 3V 6+ & 9 9, 6+
& $% & >3 ") .(airspeed indicator (ASI))

* R! 5
3& "R&
.( & + & &/ B 6+ 9, B
*< M ( ' & M .9&! ]& 9, R
' V ? ( 'A '@ ' "-@
33 1 & 33 . 9, ! HW(& 9,
.6 ! < * ! 5! (

5 > B M4 5! _( ( &
R 9, 2 9&! <, ( !
" M4 52 K `@\ "
7, '0+ .(6
( & &\ " & ( 9:
"& 9, N( K(3 "& '(air traffic control transponder)

I 5! _( ( & .9
. <R B 33 M S J0 5& K TU
Sa: + " /01 !
.(@
! '< & M4 < $- & 6
$ 9, $ $6 J1 '< >, - ( 9, >
( "6 b-<R
Q, b-<R
cHO(&
F
) M $- "^( 4 *! .
I
565
) . & /01 9, $-

5! 91 . L S 9 $-
.N( +3 "& 9 ]R: - d
! &! & 33 #$%/"
" /01 ' %G 5! 6/< &

.&
@R 1
5! HZ < * ! bR 3 + 6 &
7 " P( (Ground Controlled Approach (GCA))
. M4 < 6 ($( &) (
(Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)) &! & 3V "%R&W

" P( ' L
e ! ?3 ? * !
M ( "^( (< !) & ((< ( >
.? @
E -"0 ./
! D !<6 0 9J /
/
! D !D H I +O2 -"0 = & H N D
6 ! < + / +< I !/ % X
C4/ /
! D
T ! = !% ?U
C26 !D J?6 AN $ % .
. 9 0
S!" E! 8% .H Y* & / :8 !
&6 & "' H N ! &"! @! /
! D !/ $ %
E% ! D 14 &6 BF S!) .%Z E! E !/
.(/
! D & # !"!= 9! + EL2
[!

2.2.2.7
Air data for key subsystems
M4 _( 9 + d 56 N< 9 , "#
. /01 "R&
566
-
EB !D E!
T +P \F -6 & M* K ! " N - /

" N 9
E/ .! " += N EB
+ %! B* 9 S! + & ! 9!
! !
K @! & (controlled airspace)
S]N ? $*
1,000 4 !
6
:< &" @! < E! ;8< M*
" .( % & S/ ! + 9 &! -N= EN
+ 82P &"
K !N & M* K ./0 E! #/
!0^6
! +! &N ./0 1!! ?8 ?! ? K
&"! - J!6 M* K .&"
K M* &! !
? K & !! 9 !K S
+/!/ M* & A2! &6
.! E 8 *2 9* !K4 9F2 ;8< .?!
&"! %6 (ground pressure correction) != K 1!4
.! 9* !3" "6 &" &6
B % & E%! +/!/ M* M* K &! AF2 8<
.!*" T! /!N M* K 9
!N &" &6 0 ! " N
& S/ CL_ + M* K 9
!N H! :0 AF2 &= 8<
& ! C
9L!`^6 A &6 ( -3 -!
.( %
C
9L!`^6 B ! " N 9
-L `N & EN 33,000
-<G 8% H < +/!/ M* & .* &6 ( .EN 34,000 & !
A +/!/ M* &G &! + M* K 9
!N + $26 J?6
. (34,000 + H ) &"! A
B (33,000 + H ) &"! A
9F 9* .%! B* E EN 1,000 4* !

6

+ 1! E!
EN 45,000 29,000 &! X 3* 9
9 H ! " N EN 1,000 4* 9!
&6 3.7 E
/
.&"
K 9 0
I 4 N
567
M* K L! !

9
9F! $ &!" -6 & 8< . EV" EB

!
(! H EV" EB S
" 9 !a
C .
E" ! + H
!K & M*
9! S
" E
A4! 8< .& ! 2
+ -!4* T0 E N
.(air data gain scheduling) !
& EB + F E!/ S! .H @3 &!4*

.:F
=
& ! EV" EB + -0* & $/
.! 9! /

B6 & 3"6 6 3F3 &! N 8<
M4 _( 9f "^( ! & '(%
N '

/6(4 ' /6(4 '@
.(9f >R "< ") & /6(4 ')
]W & 5! H H&
. < 9, 9f ! =3 "& .9f "^(
& ( &
!) '(%
.9&! ]& 9, (@ H

.(@ "
" 50 5< 3 Q (K6 !) K
9 & & " 90 < (@
"& +4 3W /01) .$%(
G M < L
g : &-
.(B& < 9, (XY3 90 L</L _6
&! & 9+ $- & K >3 "
& K !) ,: & %RW 0 </
& K "%R&Y .90 < (@ " (:
" '( K# " 'Q B! 33 @
N '"^( 3\
.A '(&: H<
568
M (@ " 5!

8@ >3 8 0+ '$- &! ( B K: B
M $ (@ ! . B $6+! :
8@ L B & > B
9 '( R $ :
Q " & F Q 8(< $- Q B&I
6d 9,: L ?( ! (@ "1@ ) .5&(
,& ] M (
L& < L0 R) (isobar)
.(( " 1 ( 8 & ]& >, ( 9(@
E! @! I!
HN !/ F !/!/ !

!/!/ !
& I!
HN !/ EB 5/ HN

!/!/ !
9 .5/ /N X!
;
& !=
9 E 2
X!
T
I!6 EL2
_
EB -3 !F 9 C2= 4 .+ 8 4/ F EB
% 2
I!6 &"! (GPS) + K HN ! +

& 9 .!/!/ !
9 & X!
./0

9 .#/ T0 E!
" EB
X!
.!"
9 +
= S!4 I!6 X!
M4 _( ( $4 " ! * '(%
') '&! & '

:
.$% & '( & '& $(
M ( ( $4 "
: ( $4 >( 5 , R M $-
. < 9, K(3 "& ( $4 " .(6 : 9 @ Q)
569
$% & +! ,- (%
.( ! &

&( " >, (2.7) 3 #
- ! "GR& .+ 4 ! M4
M MIL-STD-1553B '6 9 " (
- ( 9, ARINC 629 ! '& -
& M :8 $, *
4 "
.: 9
. @& &( : M + - '
)

:(2.7)
.(! "
:" : ! 3.7

Derivation of air data laws and relationships
+ !! &! / ./0 !*!" 1! < E
/ 8< & (K
!/!/ !
$ % 3" M* &!
!

