Module 1

Principles of Physical Metallurgy: an

introduction to the course content

Lecture 1
Principles of Physical Metallurgy: an
introduction to the course content

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Keywords:Costofmetals&materials,energyneededtoproducemetals&materials,CO2
emission,correlationbetweencostandembodiedenergyorCO2emission

Introduction

Metalsandalloyshavebeeninusesinceagesasjewelries,coins,tools,arms,andarmors.Periods
ofhumancivilizationhavebeennamedaftermetals&alloysviz.CopperAge/BronzeAge/Iron
Age.Howeverbulkuseofmetallicmaterialsstartedwiththecommercialproductionofpigironin
blastfurnaceduringtheeighteenthcentury.Steelthemostwidelyusedmetallicmaterialbecame
available in bulk only with the introduction of Bessemer Converters in mid nineteenth century
(1856).Todayitisoneofthemostextensivelyusedengineeringmaterial.Itisnexttocementin
terms of annual world production figures. Around 1.35 billion tons of crude steel is being
produced in the world every year. India is the 5th largest producer of steel today. Our current
productionisaround75Millionton.Selectionofmetals&alloysforagivenapplicationdepends
primarilyonitsproperties,costandavailability.Materialsareoftennotavailableintheformthat
could be directly put to use. It has to be extracted or synthesized from naturally occurring
ingredientsandsubsequentlyprocessedtogiveitthedesiredshapeandpropertiessothatitis
useful.Itscosthasadirectcorrelationwiththeeffortthatisrequiredtoproduceit.Energyspent
inthisprocessisagoodindicatorofsuchaneffort.Thisisoftenreferredtoasembodiedenergy
(stored energy). Table 1 gives a list of common metals & materials along with their cost and
energyrequiredfortheirproductionfromnaturalresources.ItalsoincludestheamountofCO2
generated for every kg of the material being produced. Apart from energy this too gives a
measure of the adverse impact a manmade material is likely to have on the environment. The
amount of energy needed to produce aluminum alloys and the amount of CO2 it produces are
muchhigherthanthoseforsteelorconcrete(acompositeofcementsandandstonechips).The
datainthistablealsosuggeststhatthereisadirectcorrelationbetweenthecostofamaterial
witheitherthemagnitudeofenergyspenttoproduceitortheamountofCO2itemitsduringits
production. No wonder that concrete and steel happen to be the cheapest materials of
construction.Cubasealloysappeartoanexception.Highcostofrawmaterialscouldpossiblya
reasonforthisanomaly.

Table1
Acomparisonofenergyneededtoproducecomeofthecommonmaterials,theircostandtheir
impactonenvironmentmeasuredintermsofCO2generatedperunitofmass.
Material
Energy(MJ/kg)
Costin$/kg
CO2kg/kg
Alalloys
200220
1.51.7
11.212.8
Polyethylene
7578
1.31.5
2.02.2
Cualloys
6874
3.23.5
4.95.6
Steel
2935
0.63 0.89
2.22.8
Glass
1417
1.41.7
0.71.0
Concrete
11.3
0.0410.062
0.130.15
Source:MFAshby,MaterialSelectioninMechanicalDesignIVedition(2011)Elsevier

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Metallic materials are known for their ductility, electrical & thermal conductivity, strength,
toughnessandcharacteristicluster.Afewofthemhaveattractivemagneticpropertiesaswell.If
you hit a piece of metal it gives a characteristic metallic sound. No wonder bells are made of
metals(aspecialcopperalloy).Apartfromitsabilitytobecastinanydesiredshapeandsize;itis
possibletoformitbydeformationandavarietyoffabricationtechniques.

Table2:Givesannualproductionofafewcommonmetals&afewmanmadematerials.Italso
givesaroughrangeoftheirtensilestrengths(*compressiveinthecaseconcrete).

Metal
WorldMT
IndiaMT
MinMPa
MaxMPa

Concrete

16000

2800

14*

130*

Steel

1545

75

240

3000

Paper

400

6.4

0.2

0.5

Al

49.3

1.6

50

550

Cu

18.5

0.65

200

1200

Zn

11.5

0.7

100

375

Inthiscourseweshalltrytolearnaboutevolutionofstructuresinmetalsasittransformsinto
solid from liquid, the effect of subsequent processing techniques on its structure, influence of
alloy addition (or mixing) on transformation processes, and explore the relationships between
propertiesofmetalsandalloyswiththeirinternalstructures.Themainobjectiveistoprovidea
basic understanding of the underlying principles that determine the evolution of structures in
metalsandalloysduringtheirprocessinganditsrelationwiththeirproperties&performancein
service.

Thebroadoutlineofthecoursecontentisgiveninthefollowingtable2.Theentirecoursehas
beendividedinto42modules.Afewoftheseareclubbedtogether.Thesemaybeconsideredas
distinct chapters. There is a parallel video course on the same subject. It is available at
www.nptel.ac.in.Themoduleoflecturesinthiswebcoursenearlyfollowsthesamesequenceas
thevideolecturesonPrinciplesofPhysicalMetallurgy.Inordertounderstandthetransformation
processesundergoingwithinmetalsoralloysvariousexperimentaltoolsandtechniquesareused.
Anattempthasbeenmadetogivebriefoutlinesofthesetoowithinthiscourse.

