Wave Propagation

10
WAVE PROPAGATION
Propagation of radio waves takes place by different modes, the mechanism being
different in each case. Based on that, it can be classified as:
1.
2.
3.

Ground (Surface) waves

Space (Tropospheric) waves
Sky (Ionospheric) waves

For the purpose of allocation of frequency spectrum, the entire globe has been split into
three regions by the International Telecommunication Union. India falls in Region 3 in
the above classification.
Before we discuss different modes of wave propagation, let us see the allocation of
frequencies and desired field strength for various bands:

Allocation of frequencies for Broadcasting

Long Wave Band
This is not used in India.
Medium Wave (MW) Band
MF

300 to 3000 kHz

531 kHz to 1602 kHz

Channel spacing - 9 kHz
Short Wave (SW) Band
HF

3 to 30 MHz

International Band
3900 to 4000 kHz (75 m)
7100 to 7300 kHz (41 m)
11650 to 12050 kHz (25 m)
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5950 to 6200 kHz (49 m)

9500 to 9900 kHz (31 m)
13600 to 13800 kHz (19 m)

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21450 to 21850 kHz (13 m)

25670 to 26000 kHz (11 m)

Tropical Band
2300 to 2490 kHz (120 m)
4750 to 4995 kHz

3200 to 3400 kHz (90 m)

5005 to 5060

Channel spacing - 5 kHz

VHF
30 to 300 MHz
Band 1
Band 2
Band 3

40 to 68 MHz
TV Channel #1 - Channel #4
Channel spacing 7 MHz
88 to 108 MHz
FM Sound Broadcasting
Channel spacing 100 kHz
174 to 230 MHz
TV Channel #5 Channel #12
Channel spacing 7 MHz

UHF
300 to 3000 MHz
Band 4
Band 5

470 to 606 MHz

Channel spacing 8 MHz
606 to 798 MHz
Channel spacing 8 MHz

Channel #21 Channel #37

Channel #38 Channel #61

SHF
3 to 30 GHz
S Band
C Band
Ex.C Band
Ku band

2.5 to 2.7 GHz (DL)

3.7 to 4.2 GHz (DL) 5.9 to 6.4 GHz (UL)
4.5 to 4.85 GHz (DL) 6.725 to 7.025 GHz (UL)
10.7 to 11.7 GHz and 12.5 to 12.75 GHz (DL)
12.75 to 13.25 GHz and 13.75 to 14.50 GHz (UL)

Minimum usable RF field strength

Medium Wave
63 dBV/m during day time
71 dBV/m during night time in rural areas
77 dBV/m during night time in urban areas

Short Wave
The signal laid at any receiving point using HF propagation must be above the noise
field at that place by a specific amount of RF signal-to-noise ratio in absence of
interference from other transmissions. This value of signal strength is generally termed
as minimum usable field strength (Emin). The noise floor to calculate Emin is taken as the
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greatest one among the values of atmospheric noise, man-made noise and intrinsic
receiver noise. The minimum usable field strength E min is determined as the level which
is higher by 34 dB than the noise floor. The value of E min is specified as 38 dB (34 dB
S/N ratio + 3.5 dB intrinsic receiver noise level) as floor value by WARC-HFBC87.
FM Band
Mono
48 dBV/m
60 dBV/m
70 dBV/m

Rural
Urban
Large Cities

Stereo
54 dBV/m
66 dBV/m
74 dBV/m

Television Broadcasting
Maximum signal requirements for satisfactory reception with receiving antenna at 10 m
height are as follows:
Band 1*
Band 3
Band 4
Band 5

48 dBV/m
55 dBV/m
65 dBV/m
70 dBV/m

*However, Doordarshan has adopted 40 dBV/m.

