FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

J.E.Akin

3 ConceptsofStressAnalysis
3.1 Introduction
Heretheconceptsofstressanalysiswillbestatedinafiniteelementcontext.Thatmeansthattheprimary
unknownwillbethe(generalized)displacements.Allotheritemsofinterestwillmainlydependonthe
gradientofthedisplacementsandthereforewillbelessaccuratethanthedisplacements.Stressanalysis
coversseveralcommonspecialcasestobementionedlater.Hereonlytwoformulationswillbeconsidered
initially.Theyarethesolidcontinuumformandtheshellform.BothareofferedinSWSimulation.Theydiffer
inthatthecontinuumformutilizesonlydisplacementvectors,whiletheshellformutilizesdisplacement
vectorsandinfinitesimalrotationvectorsattheelementnodes.
AsillustratedinFigure31,thesolidelementshavethreetranslationaldegreesoffreedom(DOF)asnodal
unknowns,foratotalof12or30DOF.Theshellelementshavethreetranslationaldegreesoffreedomaswell
asthreerotationaldegreesoffreedom,foratotalof18or36DOF.ThedifferenceinDOFtypesmeansthat
momentsorcouplescanonlybeapplieddirectlytoshellmodels.Solidelementsrequirethatcouplesbe
indirectlyappliedbyspecifyingapairofequivalentpressuredistributions,oranequivalentpairofequaland
oppositeforcesattwonodesonthebody.

ShellnodeSolidnode

Figure31Nodaldegreesoffreedomforframesandshells;solidsandtrusses

Stresstransfertakesplacewithin,andon,theboundariesofasolidbody.Thedisplacementvector,u,atany
pointinthecontinuumbodyhastheunitsofmeters[m],anditscomponentsaretheprimaryunknowns.The
componentsofdisplacementareusuallycalledu,v,andwinthex,y,andzdirections,respectively.Therefore,
theyimplytheexistenceofeachother,u(u,v,w).Allthedisplacementcomponentsvaryoverspace.Asin
theheattransfercase(coveredlater),thegradientsofthosecomponentsareneededbutonlyasan
intermediatequantity.Thedisplacementgradientshavetheunitsof[m/m],orareconsidereddimensionless.
Unliketheheattransfercasewherethegradientisuseddirectly,instressanalysisthemultiplecomponentsof
thedisplacementgradientsarecombinedintoalternateformscalledstrains.Thestrainshavegeometrical
interpretationsthataresummarizedinFigure32for1Dand2Dgeometry.
In1D,thenormalstrainisjusttheratioofthechangeinlengthovertheoriginallength,x=u/x.In2Dand
3D,bothnormalstrainsandshearstrainsexist.Thenormalstrainsinvolveonlythepartofthegradientterms
paralleltothedisplacementcomponent.In2Dtheyarex=u/xandy=v/y.AsseeninFigure32(b),
theywouldcauseachangeinvolume,butnotachangeinshapeoftherectangulardifferentialelement.A
shearstraincausesachangeinshape.Thetotalanglechange(from90degrees)isusedastheengineering
definitionoftheshearstrain.Theshearstrainsinvolveacombinationofthecomponentsofthegradientthat

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FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

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areperpendiculartothedisplacementcomponent.In2D,theengineeringshearstrainis=(u/y+v/
x),asseeninFigure32(c).Strainhasonecomponentin1D,threecomponentsin2D,andsixcomponentsin
3D.The2Dstrainsarecommonlywrittenasacolumnvectorinfiniteelementanalysis,=(xy)T.

Figure32Geometryofnormalstrain(a)1D,(b)2D,and(c)2Dshearstrain

Stressisameasureoftheforceperunitareaactingonaplanepassingthroughthepointofinterestinabody.
Theabovegeometricaldata(thestrains)willbemultipliedbymaterialpropertiestodefineanewphysical
quantity,thestress,whichisdirectlyproportionaltothestrains.ThisisknownasHookesLaw:=E,(see
Figure33)wherethesquarematerialmatrix,E,containstheelasticmodulus,andPoissonsratioofthe
material.The2Dstressesarewrittenasacorrespondingcolumnvector,=(xy)T.Unlessstated
otherwise,theapplicationsillustratedhereareassumetobeinthelinearrangeofamaterialproperty.
The2Dand3DstresscomponentsareshowninFigure34.Thenormalandshearstressesrepresentthe
normalforceperunitareaandthetangentialforcesperunitarea,respectively.Theyhavetheunitsof
[N/m^2],or[Pa],butareusuallygivenin[MPa].Thegeneralizationsoftheengineeringstraindefinitionsare
seeninFigure35.Thestrainenergy(orpotentialenergy)storedinthedifferentialmaterialelementishalf
thescalarproductofthestressesandthestrains.Errorestimatesfromstressstudiesarebasedonprimarily
onthestrainenergy(orstrainenergydensity).