= ! 9! 9
!N & !/!/ !
+ % .
570
9
.(5! 6) !" +" K &"

K
.b/ 3.1 E
/ -= -4* + 0 ! 9! 9!" 2

L
1 L L
! (@ H
(15 oC) 288.15 oK $( ? ( ( 8 & ]&
L&) (mb) 9 1013.25 ! 101.325 kN/m2 (kPa) L&
.(>-6 < 29.9213 5!

1.3.7
Altitudestatic pressure relationship
L L ?@
b<R F , *7
L ?@
9, L
e ! ( 8 & ]& >,
"+ /01 . J L
$( 0 Sd
]& - ,@
? 'L ?@
9-
.L ?@
@R $( Q6 ( 8 &
B&I 8 '5 + , e ? /01

B K4 P( '
&
L0 9
.(L
!)
>3 ( 9-+ >,
'-<(4 M4 & L L
/01
9( ?R ! K3 " L0

B 3 'N& =XY3 'J0 Q ." ?2 $ ( 8 & ]&
9 - Q 7, '$
< &( * R: ! &

! ( B ?& F

( K "+ 9( Q >,
> h- ' R 5! L
8
.
.J3 Q *: @ '$- " "< '=

571
:+ &"

K M* K &! NF ./0 &"!
' '*+ , 'dp '

9, i
'(3.7) 3 M4
9, $ V ] $& K3 " 'dH ' 9,
< i
j3
:! L! '*+
< 9! "( M 9&! ]&
dp = gdH
(7.1)
.: 0 g P(
: 6

p = RaT
(7.2)
*+ $( 6

Ra ((oK) ) $( T P(
.?
.#$% & ! '*+ :(3.7)
572
:M <( (7.2) (7.1) (

dp
g
(7.3)
=
dH
P RaT
9 ' *7 , H 9, T
.-<(4 M4 &
8 & ]&
'T0 '( 8 & ]& $( -1
. +I +, " 'P0 '(
M4 < M( $6 Q 5
; R $( SR -2
/ L0 (9 ?@
) (tropopause) 6 "& ?%W
6& M4 < M( $( M
&! $ .(9 ?@
) (stratopause)
L ?@
) (troposphere) & "& ?%Y 6
.(9
M( 'H ' 'T '$( 9 @
:91 6
T = T0 LH
.$( 1 L P(
M( TT* M 6 $( -3
* "%R&Y) 6& "& ? M4 <

.(TT $( TT* 6 $( 6
"& ?Y 6& 6 <
.(9 L ?@
) (stratosphere) &&
$( ! 6& M: -4
& "& ?%Y /01 ' Q 5
; R $6
.(9- L ?@
) (chemosphere)
573
:@ M & 9, $(

T = TT* + L ( H H S )
.6& HS $( L P(

*6! @ 9
L0
.9 M & '&& '& >
M + ?R H 'g ': 0 &
:! L! .N& =XY3 '9& Q QR 'g0 'S: 8 &
g=
R02
(R0 + H )2
(7.4)
g0
.S: ?< R0 P(

] M 5
<
>3 9,
01 I
( 8 & ]& g ! S, H& '
3
+3 " 9 .(7.4) & M4 LV 'g0
?@R 01 .(geopotential altitude) 9: + "& ?Y
0 1 L0
? + "+ &
.&
$(
T = T0 LH

(7.3) 9, g0 L& g ! S, T S
:M <( 9
k
PS
PS 0
g
1
dp = 0
p
Ra
1
dH
(T0 LH )
p PS 'H = 0 '( 8 & ]& p PS0 P(
:M <( /01 .H
574
log e
(T LH )
PS
g
= 0 log e 0
PS 0 LRa
T0
:7, 0+
g0
L LRa
PS = PS 0 1 H
T0
(7.5)
:
LR a
T P g0
H = 0 1 S
L
P
S 0
(7.6)
T = TT*

@
l (7.3) 9, g g0 T TT* S
:M <( 9
PS
PST
g
1
dp = 0 *
p
RaTT
dH
HT
:! K .HT 6

PST P(
PS = PST
g
0
R T*
e aT
(H H T
(7.7)
:
RaTT*
P
H = HT +
log e ST
g0
PS
(7.8)

B +3 &

@
@
l (7.3) 9, g = g 0 T = TT* + L ( H H S ) S
:M <( & ( 9
575
L
PS = PSS 1 + * ( H H S )
TT
g0
LR a
(7.9)
:
PST
H = HS +
L PS
TT*
g0
R
aL
(7.10)
(1.7) 9, F m

9, %R& "
.& F ( SI ( 9 " (
.
M 5<, f HP 6 "%R&W ?&
:(1.7)

( 1013.25)

101.325
PS0

288.15 oK
T0

6.5103 oC/m
L

(#$ 36,089.24) 11,000
HT ! "
(65.5 oC) 216.65 oK
TT !
(#$ 65,617) 20,000
HS !
% "
1.0103 oC/m
L
"
(#$ 105,000) 32,004

"
&/ 9.80665
g0
287.0529 Joules/ K/kg
Ra
5.255879
(
) g0/LRa
g0/RaT
34.163215
(
) g0/LRa
1.57688510 m
576
" S +3 " /! F H PS 9 @
HP '9 M (7.9) '(7.7) '(7.5) 9, &

.H
36,089 M4 3,000) 11,000 M4 914.4 :

("
PS = 1,013.25 1 2.25577 10 5 H P
5.255879
(7.11)
mb
(
65,617 36,089) 20,000 11,000 :

PS = 226.32 e 1.57688510
( H P 11, 000 )
mb
(7.12)
105,000 M4 65,617) 32,004 M4 20,000 :

("
PS = 54 .7482 1 + 4.61574 10 6 ( H P 20,000 )
34 .163215
mb (7.13)
M4 " ( ( ) .: HP "