Ground (Surface) Waves

Medium Wave (MW) signals propagate along the surface of the earth. It is normally
vertically polarized to avoid short circuiting of the electric component by the ground.
Medium wave induces current in the ground over which it passes, and thus, loses some
energy by absorption. This is made up to some extent by energy diffracted downward
from the upper portions of the wave front.
Because of diffraction, the wave front gradually tilts over. As the wave propagates over
the earth, it tilts over more and more and the increasing tilt causes greater short
circuiting of the electric field component of the wave and, hence, the field strength
reduces and it will vanish after some distance.
Range of such coverage depends on frequency, power of the transmitter, ground
conditions like salinity and conductivity of the ground or water over which the waves
propagate, and the water vapour content of the air.
Received signal strength V
120
ht

=
=

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120hr h tI
d

Characteristic impedance of free space

effective height of the transmitting antenna

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hr
I
d

=
=
=

effective height of the receiving antenna

Antenna current
distance from the transmitting antenna

Ground Wave Field Strength Calculation

For ground wave propagation calculations, the reference antenna is taken as a short
vertical monopole which produces a field strength of 300 mV/m at a distance of 1 km for
a radiated power of 1 kW.
With such an antenna, the equation for ground wave field strength for an imperfect earth
may be written as
E

300 P
A
d

where
P
d
A

=
=
=

radiated power
distance to the transmitting antenna
Attenuation function

The attenuation function (A), is a function of a dimensionless quantity called the

numerical distance which depends on the wave length of transmission, permittivity and
conductivity of the earth.
In day time, the field strength is steady since sky wave is completely absorbed by the Dlayer of the atmosphere. During night, however, the D-layer disappears, reflections from
E-layer affect MW transmission and lead to increased range of coverage, but, at the
same time, interference possibilities also increase.
When both ground wave and sky wave signals are received, fading occurs in those
areas where the signals are of comparable strength and the area is called as fading
zone. This fading zone should be kept as far away as possible from the transmitter. The
optimum antenna that achieves this objective is of height 0.55, where is the
wavelength of the operating frequency.

Space (Tropospheric) Waves

They travel more or less in straight lines. As they depend on line of sight conditions,
they are limited in their propagation by the curvature of the earth, except in very unusual
circumstances.
Space wave has two components: viz. Direct wave and reflected wave from the surface
of earth. Direct wave will be steady and strong.
Line of Sight (LoS)
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LOS

a
ht
hr

=
=
=

2a

ht hr m

Where
radius of earth = 6,370 km = 6.37 x 106 m.
Transmitting antenna height in metres.
Receiving antenna height in metres.

It can be noted that not only the transmitting antenna height, but also the receiving
antenna height is equally important. Radio waves normally propagate in a curved path
due to refraction in the troposphere. This results in the signal reaching a distance
greater than the Line of Sight. To account for the additional reach caused by the
variation of refractive index in the atmosphere, the radius (a) of the earth is multiplied by
a factor k. This is taken as 4/3.

Fresnel Zone
Propagation is not by single thread like ray. Certain volume around the line of sight
called First Fresnel Zone is significant for propagation. This volume should be devoid
of any surface, building, etc. causing reflections. Therefore, mere availability of line of
sight alone is not sufficient, but the First Fresnel Zone must be clear.

Environment Effects
Effects of buildings
Built up area has little effect on low frequencies (few MHz). But above 30 MHz,
obstruction loss and shadow loss become important. The attenuation by brick walls may
be 2 - 5 dB at 30 MHz and increases to 10 - 40 dB at 3,000 MHz.
Effects of trees and vegetation
The effect of thick vegetation is to absorb RF energy and it is particularly more dominant
for vertical polarization than horizontal polarization. This is one of the reasons why TV
broadcasting uses horizontal polarization mostly.
Clutter losses
The loss due to natural and man made obstruction can only be statistically evaluated
and a certain allowance made in the calculations of field strength. Such losses, in
general, are grouped and referred to as Clutter losses. This loss is dependent on
frequency of operation and the area surrounding the transmitter.
Definitions
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
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ERP is the product of Intrinsic power of the transmitter and the gain of the transmitting
antenna over a dipole. Alternately, it is the sum of these parameters if they are
expressed in decibels.
ERP