Figure33Hooke'sLawforlinearstressstrain,=E

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Figure34Stresscomponentsin2D(left)and3D

Figure35Graphicalrepresentationsof3Dnormalstrains(a)andshearstrains

3.2 Axialbarexample
Thesimplestavailablestressexampleisanaxialbar,showninFigure36,restrainedatoneendandsubjected
toanaxialload,P,attheotherendandtheweightisneglected.Letthelengthandareaofthebarbedenoted
byL,andA,respectively.ItsmaterialhasanelasticmodulusofE.Theaxialdisplacement,u(x),varieslinearly

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fromzeroatthesupporttoamaximumofattheloadpoint.Thatis,u(x)=x/L,sotheaxialstrainisx=u
/x=/L,whichisaconstant.Likewise,theaxialstressiseverywhereconstant,=E=E/Lwhichinthe
casesimplyreducesto=P/A.Likemanyothermorecomplicatedproblems,thestressheredoesnot
.Youshouldalways
dependonthematerialproperties,butthedisplacementalwaysdoes,
carefullycheckboththedeflectionsandstresseswhenvalidatingafiniteelementsolution.
Sincetheassumeddisplacementislinearhere,anyfiniteelementmodelwouldgiveexactdeflectionandthe
constantstressresults.However,iftheloadhadbeenthedistributedbarweighttheexactdisplacement
wouldbequadraticinxandthestresswouldbelinearinx.Then,aquadraticelementmeshwouldgiveexact
stressesanddisplacementseverywhere,butalinearelementmeshwouldnot.
Theelasticbarisoftenmodeledasalinearspring.Inintroductorymechanicsofmaterialstheaxialstiffnessof
abarisdefinedask=EA/L,wherethebarhasalengthofL,anareaA,andisconstructedofamaterialelastic
,likealinearspring.
modulusofE.Thentheabovebardisplacementcanbewrittenas

=P/A,=PL/EA
Figure36Alinearlyelasticbarwithanaxialload

3.3 Structuralmechanics
Modernstructuralanalysisreliesextensivelyonthefiniteelementmethod.Themostpopularintegral
formulation,basedonthevariationalcalculusofEuler,isthePrincipleofMinimumTotalPotentialEnergy.
Basically,itstatesthatthedisplacementfieldthatsatisfiestheessentialdisplacementboundaryconditionsand
minimizesthetotalpotentialenergyistheonethatcorrespondstothestateofstaticequilibrium.Thisimplies
thatdisplacementsareourprimaryunknowns.Theywillbeinterpolatedinspaceaswilltheirderivatives,and
thestrains.Thetotalpotentialenergy,,isthestrainenergy,U,ofthestructureminusthemechanicalwork,
W,donebytheexternalforces.Fromintroductorymechanics,themechanicalwork,W,donebyaforceisthe
scalardotproductoftheforcevector,F,andthedisplacementvector,u,atitspointofapplication.
Thewellknownlinearelasticspringwillbereviewedtoillustratetheconceptofobtainingequilibrium
equationsfromanenergyformulation.Consideralinearspring,ofstiffnessk,thathasanappliedforce,F,at
thefree(right)end,andisrestrainedfromdisplacementattheother(left)end.Thefreeendundergoesa
displacementof.Theworkdonebythesingleforceis

Thespringstorespotentialenergyduetoitsdeformation(changeinlength).Herewecallthatstrainenergy.
Thatstoredenergyisgivenby

1
2
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Therefore,thetotalpotentialenergyfortheloadedspringis

1
2

Theequationofequilibriumisobtainedbyminimizingthistotalpotentialenergywithrespecttotheunknown
displacement, .Thatis,
2
2

Thissimplifiestothecommonsinglescalarequation

k =F,
whichisthewellknownequilibriumequationforalinearspring.Thisexamplewasslightlysimplified,sincewe
startedwiththeconditionthattheleftendofthespringhadnodisplacement(anessentialorDirichlet
boundarycondition).Nextwewillconsideraspringwhereeitherendcanbefixedorfreetomove.Thiswill
requirethatyoubothminimizethetotalpotentialenergyandimposethegivendisplacementrestraint.

