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``````SCG
dG GQdG
q OY gh OOq dH G hG FHdG Qq dG jq QhO q J IQhdG EG aVEH
N JdG H OOq dG EG IOY Qj .IMGdG fdG HGh
.KMCG dG qJdG OOq Jh Jq T OOq J f g G hG Qq dG OOq J
.Hz geQh ,Jr p dG g q dG JMhh d Hb QGe OOq dG
:g JdG Ye e
1kHz = 103 Hz : kHz eQh ,JgdG 1MHz = 106 Hz : MHz eQh ,JgG 1GHz = 109 Hz : GHz eQh ,JgG N = 1 :g H bdGh , T JQhH Je G hG Qq d N OOq dG
T

Je q bCG
FHdG qJdG Qd
q qfH SQ 6dG q
.edG dH G
AHdG OOq J b Oq MCG ,SdG Y OYH
.q dG
6 dG

G hG qJd idG dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
,12V ed , eM L he qJJ qde *
,HHdG Ge *
,Wb *
.Ue
S CG *
q
GhQP qCG MCG .HHdG Ge TT Y b H12V qdG qaj dG qJdG o p XoCG
Q dH IXe gh aCG iG f e wc lIOLe njhh HHdG SdG
.(7.a dG) edG
32

u2 =. -17 V h u1 = 17 V

HG dG H edG dH q J hGj u qJdG qCG j Gg

7.b dG

7.a dG

:q Y UJ
jhdG ieh GhQdG ie H J dG aG bCG qbO cCH hCG u1 bCG d
bT e b T q FV H Y MCG Gg .G e HEH dPh
.2 * 17V dW (7.b dG)
u2

``````SCG
: hCd He fO bh Um ib b H MhGe G hG qJdG j edG dH q J
- Um u + Um

qJd

Um idG dG b e HHdG Ge q

Je q bCG
Z MCa 6 V ed eM L he qJJ qde SH HdG HdG YCG
.dbT 3,4 div Y e q FV H Y G
Gd dbdG qSG qCG Y 8,5 V hJ qJd Um idG dG qCG e qJCG
.5 V/div Y pV
o

33

G hG qJd dq dG dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
6 V-12 V ed eM L he qJJ qde *
12 V q e qJJ qde *
6 V q e qJJ qde *
(12 V) FHc e *
da *
Wb *
.Ue
SCG *
q
q fH eSG q FHdG IQGq dG CG
.G hG qJdG qde SH 8dG
IQGdG ZCGh 12 V `H dEG QG jdG QNCG
HdG dG EG ddG jh G qa
.U = 12 V

8 dG

hG qJdG qde Ve
q HdG f YCG
G q a 12 V q G qJdG qd G
f EG ddG j c Iq dG H
. 12 V HdG dG

6 V-12 V ``ed eG G hG qJdG qde SG EG LdH HdG f YCG

MG gh) a S q j H G q j a ,6 V `H dEG QG jdG QNH dh

.U= 6 V HdG dG EG a ddG eq CG (W sbe
q j G qCG FGO MCG 6 V q e qJJ qd G hG qJdG qde
o VY
q GPEG
.6 V HdG dG f EG ddG jh Iq dG Hh a S q j H
`g 12 V ed eG qdG qaj dG G hG qJd idG dG qCG cdG e
`g 6 V ed eG qdG qaj dG G hG qJd idG dG qCGh Um = 17 V
`dH `fQbCG q K Um/ U dG QNh Um / U `dG Q`N Y HCG Um = 8,5 V
. 2 Od jq dG
34

``````SCG
d j dG q G qJdG b b hJ q dG qJdG q j QG G hG qJdG qj
.Iq dG H YTEG
.ddG SGH G hG qJd dq dG dG SJ
Um = U 2 :g H bdGh Um idG H Je G hG qJd U dq dG dG

Je q bCG
FHdG qJdG Qd
q qfH SQ 9dG q
.edG dH G
i`dG dG Oq MCG SdG Y OYH .1
.q dG AHdG qJd
.q dG AHdG qJd dq dG dG MCG .2
9 dG