=
=

Transmitter power in kW x antenna gain (in kW)

Transmitter power in dBm + antenna gain in dB (in dBm)

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

It is similar to ERP, except that the gain is expressed relative to an isotropic antenna.
Gain of a dipole
EIRP
or

=
=
=

1.64 times or 2.15 dB

ERP (dBW) + 2.15 dB (in dBW)
1.64 x ERP (in kW)

Field Strength
Received field strength in dBm = 134.8 + 10 log P 20 log d F dBV/m
P
d
F

=
=
=

EIRP in Watts
distance of receiving point in metres.
Loss experienced in propagation.

Protection Ratio requirements for Television Broadcasting

Let us say, that the wanted transmitter produces a field strength of Xw dBV/m at a point
P and an unwanted transmitter produces a field of strength Yuw dBV/m at the same
point. The ratio of wanted to the unwanted field strength at the point P is the
Protection Ratio (PR).

w
Protection Ratio P =

Y
uw

PR (dB)

Xw
10 log
Yuw

Or

Following are the minimum protection ratio recommended for both VHF and UHF bands
(color and monochrome):
Cochannel carriers separated by
less than 1000 Hz but not synchronized
Co channel + 2/3 offset
Lower adjacent channel
Upper adjacent channel

45 dB
30 dB
- 6 dB
- 12 dB

The minus sign means that the interfering signal could be more than the wanted signal
by that much quantity for satisfactory reception.
Interference in VHF/UHF Television Signals
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Long distance propagation through Sporadic E layer of the ionosphere in VHF Band-1
and refraction or ducting mode of propagation in both VHF/UHF bands are the two main
sources of interference in 90% of the cases.
Sporadic layer (Es) interference
The sporadic E layer is sporadic in its existence as its name implies. It is an ionospheric
layer whose ionization density is comparable to that of F layer of the ionosphere, but,
usually occurs at the E layer height of 100 to 120 kms. By virtue of its high density odd
ionization, the layer is able to reflect VHF frequencies, i.e., the band 40 to 68 MHz over
long distances. Russian Television signals received in the plains of Northern India have
been caused by this mode.
Super refraction or ducting modes of interference
The refractivity n of the troposphere, under normal weather conditions, gradually falls at
the rate of -40 to 80 units per km with height above the earth. When the refractivity is
157 N units/km or more, ducting mode exists. During ducting, the VHF/UHF radio
waves are refracted (bent) very fast so as to bump against the ground and again
reflected. If this condition exists over a certain distance, the VHF/UHF waves are
trapped in the duct and propagated without much loss similar to microwave signals
through wave guides. This is called Duct Propagation. Such ducts can be close to
the ground or elevated.
Interference through super refraction or ducting is possible for very long periods of time
in coastal areas and in places where lots of rivers criss-cross or sea surface exists.
Interferences observed in the coastal areas between Kolkata and Chennai and
Bangladesh TV in North East and West Bengal are due to super refraction/ducting
modes.
Co-Channel Interference
If the wanted TV signal exceeds the interfering signal by a voltage ratio of 55 dB or
more, no interference will be noted. When the desired signal becomes weaker,
Venetian blind interference occurs. This is seen as horizontal black and white bars
super imposed on the picture and moving up or down. As the interfering signal strength
increases, the bars become more prominent, until at a signal interference ratio of 45 dB
or less, the interference becomes intolerable.
The horizontal bars are visible indication of the beat frequency between the interfering
carriers. The beat frequency is of the order of a few hundred Hz.
Offset method is used for reduction of co-channel interference. The offset frequency
is 2/3 line scan frequency, i.e., 15625 X 2/3 = 10416.67 Hz or some odd multiple, thereof
since the averaging process is then optimum.
In case of three stations one station can have a carrier offset above the second and the
other below. The offset method requires only the quartz crystal of a station to be
replaced by a crystal having offset.
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Adjacent Channel Interference