Figure37Theclassicandgenerallinearspringelement

Nowthespringmodelhastwoenddisplacements,1and2,andtwoassociatedaxialforces,F1andF2.The
netdeformationofthebaris=21.Denotethetotalvectorofdisplacementcomponentsas

andtheassociatedvectorofforcesas

Thenthemechanicalworkdoneonthespringis

1F1+2F2

Thenthespring'sstrainenergyis

wherethespringstiffnessmatrixisfoundtobe

1
1

1
.
1

Thetotalpotentialenergy,,becomes

1
1

1
1

Notethateachtermhastheunitsofenergy,i.e.forcetimeslength.Thematrixequationsofequilibriumcome
fromsatisfyingthedisplacementrestraintandtheminimizationofthetotalpotentialenergywithrespectto
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eachandeverydisplacementcomponent.Theminimizationrequiresthatthepartialderivativeofallthe
displacementsvanish:

,or

0 ,

1, 2.

Thatrepresentsthefirststagesystemofalgebraicequationsofequilibriumfortheelasticsystem:

1
1

1
1

Thesetwosymmetricequationsdonotyetreflectthepresenceofanyessentialboundaryconditiononthe
displacements.Therefore,nouniquesolutionexistsforthetwodisplacementsduetoappliedforces(theaxial
RBMhasnotbeeneliminated).Mathematically,thisisclearbecausethesquarematrixhasazerodeterminate
andcannotbeinverted.Ifallofthedisplacementsareknown,youcanfindtheappliedforces.Forexample,if
youhadarigidbodytranslationof1=2=CwhereCisanarbitraryconstantyouclearlygetF1=F2=0.Ifyou
stretchthespringbytwoequalandoppositedisplacements;1=C,2=Candthefirstrowofthematrix
equationsgivesF1=2kC.ThesecondrowgivesF2=2kC,whichisequalandoppositetoF1,asexpected.
Usually,youknowsomeofthedisplacementsandsomeoftheforces.Thenyouhavetomanipulatethematrix
equilibriumsystemtoputitintheformofastandardlinearalgebraicsystemwhereaknownsquarematrix
multipliedbyavectorofunknownsisequaltoaknownvector:
.

3.4 Equilibriumofrestrainedsystems
Liketheoriginalspringproblem,nowassumetherightforce,F2,isknown,andtheleftdisplacement, ,hasa
given(restrained)value,say given .Then,theabovematrixequationrepresentstwouniqueequilibrium
equationsfortwounknowns,thedisplacement2 andthereactionforce .Thatmakesthislinearalgebraic
systemlookstrangebecausethereareunknownsonbothsidesoftheequals,=.Youcould(butusuallydo
not)correctthatbyrearrangingtheequationsystem(notdoneinpractice).First,multiplythefirstcolumnof
thestiffnessmatrixbytheknowngivenvalueandmoveittotherightside:

0
0

andthenmovetheunknownreaction, ,totheleftside

1
0

Nowyouhavetheusualformofalinearsystemofequationswheretherightsideisaknownvectorandthe
leftsideistheproductofaknownsquarematrixtimesavectorofunknowns.Sinceboththeenergy
minimizationandthedisplacementrestraintshavebeencombinedyounowhaveauniquesetofequationsfor
theunknowndisplacementsandtheunknownrestraintreactions.Invertingthe2by2matrixgivestheexact
solution:

0
0

.
sothatF1 F2always,asexpected.Ifgiven=0,asoriginallystated,thentheenddisplacementis
Thissortofrearrangementofthematrixtermsisnotdoneinpracticebecauseitdestroysthesymmetryofthe
originalequations.Algorithmsfornumericallysolvingsuchsystemsrelyonsymmetrytoreduceboththe
requiredstoragesizeandtheoperationscount.Theyareveryimportantwhensolvingthousandsofequations.
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3.5 Generalequilibriummatrixpartitions
Theabovesmallexamplegivesinsighttothemostgeneralformofthealgebraicsystemresultingfromonly
minimizingthetotalpotentialenergy:asingularmatrixsystemwithmoreunknownsthanequations.Thatis
becausethereisnotauniqueequilibriumsolutiontotheproblemuntilyoualsoapplytheessential(Dirichlet)
boundaryconditionsonthedisplacements.Thealgebraicsystemcanbewritteninageneralpartitionedmatrix
formthatmoreclearlydefineswhatmustbedonetoreducethesystemtoasolvableformbyutilizing
essentialboundaryconditions.
Foranelasticsystemofanysize,thefull,symmetricmatrixequationsobtainedbyminimizingtheenergycan
alwaysberearrangedintothefollowingpartitionedmatrixform:

whereu representstheunknownnodaldisplacements,andg representsthegivenessentialboundaryvalues