Table2:Abroadoutlineofthecourse
S.No. Topic
Modules
1 An introduction to the course content (modules), Atomic
14
bonding & crystal structure: metallic bond, unit cell, atomic
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2
3

6
7

8
9

10

11

12

13
4
14
15

packing, interstitial sites, Miller indices, crystal orientation,

stereographicprojection
Experimental tools & techniques: metallography (Optical TEM,
SEM),Xraydiffraction,mechanicalproperties,thermalanalysis
Solidificationofpuremetal:phaserule,conceptoffreeenergy,
entropy, surface energy (grain boundary) & under cooling,
nucleation & growth, homogeneous & heterogeneous
nucleation,directionalsolidification
Plastic deformation of pure metal: mechanisms(slip & twin),
criticalresolvedshearstress,singlecrystal:tensilestressstrain
curve(fcc),theoreticalstrengthofidealcrystal
Crystal defects in metals: vacancy, interstitial & substitutional
atoms,freeenergyofmixing,dislocation(elementaryconcepts
only), edge / screw dislocation, partial dislocation, stacking
fault, dislocation lock, dislocation pile up, Hall Petch relation,
grainboundarystructure
Diffusion: elementary concepts of phenomenological &
atomisticapproaches
Solidification of binary alloys: limits of solubility, isomorphous
system, lever rule, constitutional super cooling, effect of non
equilibriumcooling,eutectic,peritectic,eutectoid&peritectoid
system, complex phase diagram, structure of cast metal,
segregation&porosity,
Ironcarbondiagram,structureofsteel&castiron,introduction
toTTTdiagram
Ternary phase diagram, composition triangle, ternary
isomorphous system, ternary eutectic, vertical & horizontal
sections,
Binary phase diagrams of common commercial alloys: CuNi,
AuCu, NiCr, AlSi, AlZn, AlAg, PbSn, CuZn, CuSn, CuAl, Ti
Al,TiV:interpretationofmicrostructure&properties
Deformation processing: cold work & annealing: recovery, re
crystallization&graingrowth,phenomenological&mechanistic
approaches
Precipitation from supersaturated terminal solid solution:
thermodynamics & kinetics of precipitation, precipitation
hardening
Heattreatmentofsteel:TTTdiagram,Pearlitic,Martensitic&
Bainitic transformation, effect of alloy elements on phase
diagram & TTT diagram, CCT diagram, Annealing, normalizing,
hardening&tempering,hardenability,
Surfacehardening
Structural steel, strengthening mechanism, thermomechanical

56
7

89

1014

1517
18 22

2324
25

26

2728

2930

31 36

37
38 39

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processing,microalloyedsteel
16 Ultrahighstrengthsteel,alloysteel,creepresistantsteel
17 Preferred orientation, pole figure, cold work & annealing
texture, control of texture, deep drawability, electrical grade
steel(CRGO,CRNO),DS&SCsuperalloy
18 Physical metallurgy of metal joining: mechanism of bond
formation,effectoflocalheatingontheevolutionofstructures
inmetals,heatflowcharacteristics

40
41

42

Thereareexcellenttextbooksonphysicalmetallurgy.Afewofthesearegivenbelow.Students
mayrefertotheseinordertogetamuchdeeperinsightonthistopic.Oftentosolvesomeofthe
problems it may be necessary to look for relevant material data. For this one could refer to
handbooksincludedinthislist.

PhysicalMetallurgyPrinciples:RobertEReedHillandRezaAbbaschian
PhaseTransformationinMetals&Alloys:DAPorter&KEasterling
FundamentalsofPhysicalMetallurgy:JohnDVerhoeven
PhysicalMetallurgy:PeterHaasen
StructureandPropertiesofAlloys:RMBrick,RBGordon,A.Phillips
PhysicalFoundationsofMaterialsScience:G.Gottstein
PaulGShewmon:TransformationinMetals,McGrawHill(1969)
PaulGordon:PrinciplesofPhaseDiagramsinMaterialsSystems,McGrawHillseriesin
MaterialsScience&Engineering(1968)
FrederickNRhines:PhaseDiagramsinMetallurgyDevelopment&Application,Mc
GrawHill(1956)
MaxHansen:ConstitutionofBinaryAlloys,McGrawHill(1958)
MCFlemings:SolidificationProcessing,McGrawHillseriesinMaterialsScience&
Engineering(1974)
WilliamCLeslie:ThePhysicalMetallurgyofSteelsMcGrawHillseriesinMaterials
Science&Engineering(1981)
WFHosford,MechanicalBehaviourofMaterials,CambridgeUniversityPress,(2010)
MFAshby&DRHJones,EngineeringMaterials1:Anintroductiontoproperties
applicationsanddesign,Elsevier(2012)
YLakhtin,EngineeringPhysicalMetallurgy,MirPublishersMoscow
ASMMetalsHandbookASMInternationalMetalsPark,Columbus,Ohio,USA
SmithellsMetalsReferenceBookButterworth,Heinemann,London

Apartfromthelistofbooksgivenabovethereareseveralwebsitesthatareworthvisiting.Afew
oftheseareasfollows:

www.msm.cam.ac.uk/Teaching
www.doitpoms.ac.uk
www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials
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Table3:Givesannualproductionofafewcommonmetals&afewmanmadematerials.Italso
givesaroughrangeoftheirtensilestrengths(*compressiveinthecaseconcrete).