Stations occupying adjacent channels present a different problem. Adjacent channel
interference may occur as the result of beats between any two of these carriers. The
difference of 1.5 MHz (as shown in fig) produces a coarse beat pattern.
188 MHz

181 MHz
Desired Channel

Upper adjacent
Pic carrier

Pic
carrier
Lower adjacent
Sound carrier

Sound
carrier
5.5 MHz

180.75

187.75

182.25

189.25
1.5MHz

1.5MHz

Fig. 1: Adjacent Channel Interference

Ghost Interference
This is due to reflection from tall obstructions. This is not only objectionable, but most of
the times reduces resolution. One way of reducing this interference is to shift or rotate
the receiving antenna position so that it does not receive the reflected signals.

Sky (Ionospheric) Waves

Short wave (SW) propagates as sky waves. Ionisation of upper parts of the earths
atmosphere plays a part in the propagation of the high frequency waves. Due to the
energy received from the sun, the atmospheric molecules split into positive and negative
ions and remain ionised for a long period of time. The ionising agents are Ultra Violet,
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiations from the sun, cosmic rays, meteors, etc.
Physical properties like temperature, density and composition of the atmosphere vary.
Hence, the ionosphere tends to be stratified rather than regular in its distribution.
Ionospheric Layers
Ionosphere extends from 50 to 400 km and has got ionised particles. When sunrays
pass through this ionosphere, due to different densities, imaginary but distinct layers are
formed like D, E, F1 and F2 layers.
D Layer

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It is the lowest layer of the ionosphere. Its average height is 70 km and average
thickness is 10 km. Degree of ionisation depends on the altitude of the sun above
horizon. It disappears at night. It absorbs MF and HF waves to some extent and
reflects some VLF and LF waves.

Fig. 2 Field strength (dB( V/m)) for 1 kW ERP.

Frequency: 450 to 1000 MHz (Bands IV and V); Land; 10 % of the time;
50% of the location; h2 = 10 m; h = 50 m
E Layer
This layer is above D layer. Its average height is 100 km with a thickness of 25 km. It
also disappears at night as the ions recombine into molecules. This is due to the
absence of sun at night when radiation is no longer received. It aids MF surface wave
propagation a little and reflects some HF waves in day time.
Es Layer
It is a sporadic E layer, a thin layer of very high density. Sometimes, it appears with E
layer. When Es layer occurs, it often persists during the night also. On the whole, it does
not have an important part in long distance propagation, but sometimes permits
unexpectedly good reception. Its causes are not well known.
F1 Layer
It exists at a height of 180 km in day time and gets combined with the F2 layer at night.
In day time, thickness is about 200 km. Although some HF waves are reflected from it,
most passes through it to be reflected by the F2 layer. Thus, the main effect of F1 layer
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is to provide more absorption for HF waves. Note that the absorption effect of F1 layer
and any other layer is doubled because HF waves are absorbed on the way up and also
on the way down.
F2 Layer
It is by far the most important reflecting medium for HF waves. Its approximate
thickness can be upto 200 km and its height ranges from 290 to 400 km in day time. At
night, it falls to about 300 km, when it combines with the F1 layer. Its height and
ionisation density vary tremendously and depend upon the time of the day, the average
ambient temperature and sunspot cycle.
F2 layer persists at night unlike other layers due to the following reasons:
i)

Since this is the topmost layer, it is also the most ionised and, hence,
there is some chance for the ionisation to remain at night, to some extent
at least.

ii)

Although ionisation density is high in this layer, the actual air density is
not high and thus most of the molecules in it are ionised. Low air density
gives the molecules a larger mean free path (the statistical average
distance a molecule travels before colliding with another molecule).
Hence, ionisation does not disappear as soon as the sun sets. Better
reception of HF waves at night is due to the combination of F1 and F2
layers into one F1 layer, which causes noticeable absorption during the
day.