(restraints,orfixtures)oftheotherdisplacements.ThestiffnesssubmatricesKuu andKggaresquare,whereas
Kug andKguarerectangular.InafiniteelementformulationallofthecoefficientsintheK matricesareknown.
TheresultantappliednodalloadsareinsubvectorFgandtheFu termsrepresenttheunknowngeneralized
reactionsforcesassociatedwithessentialboundaryconditions.Thismeansthataftertheenforcementofthe
essentialboundaryconditionstheactualremainingunknownsareu andFu.Onlythendoesthenetnumber
ofunknownscorrespondtothenumberofequations.But,theymustberearrangedbeforealltheremaining
unknownscanbecomputed.
Here,forsimplicity,ithasbeenassumedthattheequationshavebeennumberedinamannerthatplacesrows
associatedwiththegivendisplacements(essentialboundaryconditions)attheendofthesystemequations.
Theabovematrixrelationscanberewrittenastwosetsofmatrixidentities:

Thefirstidentitycanbesolvedfortheunknowndisplacements, ,byputtingitinthestandardlinear
equationformbymovingtheknownproduct
totherightside.Mostbooksonnumericalanalysis
)beforetryingtosolvethe
assumethatyouhavereducedthesystemtothissmaller,nonsingularform(
system.Invertingthesmallernonsingularsquarematrixyieldstheuniqueequilibriumdisplacementfield:

Theremainingreactionforcescanthenberecovered,ifdesired,fromthesecondmatrixidentity:

Inmostapplications,thesereactiondatahavephysicalmeaningsthatareimportantintheirownright,or
usefulinvalidatingthesolution.However,thispartofthecalculationisoptional.

3.6 StructuralComponentFailure
Structuralcomponentscanbedeterminedtofailbyvariousmodesdeterminedbybuckling,deflection,natural
frequency,strain,orstress.Strainorstressfailurecriteriaaredifferentdependingonwhethertheyare
consideredasbrittleorductilematerials.Thedifferencebetweenbrittleandductilematerialbehaviorsis
determinedbytheirresponsetoauniaxialstressstraintest,asinFigure38.Youneedtoknowwhatclassof
materialisbeingused.SWSimulation,andmostfiniteelementsystems,defaulttoassumingaductilematerial

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anddisplaythedistortionalenergyfailuretheorywhichisusuallycalledtheVonMisesstress,oreffective
stress,eventhoughitisactuallyascalar.Abrittlematerialrequirestheuseofahigherfactorofsafety.

Figure38Axialstressstrainexperimentalresults

3.7 FactorofSafety
Allaspectsofadesignhavesomedegreeofuncertainty,asdoeshowthedesignwillactuallybeutilized.For
allthereasonscitedabove,youmustalwaysemployaFactorofSafety(FOS).Somedesignersrefertoitasthe
factorofignorance.RememberthataFOSofunitymeansthatfailureiseminent;itdoesnotmeanthatapart
orassemblyissafe.Inpracticeyoushouldtrytojustify1<FOS<8.Severalconsistentapproachesfor
computingaFOSaregiveninmechanicaldesignbooks[9].Theyshouldbesupplementedwiththeadditional
uncertaintiesthatcomefromaFEA.Manyauthorssuggestthatthefactorofsafetyshouldbecomputedas
theproductoftermsthatareall 1.Thereisafactorforthecertaintyoftherestraintlocationandtype;the
certaintyoftheloadregion,type,andvalue;amaterialfactor;adynamicloadingfactor;acyclic(fatigue)load
factor;andanadditionalfactoriffailureislikelytoresultinhumaninjury.Variousprofessionalorganizations
andstandardsorganizationssetminimumvaluesforthefactorofsafety.Forexample,thestandardforlifting
hoistsandelevatorsrequireaminimumFOSof4,becausetheirfailurewouldinvolvetheclearriskofinjuring

orkillingpeople.Asaguide,considertheFOSasaproductoffactors:
.Aset
oftypicalfactorsisgiveninTable31.