S
& ZG 1n! ) .( 0.3048 L& " 1 1
.(N& 3! 6\
F & @ &( &
@
+ ! '
> ! 8 .(4.7) 3 9,
' g = g 0 ! S 9 '& @ >3 'HP '9:
H! M4 M ' Q g i
K <( " L0 'HG '9&+
H G2
S: ?< R P()
@ ] M H
R
> 01 'N& 3! .(45o S R 6,356.8 L&
577
Q Q K! "a M ' ] M
<
11,000 (" 62) 19 1 > ' & M .9&
.(" 36,089)
.
:(4.7)
Variation of ground pressure

2.3.7
:

9,
* R: $* "
01 .F
B 7 J0 ' B o %
/ M B $* #
9 '< 9, V *\
& / " H&(
Q >, @
N
.
m

!"
+( (( 1013.25) " '% !" .#$%&%
1$&% .(
0)
!" ,
-/ 0 /%
578
!" 4( 5 % +(ground pressure) (QFE) 3" !" 2

-/ /% ( 7!% '% 8 0 9 " -) 6 '%
!" 6: &; 3!/ < 6 '% =;
9> /

0 /% + ! 3" !" 4( 5 +@ . < ?
.(=D 2 $% 6 ; ) 6 3%C B A
-/
(mean (QNH) ( 8 & ]&

& " "GRY& 04
8 & ]& &
M \ "& 'sea level pressure)
$* B "& '"1 0 (5a K&( ") (
. 1 L
SXY, 04 '( 8 & ]& >,
. R : (5.7) 3 8
.

:(5.7)
579
3.3.7

Air density vs altitude relationship
9 @ 'H ' ' '*+ , @ >3 "
:6
"R& H PS
PS = RaT
.PS bR
:& 9, ' & M
g0
LRa
L
PS = PS 0 1 H
T0
:7, 9 ' T = T0 LH

g0
L LRa
= 1 H
0 T0
(7.14)
.( 8 & ]& ? , 91 0 =
(density reduction
PS 0
P(
RaT0
, SR "& /0 & M4 3W

.factor)
0 I 5 '(" 30,480) 10,000 *+ , H&( :
.(g0/LRa = 5.255879) = 1.225 kg/m3
65 10000
1.225 1
1000 288.15
5.255879 1
= 10,000 ,
0.4127 kg/m 3 =
580
+&( " ' '/0 '*+ , & '( 9,
"R& 'Tm '(F !) & *+ $( 'PS '&

: @
"& M4 Q) TS = Tm /(1 + r 0.2 M 2 ) & *+ $(
.(8.3.7
P T
= S 0
0 PS 0 TS

:7, K
P T (1 + r 0.2 M 2 )
= S 0
0 PS 0
Tm
(7.15)

4.3.7
Speed of sound
+: 'A '< & >3 8 , "

'& *+ $( '$% & ') >3
'&
'9
& ( &
.F *+ $(
N ! S,
K@R " 'a 'Q (& $( 9-1 >, H!
( f R .& M4 'V &
4
@
N V & J( *+ $&
+, 9 -,
.(6.7) 3 9, F 1 ' M4 &
.V
p A

6 P( >, H: H *6 B ! S,

& ! S, '
@R / dp *+

.d , dV

581
.
:(6.7)
:! B A , $&
aV = ( + d )a (V + dV )
:M <( 0 ( 17
Vd = dV
(7.16)
B A 9-+ >, H! 9, $ V $

J( i
=
& 9, i
=
pa ( p + dp ) a = aVdV
:9
dp = VdV
582
(7.17)
:M <( (7.17) (7.16) (
dp / d = V 2
(7.18)

i
: ': 5 H

$( L
e : 6 J1 9 5 j 3 "
:1 : .K4
p = K
(7.19)
$( cv '
6
$( cp ' =
cp
cv
P(
. L& K (*+ = 1.4) ."( 6

p
dp
= K l =
(7.20)
A < & S, '(7.20) (7.18) $&

:M <( (V L&)
A=
(7.21)
:M <( (7.21) 9, p = RaT S

A = RaT
(7.22)
.*+ $( M , < & 7, '0+

? ( 'A0 '( 8 & ]& < &
:L& 9 $(
1.4 287 .0529 288 .15
. A0 = 340.294 m/s ! L!
583
M( $( < $6 Q < & SR
"6( < & M 'J0 .6 M4 <
. $( &&
: @ & 9,
>3 "
A = A0 1
L
H
T0
M( ( 8 & ]& < & i

(2.7) #
." 65617

:(2.7)
A
(
) H
( 661.5)
/ 340.3
( 637.4)
/ 328.4
10,000
( 614.3)
/ 316.0
20,000
( 589.4)
/ 303.2
30,000
( 573.6)
/ 295.1
36,089
( 573.6)
/ 295.1
65,617

5.3.7
Pressurespeed relationships
& 'PS '&
'PT '9
@
01 9, : o +(3 "& < ( & 'VT '(
/01 .VC '$% & 'M ') >3 +: "&
.9 M 7.3.7 6.3.7 & 9, +(3 "&
584
I ((< 8 ) , 7, 'N& GY0
B 'TS '& $( >3 P( 9( R&
&
.8.3.7 "& 9, K( "& 'Tm '*+ $(
K(3 "& & *+ $( ) +3 (
.9.3.7 "& 9,

&
B " 5( 5& (7.7) 3 #
N ! S, .9
P( 'M = 0.3 : R & (
. 9

@ a 1 *+
.
:(7.7)
585
:91 *+ >, J(
dp + VdV = 0
.V = VT p = PS '( 9-+ >, 9,
.V = 0 p = PT 'B K
:M <( ( 01 J(
PT
dp + V dV = 0
PS
(7.23)
VT
:7, 9
PT PS =
&
2
2 VT
(7.24)
.((Bernoulli) 9 91 (7.24) )