The electromagnetic waves returned to earth by one of the layers of the ionosphere
appears to have been reflected, but actually, it is due to refraction.
Virtual Height
As the electromagnetic wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, rather than sharply.
However, below the ionised layer, the path of the incident and reflected rays is exactly
same as if reflection has taken place from a surface located at a greater height called
the Virtual Height of this layer. Once the Virtual Height is known, the angle of incidence
required for the wave to return to the ground at a selected spot can be calculated easily.
(Fig. 3)

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Actual
Height

Vertical
incidence path

Virtual
Height

= take off angle

Fig. 3: Virtual Height

Critical Frequency (fc)

For any given layer, the critical frequency is the highest frequency that will be returned
to earth by that layer after having been beamed straight up to it. Higher the frequency,
shorter the wavelength, the less likely it is that the change in ionisation density will be
sufficient for refraction. The closer to vertical a given incident ray is, it is less likely to be
returned to ground. A maximum frequency exists above which rays go through the
ionosphere. When the angle of incidence is normal, the name given to this maximum
frequency is Critical Frequency. Its value, in practice, ranges from 5 to 12 MHz for the
F2 layer.
Maximum Usable Frequency
MUF is also a limiting frequency, but for some specific angle of incidence other than the
normal. If the angle of incidence (between the ray and the normal) is 0 it follows that
MUF

Critical Frequency
cos

fc sec

This is called Secant Law and is useful in making preliminary calculations for a specific
MUF. MUF is defined as the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave
communication between two given points on earth. Hence, there is a different value of
MUF for each pair of points on the globe. Normally, MUF ranges from 8 to 35 MHz, but
after unusual solar activity it may rise to as high as 50 MHz. The highest working
frequency between a given pair of points is naturally made slightly less than the MUF.
Skip Distance
As the angle of incidence is slowly reduced, the waves return closer to the transmitter. If
the angle of incidence is made significantly less, the ray will be too close to the normal to
be returned to the earth, and the bending will be insufficient to return the wave, unless
the frequency being used for communication is less than the critical frequency.

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Inner Limit of Space

Waves
First refracted
Sky Wave

Lost Sky
Waves

Outer Limit of
Ground Waves

Skip Distance

Fig. 4: Skip Distance

Transmission path is limited by the skip distance at one end and the curvature of the
earth at the other. The longest single hop distance is obtained when the ray is
transmitted tangentially to the surface of the earth. For F2 layer, the maximum practical
distance is about 4000 km. To cover distances greater than 4000 km, multiple hops are
used. For North-South propagation, no problem exists. For East-West paths, care must
be taken for day/night time at different locations (Fig. 4)

Fading
Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver, and may be rapid or slow,
general or frequency selective. Fading is due to interference between two waves which
left the same source but arrived at the destination by different paths. Because the signal
received at any instant is the vector sum of all the waves received, alternate cancellation
and reinforcement will result, if there is a path difference as large as a half wave length.
Fluctuation is more likely with smaller wavelengths, i.e., at higher frequencies.
Fading can be due to the occurrence of interference between the lower and the upper
rays of a sky wave, or between sky waves arriving by a differing number of hops or
different paths or even between a ground wave and a sky wave especially at the lowest
end of the HF band. It may also occur when a single sky wave is being received
because of fluctuations of height or density in the layer reflecting the wave. Because
fading is frequency selective, although their frequency separation is only a few dozen
Hertz, especially at highest frequencies for which sky waves are used, it can play havoc
with the reception of AM signals, which are seriously distorted by such frequency
selective fading.
Fading is countered by Automatic Gain Control (AGC) in the receiver and further by
adopting either Space or Frequency Diversity reception.

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