Table31Factorstoconsiderwhenevaluatingadesign(each

Type

Comments

Consequences

Willlossbeokay,criticalorfatal

Environment

Roomambientorharshchemicalspresent

Failuretheory

Isapartclearlybrittle,ductile,orunknown

Fatigue

Doesthedesignexperiencemorethattencyclesofuse

GeometryofPart

Notuncertain,iffromaCADsystem

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GeometryofMesh

Defeaturingcanintroduceerrors.Elementsizesandlocation
areimportant.Lookinglikethepartisnotenough.

Loading

Areloadspreciseordotheycomefromwaveaction,etc.

Materialdata

Isthematerialwellknown,orvalidatedbytests

Reliability

Mustthereliabilityofthedesignbehigh

10

Restraints

Designsaregreatlyinfluencedbyassumedsupports

11

Stresses

Wasstressconcentrationconsidered,orshockloads

3.8 ElementTypeSelection
Evenwithtodaysadvancesincomputingpoweryouseemnevertohaveenoughcomputationalresourcesto
solvealltheproblemsthatpresentthemselves.Frequentlysolidelementsarenotthebestchoicefor
computationalefficiency.Theanalystsshouldlearnwhenotherelementtypescanbevalidorwhentheycan
beutilizedtovalidateastudycarriedoutwithadifferentelementtype.SWSimulationoffersasmallelement
librarythatincludesbars,trusses,beams,frames,thinplatesandshells,thickplatesandshells,andsolid
elements.Therearealsospecialconnectorelementscalledrigidlinksormultipointconstraints.
Theshellsandsolidelementsareconsideredtobecontinuumelements.Theplateelementsareaspecialcase
offlatshellswithnoinitialcurvature.Solidelementformulationsincludethestressesinalldirections.Shells
areamathematicalsimplificationofsolidsofspecialshape.Thinshells(likethinbeams)donotconsiderthe
stressinthedirectionperpendiculartotheshellsurface.Thickshells(likedeepbeams)doconsiderthe
stressesthroughthethicknessontheshell,inthedirectionnormaltothemiddlesurface,andaccountfor
transversesheardeformations.
LethdenotethetypicalthicknessofacomponentwhileitstypicallengthisdenotedbyL.Thethicknessto
lengthratio,h/L,givessomeguidanceastowhenaparticularelementtypeisvalidforananalysis.Whenh/Lis
largesheardeformationisatitsmaximumimportanceandyoushouldbeusingsolidelements.Conversely,
whenh/Lisverysmalltransversesheardeformationisnotimportantandthinshellelementsareprobablythe
mostcosteffectiveelementchoice.Intheintermediaterangeofh/Lthethickshellelementswillbemostcost
effective.Thethickshellsareextensionsofthinshellelementsthatcontainadditionalstrainenergyterms.
Theoverlappingh/LrangesforthethreecontinuumelementtypesaresuggestedinFigure39.Thethickness
ofthelinessuggeststhoseregionswhereaparticularelementtypeisgenerallyconsideredtobethepreferred
elementofchoice.Theoverlappingrangessuggestwhereonetypeofelementcalculationcanbeusedto
validateacalculatedresultobtainedwithadifferentelementtype.Validationcalculationsincludethe
differentapproachestoboundaryconditionsandloadsrequiredbydifferentelementformulations.Theyalso
canindirectlycheckthatauseractuallyunderstandshowtoutilizeafiniteelementcode.

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FEAConceptss:SWSimulaationOverview
w

J.E.Akin

Figure39Overlappin
ngvalidrangessofelementtyypes

3.9 SWSSimulationFixturean
ndLoadSyymbols
Thesymbolsu
usedinSWSim
mulationtoreprresentasingleetranslationalaandrotationalDOFatanodeeareshowngrreenin
Figure310.TThesymbolsforthecorrespondingforcesandmomentloadingsaresho
ownpinkinthaatfigure.Sinceefinite
elementsolutionsarebased
donworkenerrgyrelations,th
heaboveword
dcorrespondingmeansthaattheirdotpro
oduct
workdoneatth
hepoint.Wheenamodelcan
ninvolveeitherrtranslationso
orrotationsasDOFthey
representstheemechanicalw
areoftenreferredtoasgene
eralizeddisplaccements.TheSWSimulation
nnodalsymbolsfortheunkn
nowngeneralizzed
op)andshellno
odesareseeninFigure311..Youalmostaalwaysmustsu
upply
displacementDOFsforthessolidnodes(to
omundergoinggarigidbodyttranslationorrigidbodyrotaation.
enoughrestraintstopreventtanymodelfro

N
Nodeofsolid
ment:
ortrusselem
Allthreedisplaacementsarezero.