:7, R
VT =
PT PS
(7.25)
'0+ . & K,

@ a Q- *+ '( e! M
-3 "<
, 9,
9, 0RV ! H

@ 7, '9: >, S, . &
:91 ,
P = K
:! +
1
1
586
(7.26)
<( ' dp + VdV = 0 'J( 9, S

:M
dp +
1
1
P VdV = 0
(7.27)
.V = VT p = PS '( 9-+ >, 9,

.V = 0 p = PT 'B K
:M <( ( 01 (7.27) H $7
PT
P dp + K V dV = 0
(7.28)
PS
( 1)
P
1 T
VT
( 1)
PS
1 VT2
=
(7.29)
9, K S . K =
PS
(7.26)
:M <( H $4 (7.29)
PT ( 1)
= 1 +
VT2
2
PS
PS
( 1)
:M <( & 9, = 1.4 Q '

PT
V2
= 1 + 0.2 T2
PS
A
PS
= A2
3 .5
(7.30)
:
2 3.5
V
T
QC = PS 1 + 0.2 2 1
587
(7.31)
(
)

PT/PS

.#

$% & '( % ( M > 1)
!"
(PT/A)
,
PT/PS &)
" &

* +
4

5 6 ./ 01 21 3 (Rayleigh) - &"

.

# 5 $ / 78 , +9
:

( + 1) V 2 ( 1)
T
A
2
PT
=
1
PS
( 1)
2
2 VT ( 1)

( + 1) A ( + 1)
(7.32)
:M <( (7.32) & 9, = 1.4 S

7
V
166.92 T
PT
A
=
2.5
2
PS
VT
7 1
A
(7.33)
VT
166.92 A
1
QC = PS
2 .5
V 2
7 T 1
(7.34)
6.3.7
Mach number
(7.33) (7.30) ) >3
. M = VT / A S 9 M < >, <
588

:(7.30)
PT
= 1 + 0.2 M 2
PS
3.5
(7.35)

:(7.33)
PT
166.92 M 7
=
2 .5
PS
7 M 2 1
(7.36)
3 9, F 'M ') 'PT/PS '

& @
.< >, < ( (8.7)
.
:(8.7)
589

7.3.7
Calibrated airspeed
(7.31) 'VC '$% & >3

S 9 M < >, < ( (7.34)
.(?) VT = VC PS = PS 0 L
O ! '( 8 & ]& ?
(VC A0 )

:(7.31) M4
2 3 .5
C
QC = PS 0 1 + 0.2 1
A0
(7.37)
+ <( VC QC 9 &: @

2
VC
(@ 1 + 0.2
A0
3 .5
9R M ( 0 >
:91 + <(& 9 . A02 =

QC =
1 V2
2 0 C
PS 0
!
0
1 V 2
1 + C
4 A0
(7.38)
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Further reading
Dommasch, Daniel O., Sydney S. Sherby [and] Thomas F. Connolly.

Airplane Aerodynamics. 4th ed. New York: Pitman, 1967.
Schedule for Tables Relating Altitudes Airspeed and Mach Numbers
for Use in Aeronautical Instrument Design and Calibration.
London: British Standards Institute Staff, 1984.
614

7 # $ %
Autopilots and Flight Management Systems
1.8
Introduction
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1 rad/s $ 115
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4.2.8

ILS/MLS coupled autopilot control

1.4.2.8
Approach guidance systems
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Further reading
Combs, S. R., A. P. Sanchez-Chew, and G. J. Tauke. Flight

Management System Integration on the F-117A. American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics AIAA-92-1077, 1991.
Lee, H.P. and M. F. Leffler. Development of the L1011 FourDimensional Flight Management System. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration Report No. NASA CR 3700, 1
February 1984.
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. (Prentice Hall International Series
in Systems and Control Engineering)
672

& % '$ '
Avionics Systems Integration
Introduction and background
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[England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
716

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% 3 $ +
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Pulse Broadening in Optical Fibres

Reliability Shake-Down Testing
Geopotential Altitude
Decision Height
Pitch Response, Basic Aircraft
Roll Response, Basic Aircraft
Side Slip, Use of Rudder
Transition Matrix, Use in Attitude
Integration
Transition Matrix, Use in IN System
Error Model
Stratopause
Stratosphere
Stealth
Aliasing
Auto-Stabilisation
Weathercock Stability
Longitudinal Stability
Attitude Derivation
Speed of Sound, Derivation
Initial Alignment and Gyro
Compassing
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Remote Terminal MIL STD 1553B
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Kick-off Drift
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Magnetic Deviation
Data Fusion
Co-ordinated Turn
Direction Cosine Co-ordinates
4D Flight Management
Intelligent Displays Management
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House-Keeping Management
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Optical Fibres, Data Transmission
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Glide Slope Guidance
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Sagnac Phase Shift
Tailplane Contribution
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Raster Overlay Display Generation
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Neglecting Cross-Coupling
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Sagnac Effect
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Standby Display Instruments, Solid

State
JG P
Sensor Tracking Errors
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Laser Eye Damage Weapons
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Tactile Control Panels

Optical Fibres
Pitch Rate Command Control
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Pitch Rate Manoeuvre Command
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Shadow-Mask CRTs
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Image Intensifier Tubes
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Penetron CRT
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Auto-Throttle Systems
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Flight Management Systems
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Head Tracking Systems
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Eye Trackers
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Monitored Triplex Systems
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Quadruplex Systems
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Indirect Viewing Systems
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Enhanced Vision Systems
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Full Authority Systems
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Strap-Down Systems
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Aided IN Systems
Aided Systems and Kalman Filters
Radio Navigation Aids
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Axis Systems
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Limited Authority Systems
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Attitude Heading Reference Systems
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Stable Platform Systems
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Data Bus Systems
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Optical Data Bus Systems
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Structural Resonance Modes
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Operational Modes
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Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
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Pascal
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Multi-Version Software
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Schuler Pendulum
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Earth Radius Pendulum

Fluxgates
Air Data
Weight, Gearing Effect
Effect of Azimuth Gyro Drift
EMI Effects
Gyros Compassing
Flight Path Optimisation
C Star Control
Proportional Plus Derivative Control
Proportional Plus Integral Control
Manoeuvre Command Control
Roll Rate Command Control
Vertical Flight Path Control
Lateral Control and Response, Basic
Aircraft
Longitudinal Control and Response,
Basic Aircraft
Control and Data Entry
Flight Planning
Geometric Dilution of Precision
Lags in the Control Loop
Undamped Natural Frequency
Complementary Filtering
Tropopause
Troposphere
Gravitational Acceleration
Collimation
Material Dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion
Manchester bi-Phase Encoding
Ground Pressure Correction
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Time Division Multiplexing