Metal

WorldMT

IndiaMT

MinMPa

MaxMPa

Steel

1545

75

240

3000

Al

49.3

1.6

50

550

Cu

18.5

0.65

100

550

Zn

11.5

0.7

135

520

16000

2800

14*

130*

400

6.4

0.00018

0.00085

Concrete
Paper

Whatistheinternalstructureofmetal?Whathappenswhenwetrytodeformittogiveaspecific
shape?Ifwetrytomixtwoormoremetalshowdoesitsinternalconfigurationchange?Physical
Metallurgyprovidesanswerstothesequestions.Thesubjectasweknowtodaystartedevolving
since the beginning of the 20th century. It was also the time when internal structures of atoms
were unraveled. Examination of polished and etched surfaces of metals under microscope
revealedthatthesearemadeofdifferentgrainswithdistinctboundaries.Metalsaremalleable.
They can be formed into any shape by deformation. There is no restriction on the shapes the
grains could have. Examination of metals using XRay revealed its crystalline nature. Grains in
metals often do not have well developed crystalline faces found in inorganic solids. As we go
throughthecourseyouwouldcometoknowaboutit.

Table3givesanideaofthecurrentproductionfiguresofsteelandafewcommonmetals.Italso
includes one of the mechanical properties (tensile strength). Truly speaking steel is an alloy of
iron and carbon. It has certain characteristic features which makes it amenable to various
processingtechniques.Thisiswhyitsstrengthcouldbeincreasedbyseveralfoldsbycontrolling
its composition and processing route. As we go through the course you would know how the
properties can be altered by mixing two or more elements and also by controlling subsequent
processingtechniques.Althoughinthiscoursethemainfocuswillbeonmetalsandalloysmany
of the physical concepts introduced would be applicable to other categories of materials like
ceramic,plastic,glassandcomposites.Forexamplewindowpanesaremadeofsodalimeglass.
Thisismadebymixingsoda,limesilicaandalumina.Withtheadventofpolymers(plastic)and
composite material todays engineer has a much wider variety of materials to choose from.
Interestedstudents mayrefer toanarticleby ProfessorMFAshby giving ahistoricalsketchof
evolution of engineering materials during the entire span of human civilization. The basic
differencebetween thenaturesofmetalwithothersliesinthenature oftheirbonding.This is
whyitisappropriatetobeginthiscoursewithacoupleoflecturesonthenatureofatomicbonds
andcrystalstructureofmaterials.Avideoversionofthiscourseisavailableoninternet.Thisis
the web version of thesame course. This version of the course is divided into several modules
arrangedinthesamesequenceasthatfollowedinitsvideoversion.
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Furtherreading:
1. N A Fleck, V S Deshpande & M F Ashby, MicroArchitectured Material: Past Present &
Future,ProcRoyalSocA(2010)466,p24952516

Exercise:
1. From handbook find out melting points and Youngs Modulus of a few common metals
(Fe,Al,Cu,Pb,Ni,Zn,Sn,W,Ti,Mg,Cr).Isthereacorrelationbetweenthetwo?
2. Findoutfrom handbookatomicweightsanddensityof Au,Ag, Al,Cu,Ni,Pb.Istherea
correlationbetweenthetwo?

Answer:

Meltingpoint,C

1. The following table gives the melting point and elastic modulus of a few elements. The
graph shows that by & large there metals having high modulus has high melting point.
NotethereisanexceptionincaseofTi.

C
Gpa
Sn
232
50
4000
Pb
327
16
Zn
419
70
3000
Mg
650
45
2000
Al
660
70
Cu
1083
119
1000
Ni
1453
200
0
Fe
1539
211
0
100
200
300
400
500
1670
110
Ti
Elasticmodulus,GPa
Cr
1860
279
Mo
2623
329
W
3450
410

2. Thefollowingtableandthegraphdisplaythecorrelationthathighertheatomicnumber
higheristhedensity(exceptionPb.Youwillknowreasoninwhentheconceptoflattice
defectisintroduced)

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At.Wt. Density
26.98
2.7
58.69
8.9
63.55
8.96
107.87
10.5
196.96
19.3
207.2
11.34

25
Density,g/cm2

Al
Ni
Cu
Ag
Au
Pb

20
15
10
5
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Atomicweight

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