Nodeoffframeorshelllelement:
Allthreedisplacementsandallthree
ro
otationsarezeero.

Figure310Fix
F
xedrestraintsyymbolsforsolids(top)andsshellnodes

Forsimplicityymanyfiniteelementexam
mplesincorreectlyapplyco
ompleterestraintsatafacee,edgeorno
ode.
Thatis,theyenforceanIm
mmovableco
onditionforso
olidsoraFixe
edconditionfforshells.Actuallydeterm
mining
wellaswheretthepartisrestrainedisofftenthemosttdifficultparttofananalysis.You
thetypeofreestraint,asw
frequentlyen
ncounterthecommoncon
nditionsofsym
mmetryoran
ntisymmetryyrestraints.YYoushouldun
nder
understandssymmetryplaanerestraintsforsolidsandshells.

Displaceme
ent

Force

Rottation

Couple

Figu
ure311Single
ecomponentssymbolsforresstraints(fixturres)andloads

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3.10 SymmetryDOFonaPlane
Aplaneofsymmetryisflatandhasmirrorimagegeometry,materialproperties,loading,andrestraints.
Symmetryrestraints\iareverycommonforsolidsandforshells.Figure312showsthatforbothsolidsand
shells,thedisplacementperpendiculartothesymmetryplaneiszero.Shellshavetheadditionalconditionthat
theinplanecomponentofitsrotationvectoriszero.Ofcourse,theflatsymmetryplaneconditionscanbe
statedinadifferentway.Forasolidelementtranslationaldisplacementsparalleltothesymmetryplaneare
allowed.Forashellelementrotationisallowedaboutanaxisperpendiculartothesymmetryplaneandits
translationaldisplacementsparalleltothesymmetryplanearealsoallowed.

Nodeofasolidortrusselement:
Displacementnormaltothesymmetryplaneiszero.

Nodeofaframeorshellelement:
Displacementnormaltothesymmetryplaneandtwo
rotationsparalleltoitarezero.

Figure312Symmetryrequireszeronormaldisplacement,andzeroinplanerotation

3.11 AvailableLoading(Source)Options
Mostfiniteelementsystemshaveawiderangeofmechanicalloads(orsources)thatcanbeappliedtopoints,
curves,surfaces,andvolumes.ThemechanicalloadingterminologyusedinSWSimulationisinTable32.
Mostofthoseloadingoptionsareutilizedinlaterexampleapplications.

Table32Mechanicalloads(sources)thatapplytotheactivestructuralstudy

LoadType

Description

BearingLoad

Nonuniformbearingloadonacylindricalface

CentrifugalForce

Radialcentrifugalbodyforcesfortheangularvelocityand/ortangential
bodyforcesfromtheangularaccelerationaboutanaxis

Force

Resultantforce,ormoment,atavertex,curve,orsurface

Gravity

Gravity,orlinearaccelerationvector,bodyforceloading

Pressure

Apressurehavingnormaland/ortangentialcomponentsactingona
selectedsurface

RemoteLoad/
Mass

Allowsloadsormassesremotefromtheparttobeappliedtothepart
bytreatingtheomittedmaterialasrigid

Temperature

Temperaturechangeatselectedcurves,surfaces,orbodies(see
thermalstudiesformorerealistictemperaturetransfers)

3.12 AvailableMaterialInputsforStressStudies
Mostapplicationsinvolvetheuseofisotropic(directionindependent)materials.Theavailablemechanical
propertiesfortheminSWSimulationarelistedinTable33.Itisbecomingmorecommontohavedesigns
utilizinganisotropic(directiondependent)materials.Themostcommonspecialcaseofanisotropicmaterialsis
theorthotropicmaterial.Anyanisotropicmaterialhasitspropertiesinputrelativetotheprincipaldirectionsof
thematerial.Thatmeansyoumustconstructtheprincipalmaterialdirectionsreferenceplaneorcoordinate
axesbeforeenteringorthotropicdata.Mechanicalorthotropicpropertiesaresubjecttosometheoretical
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relationshipsthatphysicallypossiblematerialsmustsatisfy(suchaspositivestrainenergy).Thus,
experimentalmaterialpropertiesdatamayrequireadjustmentbeforebeingacceptedbySWSimulation.