Speed of Sound, Variation with
Altitude
Magnetic Variation
Meridian Convergency
Phase Advance
Rectification of Vibration
Cooper-Harper Rating
Integral of Error Control Term
Integrating Rate Gyro Operation
Integration with INS
Scene Matching Area Correlation
Automatic Flare
Proportional Plus Derivative
Proportional Plus Integral
Digital Implementation
Consolidation of Multiple Outputs
Symbol Generation
Raster Display Generation
Joule's Constant
Air Data Gain Scheduling
DME
Ring Laser Gyro
Fibre Optic Gyro
Ring Resonator Fibre Optic Gyro
Dynamically Tuned Gyro
Fibre Optic Gyros
Fibre Optic Gyros, Ring Resonator
Type
Fibre Optic Gyros, Interferometric
Type
Optical Gyros
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Micro-machined Vibrating Mass Rate

Gyros
Angular Momentum Gyroscopes
Nuisance Disconnects
Common Mode Failures
Tailplane Volume
Meridian Convergency Term
Earth's Rate Correction Terms
Vehicle Rate Correction Terms
Combined Roll-Yaw-Sideslip Motion
Short Period Motion in Pitch Plane
Short Period Motion in Yaw Plane
Long Period Pitch Motion
Phugoid Motion
Short Period and Long Period Motion
Coning Motion
Flight Path Kinematics
Strap Down System Computing
Static Air Temperature, Computation
Pressure Altitude, Computation
Commutation Errors, Attitude
Computation
Digitally Generated Colour Maps
Performance Characteristics
Meridian
Prime Meridian
Longitude
Latitude
Pressure Error
Voting Algorithms
Attitude Algorithms
Runge-Kutta Algorithms
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Choice of Navigation Co-ordinates

Organic Light Emitting Diodes
Dutch Roll
Static Air Temperature
Total Air Temperature
Measured Air Temperature
Beam Index CRT
Great Circles
VOR
Quaternions
Gyroscopic Reaction Torque
Nichol's Chart
FLIR
Pitch Angle
Yaw Angle
Incidence Angle
Bank Angle
Angle of Attack
Trim Angle of Incidence
Epoch Time
Euler Angles
True Air Speed
Indicated Airspeed
Calibrated Airspeed
Vertical Speed
God's Eye View Displays
Miniature Flat Panel LCD Projected
Displays
Field Emission Displays
LCD Displays
Map Displays
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LED Displays
Head Up Displays
Diffractive HUDs
Holographic HUDs
Civil HUDs
Head Down Displays
Primary Flight Displays
Navigation Displays
Projected Large Flat Panel Displays
Helmet Mounted Displays
Collimated Displays
Laser Scanner Projected Displays
Binocular HMDs
HUD
EICAS
ARINC
Head Motion Box
Computer Generated Holograms
Air Data, Formulae
Pressure Altitude
QFE - Ground Pressure
Impact Pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Static Pressure
Total Pressure
Rugate Dielectric Coatings, HUD
Combiners
Aerodynamically Unstable Aircraft
Frequency Response Methods
Formal Methods
Multi-Layer Coatings
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Terrain Following Autopilot
Fly-By-Light
Knot
Recovery Factor
Air Density Reduction Factor
Tailplane Efficiency Factor
Mach Number
Spiral Instability
Glide Slope Coupling Loop
Localiser Coupling Loop
Heading Control Loop
Height Control Loop
Bank Angle Command Loop
Pitch Attitude Command Loop
Pitching Moment
Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment
Control Sticks, FBW
Adiabatic Process
Holographic Optical Elements
Design Factors
Numerical Aperture
Schuler Period
Visibility Categories
Cat. I, II and III Visibility
Failure Mode Categories
Gimbal Lock
Snell's Law
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Exit Pupil Diameter
Wheatstone's Bridge
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Vector Data Bases - Maps

Control Laws
Lift Force
Stick Force/g
Forward Force
Side Force
Vertical Force
Specific Force
Coriolis Forces
Latency
Latency in Digital Control Systems
Air Density
Chemosphere
Z Mathematical Language
Single Mode Optical Fibre
Multi-Mode Optical Fibre
Aerodynamic Centre
Precession
Acceleration Components, Body Axes
Waveguide Parameter
Constructor Holograms
Terrain Contour Navigation
TACAN
Velocity Vector
Bus Controller
Safety and Integrity Requirements
Autopilot Requirements
Avionics Environmental Requirements
Pressure Sensors, Requirements
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
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QNE - Mean Sea Level Pressure

Field of View
Total Field of View
Instantaneous Field of View
Earth's Magnetic Field
Combiners
Combiners, Thin Spherical with
Rugate Coating
HUD Combiners
Combiners, Holographic
Stability Axes
Platform Axes
Aircraft Body Axes
Local North, East, Down Axes
Runway Visual Range
Heading Monitoring
Gravity Monitoring
Vertical Monitoring
Vertical Reference
Notch Filters
Wash-out Filter
Kalman Filters
Centre of Pressure
Air Data/Inertial Mixing
Baro/Inertial Mixing
Doppler/Inertial Mixing
Pressure Sensors, 'Solid State' Capsule
Passive Optical Sensors
Total Temperature Sensor
Incidence Sensors
Pressure Sensors
Vibrating Pressure Sensors
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Lock-in Problems and Solutions

Derivatives
Aerodynamic Derivatives
Servo Actuator
Covariance Matrix
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State Vector Matrix

State Coefficient Matrix
Yaw Damper
Terrain Characteristic Matching
Equations of Motion, Lateral
Equations of Motion, Longitudinal
Equations of Motion, Aircraft
Bernoulli's Equation
Lift Coefficient
Pitching Moment Coefficient
Pitching Moment Coefficient of Wing
at Zero Lift
Pitching Moment Coefficient of
Complete Aircraft
Ephemeris Parameters
Euler Symmetrical Parameters
Lapse Rate
Pitch Rate
Roll Rate
Bode's Stability Criterion
Accelerometers
Rectification of Vibration,
Accelerometers
Coriolis Accelerations
Virtual Cockpits
Sagnac Interferometer
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Accelerometer, Torque Balance