Table33Isotropicmechanicalproperties

Symbol
E

t
c
y

Label
EX
NUXY
GXY
DENS
SIGXT
SIGXC
SIGYLD
ALPX

Item
Elasticmodulus(Youngsmodulus)
Poissonsratio
Shearmodulus
Massdensity
Tensilestrength(Ultimatestress)
Compressionstresslimit
Yieldstress(yieldstrength)
Coefficientofthermalexpansion

Table34Orthotropicmechanicalpropertiesinprincipalmaterialdirection

Symbol
Ex
Ey
Ez
xy
yz
xz
Gxy
Gyz
Gxz

t
c
y
x
y
z

Label
EX
EY
EZ
NUXY
NUYZ
NUXZ
GXY
GYZ
GXZ
DENS
SIGXT
SIGXC
SIGYLD
ALPX
ALPY
ALPZ

Item
ElasticmodulusinmaterialXdirection
ElasticmodulusinmaterialYdirection
ElasticmodulusinmaterialZdirection
PoissonsratioinmaterialXYdirections
PoissonsratioinmaterialYZdirections
PoissonsratioinmaterialXZdirections
ShearmodulusinmaterialXYdirections
ShearmodulusinmaterialYZdirections
ShearmodulusinmaterialXZdirections
Massdensity
Tensilestrength(Ultimatestress)
Compressionstresslimit
Yieldstress(Yieldstrength)
ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialX
ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialY
ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialZ

Note:NUXY,NUYZ,andNUXZarenotindependent
Partscanalsobemadefromorthotropicmaterials(asshownlater).However,theirutilizationismost
commoninlaminatedmaterials(laminates)wheretheyeachplylayerhasacontrollableprincipalmaterial
direction.TheconceptforconstructinglaminatesfromorthotropicmaterialplysisshowninFigure.
Understandingthefailuremodesoflaminatesusuallyrequiresspecialstudy.

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FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

Figure313Exampleofafourplylaminatematerial

J.E.Akin

3.13 StressStudyOutputs
Asuccessfulrunofastudywillcreatealargeamountofadditionaloutputresultsthatcanbedisplayedand/or
listedinthepostprocessingphase.DisplacementsaretheprimaryunknowninaSWSimulationstressstudy.
TheavailabledisplacementvectorcomponentsarecitedinTable35andTable36,alongwiththereactions
theycreateifthedisplacementisusedasarestraint.Thedisplacementscanbeplottedasvectordisplays,or
contourvalues.Theycanalsobetransformedtocylindricalorsphericalcomponents.
Table35Outputresultsforsolids,shells,andtrusses

Symbol
Ux
Uy
Uz
Ur

Label
UX
UY
UZ
URES:

Item
Displacement(Xdirection)
Displacement(Ydirection)
Displacement(Zdirection)
Resultantdisplacement
magnitude

Symbol
Rx
Ry
Rz
Rr

Label
RFX
RFY:
RFZ
RFRES

Item
Reactionforce(Xdirection)
Reactionforce(Ydirection)
Reactionforce(Zdirection)
Resultantreactionforce
magnitude

Table36Additionalprimaryresultsforbeams,plates,andshells

Symbol
x
y
z

Label
RX
RY
RZ

Item
Rotation(Xdirection)
Rotation(Ydirection)
Rotation(Zdirection)

Symbol
Mx
My
Mz
Mr

Label
RMX:
RMY
RMZ:
MRESR

Item
Reactionmoment(Xdirection)
Reactionmoment(Ydirection)
Reactionmoment(Zdirection)
Resultantreactionmoment
magnitude

The strains and stresses are computed from the displacements. The stress components available at an
elementcentroidoraveragedatanodearegiveninTable37.Thesixcomponentslistedontheleftinthat
tablegivethegeneralstressatapoint(i.e.,anodeoranelementcentroid).Thosesixvaluesareillustratedon
theleftofFigure314.TheycanbeusedtocomputethescalarvonMisesfailurecriterion.Theycanalsobe
usedtosolveaneigenvalueproblemfortheprincipalnormalstressesandtheirdirections,whichareshownon
therightofFigure314.Themaximumshearstressoccursonaplanewhosenormalis45degreesfromthe
direction of P1. The principal normal stresses can also be used to compute the scalar von Mises failure
criterion.
ThevonMiseseffectivestressiscomparedtothematerialyieldstressforductilematerials.Failureispredicted
tooccur(basedonthedistortionalenergystoredinthematerial)whenthevonMisesvaluereachestheyield
stress.Themaximumshearstressispredictedtocausefailurewhenitreacheshalftheyieldstress.SW
Simulationusestheshearstressintensitywhichisalsocomparedtotheyieldstresstodeterminefailure
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FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

J.E.Akin

(becauseitistwicethemaximumshearstress).ThefirstfourvaluesontherightsideofTable37areoften
representedgraphicallyinmechanicsasa3DMohrscircle(seeninFigure315).
Table37:Nodalandelementstressresults

Symbol
x
y
z
xy

Label
SX
SY
SZ
TXY

xz

TXZ

yz

TYZ

Item
Normalstressparalleltoxaxis
Normalstressparalleltoyaxis
Normalstressparalleltozaxis
ShearinYdirectiononplane
normaltoxaxis
ShearinZdirectiononplane
normaltoxaxis
ShearinZdirectiononplane
normaltozaxis

Symbol
1
2
3
I

Label
P1
P2
P3
INT

vm

VON

Item
1stprincipalnormalstress
2ndprincipalnormalstress
3rdprincipalnormalstress
Stressintensity(P1P3),twice
themaximumshearstress

vonMisesstress(distortional
energyfailurecriterion)

Figure314Thestresstensor(left)anditsprincipalnormalvalues

Figure315ThethreedimensionalMohr'scircleofstressyieldtheprincipalstresses

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FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

J.E.Akin

Ifdesired,youcanplotallthreeprincipalcomponentsatonce.Thethreeprincipalnormalstressesatanode
orelementcentercanberepresentedbyanellipsoid.Thethreeradiioftheellipsoidrepresentthemagnitudes
ofthethreeprincipalnormalstresscomponents,P1,P2,andP3.Thesignofthestresses(tensionor
compression)arerepresentedbyarrows.ThecolorcodeofthesurfaceisbasedonthevonMisesvalueatthe
point,ascalarquantity.Ifoneoftheprincipalstressesiszero,theellipsoidbecomesaplanarellipse.Ifthe
threeprincipalstresseshavethesamemagnitude,theellipsoidbecomesasphere.Inthecaseofsimple
uniaxialtensilestress,theellipsoidbecomesaline.

Figure316AprincipalstressellipsoidcoloredbyvonMisesvalue

TheavailablenodaloutputresultsinTable37areobtainedbyaveragingtheelementvaluesthatsurroundthe
node.Youcanalsoviewthemasconstantvaluesattheelementcentroids.Thatcangiveyouinsighttothe
smoothnessoftheapproximation.Forbrittlematerialsyoucanalsobeinterestedintheelementstrain
results.TheyarelistedinTable38.Table39showsthatyoucanalsoviewtheelementerrorestimate,ERR
whichisusedtodirectadaptivesolutions,andthecontactpressurefromaniterativecontactanalysis.
Additionaloutputsareavailableifyouconductanautomatedadaptiveanalysistoreducethe(mathematical)
errortoaspecificvalue,ortorecoverresultsfromthedevelopedpressurebetweencontactingsurfaces.They
arelistedinTable39.

Table38Elementcentroidalstraincomponentresults

Sym
x

Label
EPSX

EPSY

EPSZ

xy

GMXY

xz

GMXZ

yz

GMYZ

Item
Normalstrainparalleltox
axis
Normalstrainparalleltoy
axis
Normalstrainparalleltoz
axis
ShearstraininYdirectionon
planenormaltoxaxis
ShearstraininZdirectionon
planenormaltoxaxis
ShearstraininZdirectionon
planenormaltoyaxis

Sym
1

Label
E1

E2

E3

ESTRN

SED

SEDENS

SE

ENERGY

Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved.

Item
Normalprincipalstrain(1st
principaldirection)
Normalprincipalstrain
(2ndprincipaldirection)
Normalprincipalstrain(3rd
principaldirection)
Equivalentstrain
Strainenergydensity(per
unitvolume)
Totalstrainenergy

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FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview

J.E.Akin

Table39Additionalelementcentroidstressrelatedresults

Label
ERR
CP

Item
Elementerrormeasuredinthestrainenergynorm
Contractpressuredevelopedonacontactsurface

Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved.

44