Pendulous
Accelerometer, Spring Restrained
Pendulous
LORAN C
Inertial Navigation
DR Navigation
DR Navigation, Air Data Based
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DR Navigation, Doppler/Heading
Reference
Terrain Reference Navigation
Navigation and Guidance
Marker Beacons
Care Free Manoeuvring
Stable Platforms
Strap-Down Equivalent Stable Platform
ARINC Specifications
Schuler Tuning
Attitude Direction Indicator
Horizontal Situation Indicator
Bank to Turn
Magnetic Dip Angle
Data Bus, MIL STD 1553B
STANAG Data Bus
Data Bus, High Speed Ring
Data Bus, Linear Token Passing High
Speed
Linear Token Passing Bus
High Speed Databuses
Damping Ratio, Second-Order System
Ratio of Specific Heats
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Dutch Roll Ratio

Air Density Ratio
Night Viewing Goggles
ATC Transponder
FBW Flight Control System
Free Azimuth Axis System
Galileo Satellite Navigation System
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
MLS
BLEU System
Direct Voice Input
Localizer Guidance System
Wide Area Augmentation System
EFIS
FADEC
Differential GPS
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Modern Control Theory
Stagnation Point
Neutral Point
Static Margin
Automatic Landing
Reliability
Artificial Feel Unit
ILS Coupled Approach
Rudder Function
Triplex Redundancy
Quadruplex Redundancy
Dissimilar Redundancy
Redundancy and Failure Survival
NBC Protection
Data Staleness
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Pendulous
Accelerometer, Torque Balance
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Accelerometers
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Adiabatic Process
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Aerodynamic Centre
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Aerodynamic Derivatives
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Aided IN Systems
Aided Systems and Kalman Filters
Air Data
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Air Data Gain Scheduling

Air Data, Formulae
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Air Data/Inertial Mixing
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Air Density
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Air Density Ratio
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Air Density Reduction Factor
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Aircraft Body Axes
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Aliasing
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Angle of Attack
Angular Momentum Gyroscopes
ARINC
ARINC Specifications
Artificial Feel Unit
ATC Transponder
Attitude Algorithms
Attitude Derivation
Attitude Direction Indicator
Attitude Heading Reference Systems
Automatic Flare
Automatic Landing
Autopilot
Autopilot Requirements
Auto-Stabilisation
Auto-Throttle Systems
Avionics Environmental Requirements
Axis Systems
Bank Angle
Bank Angle Command Loop
Bank to Turn
Baro/Inertial Mixing
Basic Principles and Schuler Tuning
Beam Index CRT
Bernoulli's Equation
Binocular HMDs
BLEU System
Bode's Stability Criterion
Bus Controller
C Star Control
Calibrated Airspeed
Care Free Manoeuvring
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Cat. I, II and III Visibility
III
Centre of Pressure
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Chemosphere
Choice of Navigation Co-ordinates
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Civil HUDs
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Collimated Displays
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Collimation
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Combined Roll-Yaw-Sideslip Motion
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Combiners
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Combiners, Holographic
Combiners, Thin Spherical with
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Common Mode Failures
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Commutation Errors, Attitude
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Complementary Filtering
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Computer Generated Holograms
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Coning Motion
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Consolidation of Multiple Outputs
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Constructor Holograms
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Control and Data Entry
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Control Laws
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Control Sticks, FBW
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Cooper-Harper Rating
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Co-ordinated Turn
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Coriolis Accelerations
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Coriolis Forces
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Covariance Matrix
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Damping Ratio, Second-Order System

Data Bus Systems
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Data Bus, High Speed Ring
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Data Bus, Linear Token Passing High

Speed
Data Bus, MIL STD 1553B
Data Fusion
Data Staleness
Decision Height
Derivatives
Design Factors
Differential GPS
Diffractive HUDs
Digital Implementation
Digitally Generated Colour Maps
Direct Voice Input
Direction Cosine Co-ordinates
Dissimilar Redundancy
DME
Doppler/Inertial Mixing
DR Navigation
DR Navigation, Air Data Based
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vv
vv
vv
vv
vv
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vv
vv
vv
vv
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MIL STD 1553B
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DR Navigation, Doppler/Heading
Reference
Dutch Roll
Dutch Roll Ratio
Dynamically Tuned Gyro
Earth Radius Pendulum
Earth's Magnetic Field
Earth's Rate Correction Terms
Effect of Azimuth Gyro Drift
EFIS
EICAS
EMI Effects
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Enhanced Vision Systems

Ephemeris Parameters
Epoch Time
Equations of Motion, Aircraft
Equations of Motion, Lateral
Equations of Motion, Longitudinal
Euler Angles
Euler Symmetrical Parameters
Exit Pupil Diameter
Eye Trackers
FADEC
Failure Mode Categories
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
Failure Transients
FBW Flight Control System
Fibre Optic Gyro
Fibre Optic Gyros
Fibre Optic Gyros, Interferometric
Type
Fibre Optic Gyros, Ring Resonator
Type
Field Emission Displays
Field of View
Flight Management Systems
Flight Path Kinematics
Flight Path Optimisation
Flight Planning
FLIR
Fluxgates
Fly-By-Light
Formal Methods
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Forward Force
Free Azimuth Axis System
Frequency Response Methods
Full Authority Systems
Galileo Satellite Navigation System
Geometric Dilution of Precision
Geopotential Altitude
Gimbal Lock
Glide Slope Coupling Loop
Glide Slope Guidance
Global Positioning System (GPS)
God's Eye View Displays
Gravitational Acceleration
Gravity Monitoring
Great Circles
Ground Pressure Correction
Gyros Compassing
Gyroscopic Reaction Torque
Head Down Displays
Head Motion Box
Head Tracking Systems
Head Up Displays
Heading Control Loop
Heading Monitoring
Height Control Loop
Helmet Mounted Displays
Helmet Mounted Sights
High Speed Databuses
Holographic HUDs
Holographic Optical Elements
Horizontal Situation Indicator
House-Keeping Management
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HUD
HUD Combiners
ILS Coupled Approach
Image Intensifier Tubes
Impact Pressure
Incidence Angle
Incidence Sensors
Indicated Airspeed
Indirect Viewing Systems
Inertial Navigation
Initial Alignment and Gyro
Compassing
Instantaneous Field of View
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Integral of Error Control Term
Integrating Rate Gyro Operation
Integration with INS
Intelligent Displays Management
Joule's Constant
Kalman Filters
Kick-off Drift
Knot
Lags in the Control Loop
Lapse Rate
Laser Eye Damage Weapons
Laser Scanner Projected Displays
Latency
Latency in Digital Control Systems
Lateral Control and Response, Basic
Aircraft
Latitude
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x o
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x
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d(a y G bL
w
?* O9 gy G I QF 9 az y ?< 9 GA S: G h [( ay G ~w JA y G
LCD Displays
LED Displays
Lift Coefficient
Lift Force
Limited Authority Systems
Linear Token Passing Bus
Local North, East, Down Axes
Localiser Coupling Loop
Localizer Guidance System
Lock-in Problems and Solutions
Long Period Pitch Motion
Longitude
Longitudinal Control and Response,
Basic Aircraft
Longitudinal Stability
LORAN C
Mach Number
Magnetic Deviation
Magnetic Dip Angle
Magnetic Variation
Manchester bi-Phase Encoding
Manoeuvre Command Control
Map Displays
Marker Beacons
Material Dispersion
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
Measured Air Temperature
G QG Qt A S: G
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Q(a y G ,F 9 " D y G QA T W! 9 | Q+ qW @
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? a* QB G J 9 V9 V
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Measurement Matrix in Kalman Filtering
Meridian
Meridian Convergency
|}y
Meridian Convergency Term

Micro-machined Vibrating Mass Rate
Gyros
Miniature Flat Panel LCD Projected
Displays
MLS
Modern Control Theory
Monitored Triplex Systems
Multi-Layer Coatings
Multi-Mode Optical Fibre
Navigation and Guidance
Navigation Displays
NBC Protection
Neglecting Cross-Coupling
Neutral Point
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Nichol's Chart
Night Viewing Goggles
Notch Filters
Nuisance Disconnects
Numerical Aperture
OMEGA
Operational Modes
Optical Data Bus Systems
Optical Fibres
Optical Fibres, Data Transmission
Optical Gyros
Organic Light Emitting Diodes
Pascal
%C
d G h R y G bL HQ 9 t @ O I
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IQGO G IRv v Av v G ?v v zv v Av v wv v yG JGP ?v v v v fQv v Tv v yG JGhQv v v v G
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v
n o
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n
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r
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b } " y G O O g A C G jQ Z= y G r + z y G
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QG OY G IOOg A | J 9 + HQ <
O9 VQ G h ?I ; CG
? I; C G J 9 V9 V
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? +F9+} +wyG h
n
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?y O9gAC G ? at" yG
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x
r
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? * Q Z < a9 + y C
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? * Q Z= y G J G h Q + @ G
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Passive Optical Sensors

Penetron CRT
Performance Characteristics
Phase Advance
Phugoid Motion
Pitch Angle
Pitch Attitude Command Loop
Pitch Rate
Pitch Rate Command Control
Pitch Rate Manoeuvre Command
Pitch Response, Basic Aircraft
Pitching Moment
Pitching Moment Coefficient
Pitching Moment Coefficient of
Complete Aircraft
Pitching Moment Coefficient of Wing
at Zero Lift
Platform Axes
Precession
Pressure Altitude
Pressure Altitude, Computation
Pressure Error
Pressure Sensors
Pressure Sensors, 'Solid State' Capsule
Pressure Sensors, Requirements
Primary Flight Displays
Prime Meridian
Projected Large Flat Panel Displays
Proportional Plus Derivative
Proportional Plus Derivative Control
Proportional Plus Integral
|}{
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G
G JG
fh
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G d
G d
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G I
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G e
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G eG
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9I
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b j] y zaL
b j] y QgW AT |
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b j] y QgW AT |
bj] y Qg WA T | 9 = z aA |
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v
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9 tA V O > S9 " @
w
9 tA V : O > S9 " A y ~w;
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G Qh
n
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Proportional Plus Integral Control

Pulse Broadening in Optical Fibres
QFE - Ground Pressure
QNE - Mean Sea Level Pressure
Quadruplex Redundancy
Quadruplex Systems
Quaternions
Radio Navigation Aids
Raster Display Generation
Raster Overlay Display Generation
Ratio of Specific Heats
Recovery Factor
Rectification of Vibration
Rectification of Vibration,
Accelerometers
Redundancy and Failure Survival
Reliability
Reliability Shake-Down Testing
Remote Terminal MIL STD 1553B
Ring Laser Gyro
Ring Resonator Fibre Optic Gyro
Roll Rate
Roll Rate Command Control
Roll Response, Basic Aircraft
Rolling Moment
Rudder Function
Rugate Dielectric Coatings, HUD
Combiners
Runge-Kutta Algorithms
Runway Visual Range
Safety and Integrity Requirements
{|9 w A y G G O F G R > S9 " A y ~w;

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Sagnac Effect
c9 " F 9 S Q C C
Sagnac Interferometer
c 9 " F9 S {L G O@ S 9 + t |
Sagnac Phase Shift
c 9 " F9 S Q(_ ?IG R E

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Scene Matching Area Correlation
O $9W CG ?t<9 a| , p J 9I 9T CG eR; @
Schuler Pendulum
Q y(V d hO "<
Schuler Period
Qy( V IQ Ap
n
Schuler Tuning
Q y(V ? qyG( |
Sensor Tracking Errors
Q gWA T}z y h = A A y G A 9 aL C
x
Servo Actuator
[ 6G QR G |C G { jW |
p
Shadow-Mask CRTs
{d y G Y9 " s J G P O( C 9 w y G ? gV C > + < 9 ! C
Short Period and Long Period Motion
IQ AqyG ?z* (ay Gh IQAq yG IQ+Z ty G ? vQA G
Short Period Motion in Pitch Plane
Q G O J! :G i ( A T | ,p I Q + Zt y G I Q A q y G ? v Q I
Short Period Motion in Yaw Plane
L G Q g ! :G i ( A T | ,p I Q + Zt y G I Q A q y G ? v Q I
Side Force
?+=!9@ G I(t yG
Side Slip, Use of Rudder
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Single Mode Optical Fibre
b} " y G jO 9 I} G jQ Z= y G r + z y G
Snell's Law
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Software - Flight Control
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Specific Force
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Pressure
bj] y G J (= C O " f A G ( %z y ? + f (" y G I Q G QA G

Volume
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J (Z yG ?f QS b 9tAV G
Speed of Sound, Variation with

Altitude
Y9 q@Q: G h| J (Z yG ?fQ S Q+j @
Spiral Instability
, = y ( z y G QG Q tA S: G eO f
Stability Axes
QG Qt A S: G Qh9 I
Stable Platform Systems
I Q t A TC G ? Z" C G ? } d ! C
Stable Platforms
I Q t A T C G J 9 Z" C G
Stagnation Point
O(v QyG ?a t!
STANAG Data Bus
STANAG J9!9+=yG {s9!
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j Q + C G j( @
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Standard Atmospheric Pressure
9 g
Standby Display Instruments, Solid

State
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State Coefficient Matrix
? _9 A I:
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{|9 g| ?p
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Static Air Temperature
v 9 Ty
Static Air Temperature, Computation
v9T y
Static Margin
R F
AG
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Static Pressure
v9 Ty b j] y
Stealth
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Stick Force/g
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Strap Down System Computing
B =DA y ~wJ
Strap-Down Equivalent Stable Platform
Strap-Down Systems
B =DAy ?} wJ
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Stratopause
t=a y
Structural Resonance Modes
;j y
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Symbol Generation
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Stratosphere
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TACAN
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Tactile Control Panels

Tailplane Contribution
Tailplane Efficiency Factor
?I ;
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9 S
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Tailplane Volume
9 q v {|9 f
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Terrain Characteristic Matching
Terrain Contour Navigation
9] Ay [ 9Z L ? t<9a |
Terrain Following Autopilot
Terrain Reference Navigation
Time Division Multiplexing
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? zwy
Total Field of View
QI ?F
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Total Pressure
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Total Temperature Sensor

Transition Matrix, Use in Attitude
Integration
Transition Matrix, Use in IN System
Error Model
Trim Angle of Incidence
Triplex Redundancy
Tropopause
Troposphere
True Air Speed
Undamped Natural Frequency
Vector Data Bases - Maps
Vehicle Rate Correction Terms
Velocity Vector
Vertical Flight Path Control
Vertical Force
Vertical Monitoring
Vertical Reference
Vertical Speed
Vibrating Pressure Sensors
Vibration Induced Errors
Virtual Cockpits
Visibility Categories
VOR
Voting Algorithms
Wash-out Filter
Waveguide Dispersion
Waveguide Parameter
Weathercock Stability
Weight, Gearing Effect
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Wheatstone's Bridge
Wide Area Augmentation System
Yaw Angle
Yaw Damper
Yawing Moment
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f (AT A*($ IQa "s

?gS G (y G ? I9 T C G R* R g@ e9 d !
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384 ,383 ,381 :c 9F9S QCC
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265 :, FG (%y G , w+|9"*O yG AGO}G
536 :, }y9gyG #|RyG J9+ CGOIE
496 :?I ;}yG J9+ CGOIE
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670
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145 :?=zZyG
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52 :?p Qg}yG )zf O"AT }yG ,v PyG
48 :?+s(C (zy ,= *QGAy G Q9=AL :G
40 :O(s(yG IQG OE
356 :y? +|9AM yG ?y(GyGz JGQ9= ALG
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613 :9+z LGO ?+ "=}y G JGQ9=AL :G
348 :Q@(+ =}wy9<
384 :)1960 ( QR+z yG YGQALG
253 :T9g@ Q:G
545 :, f9"Zy G Q}tyG H*R A9aLC
574 :, \Q}G O %GyG Y9 q@QG
500 :?fQTyG A9aLC
645 ,637 :~TJyG Y9q@QG
594 :bj ]yG A9aLC
270 :J9!9+=zy , F9<Q%wyG d9S Q
545 :j(GyG a ;jyG A9aLC
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635 :hs(} yG O*OJ @ JGQ9VE
299 :QGQtAS :G ?yGRE
546 :OOg A}yG Q9T}y G JGQ9VE
489 :a 9q aY:G f9|RC
486 ,485 :,FGOA<: G a9qaY:G
240 :?*QGO J!:G ?<9GAS :G
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488 :#WMy G , A}T yG a9qaY:G
318 :IQF9ayG ?<9G ASG
699 :,w+!9w+} yG a9qaY:G
229 :?z* (ayG IQA qyG ?<9G ASG
hv v<9v vAv vy G ,v vzv vJv v}v vyG i(v vAv vTv v}v vyG Q(v vJv v| Q9v v_E
480 ,437 :d9}W zy
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104 :?+ F(} yG dG(_}G
306 :{ jW} yG ?<9G ASG
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338 ,337 :aGOQAS :G
260 :IQF9ayG { w+$ AG( AyE
338 :aG OQA S:G O9]| K+V Q@ vvvv
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281 ,244 :,y 6G QGQtAS :G
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250 ,215 :,$9G@ :G QGQtAS :G
712 ,709 -706 ,704
192 ,190 :,w+ |9"* OyG QGQtAS :G
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194 -192 :, !(wT yG QGQtAS :G
723 :Q9+_ fhO<
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700
192 ,189 :, y(ayG QGQtAS :G
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333 :?gpGQy G K aS }G
216 :M9"Gzy , gFGQAy G OGO A|:G
333 ,247 ,218 :?q_9gy G K aS }G
647 :,FGO A<:G aGQG !:G
636 ,635 :,S}G QGOJ!:G JGQ9VE
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673 ,348 ,78 ,52 ,40
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725 ,559
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463 ,455
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318 :?tzj}yG
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