G hG QdG
q I d
q ddG
q dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
dq a b P L he qJJ qde *
.12 V `d jhe
12 V q e qJJ qde *
(12 V) FHc e *
eeCG *
Wb *
.Ue
SCG *
q
q fH eSG q FHdG IQGdG CG
10 dG
.G hG qJdG qde SG e 10 dG
.I HK b EG eeCG jh G qa IQGdG ZCG
G q a 12 V q G qJdG qd G hG qJdG qde Ve
q HdG f YCG
Iq d dq dG dG g dG J qGE a I dG f EG eeCG j c Iq dG H
.G hG QqdG
Im = I. 2 qCG qHCG CG qJd IG jdG f qJH :Me
35

``````SCG
j dG q G Qq dG Iq T n b o b hJh G hG Qq dG Iq T H q J Ql Ge dq dG Iq dG
.Iq dG H YTEG d
.eeCG SGH G hG Qq dG Iq d dq dG dG SJ
Im = I 2 : M Im idG H Je G hG Qq dG Iq d I dq dG dG

Je q bCG
.0,5A hJ I
q T P qFHc GQqJ OdG J qj e
q d

?L he Qq H J g
?OdG H dG G hG Qq d dq dG Iq dG b g e ,dc c EG

.1
.2

UG
.i Jq T h Y qdj dG u qJdG
q QhO FHc QqJ q G hG Qq dG
Y sdG u qJd Qq j dG FG Qd
qedG Iq G g T q G hG QqdG IQhO
q
HG FG GQdG
J Oo Y g N OOq dG H ,fG hHh g c i Jq d hCG
q
.IMGdG fdG HGh
1
N =

GP HhG FHdG GqJd HHdG SdG QXE q Y RL HHdG Ge

.edG e gQd
q ITG HH j dG OOq dG
ib b Y sdG qJd qCH q G hG Qq dG q j edG e jq QhO EG aVEH
.I dq a bh Im ib b Jq d qCHh U dq a bh Um
Um = U

2 ; Im = I

GdG Y jhG GQGG g q G hG Qq d I dq dG Iq dGh U q dG qJdG

.Iq dG H YTEG d j dGI q G Qq dG Iq T dh U q G qJdG n d
eeCG qCG M U q dG qJdG qEG ddG j q G hG QqdG EG dH
.I dq dG Iq dG qEG j
dq a bh N = 50 Hz OOq J hP q L he qJJ g fOH
q G FHdG qJdG
.U = 220 V

36

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

HHdG Ge :GQdG e Sj a IOLG ZGdG cCGh ddG fdG Hc YCG

.qJG - QJ
q - QqdG - qJdG - dG - dq dG - eeCG - IQhO - IQhO f .qJG f ........ e ....... f q G hG ......... j ........
q c KEG
e ....... f Jq T Jh ..........
q c KEG fjS qJG q G hG ........ j
.IQhO
q c KEG ........ f QJ
q
d ........... h ......... b d ddG f q G hG ........ EG dH
.idG b
.Jq d ........ dG d qEG ............. n jo q G hG ........ EG dH
2 bQ j``

:b GMhh q Fja jOe e Sj dG hG cCG

idG QqqdG IqT

qdG qJqdG

IQhqdG
Jg

FjdG QGG
b IMh
b IMh eQ
3 bQ j``

: j q dG G q J .1
dS hCG Le qEG hG qJdG j
GG SGH dq dG b SJ h da SGH qJd idG dG SJ
. 2.U hJ PEG U dq dG b e cCG qJd Um idG dG
.JdG g IQhdG b IMhh ddG g qJdG b IMh
.edG dH hG qJdG b q J
qJd q HHJ SQ GG dG q .2
:qJdG qCG q j SdG Y OYH .FHc
.L q e
.q e
.QhO Z he

37

jq OdG q SGh G QGQRCG qCG Y.FHc qJd q HHJ SQ GG dG q

. 2V/divh 4ms/div:JBc V Gd
: n dG d (N OOq dGh T IQhdGh Um idG dG) qJdG FN g

.3

Um =6,5mV ; T = 15ms ; N=66,7Hz

Um= 13V ; T = 15ms ; N= 15Hz
Um =6,5V ; T = 15ms ; N=66,7Hz
Um =6,5V ; T = 7,5ms ; N=133Hz

4 bQ j``

. t edG dH i FHdG Qq dG Iq T QJ
q SG G q
jQNG H e dG HLEG nNG
:Sb H MG
.(L / q e) Qq J G Qq dG .1
Qq d (idG / dq dG) Iq dGY dG q .2
.FHdG
.FHdG Qq dG (IQhO / OOq J) X dG q .3
5 bQ j``

q HHJ SQ HQCG H G dG
q j
Qq Rh G Qq R qCG Y .q F H c G qJ d
VG f Gq e jq O dG q SG
.SdG
q d dH
.qL Hhe qFHdG GqJdG qCG qH .1
cCG GP GqJd q HHdG SdG Oq M .2
.gUCGh ib b
cCG GP GqJd q HHdG SdG Oq M .3
.gUCGh IQhO
cCG GP GqJd qHHdG SdG Oq M .4
.UCGh OOq J
38

6 bQ j``
. t edG Qh qde
r nb H qJd u
t(ms)

u(V)

-6

- 10,4 - 12 - 10,4

dG Y dG hG qj

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

-6

10,4

12

10,4

.edG dH qdG b H qJdG qJ q dG dG G SQCG .1

2V h UdG Q Y 1cm
2ms :qdG Qf
.JdG Q Y 1cm
?heh q e qJdG g .2
?u qJd N OOq dG g eh T IQhdG g e .3
7 bQ j``

qJJ hP L he qJJ g RdGh AHd q fdG cdG jRJ e G G qJdG

.N=50Hz OOq J hPh U=220V q a
.G AHdG qJJ IQhO Y HCG .1
. t edG dH u qJdG q dG dG G SQG.2
10ms :qdG Q f
100V h UdG Q Y 2cm
.JdG Q Y 1cm
?fdG GU qJdG j Iq e e c .3
.aQ hO G j H e bCG Uf eY GP a
q .4
8 bQ j``

:e Gh
HG dG G
q
q cdG f
,FHc qde ,(D2) h (D1) q e eq U ,eq dG j ehe .qdG r H Ue da u=f(t) :edG dH qdG
r n b H qJdG QJ
q dG dG G qh

39

(D2)

hCG

(D1)

q dG c GPEG e cH ZQdG fG cCG qK dG hG SQ YCG

.e CG Ge
t

[0;4s]

[4;8s]

[8;12s]

(D1)
(D2)
9 bQ j``

V QGQRCG 2dG q jh qde r n b H q e L he qJd q HHJ SQ 1dG q

.SdG dP Ige e qe dG GG

HHdG SdG : 1 dG

GG V QGQRCG : 2 dG

pSG .1 dG SQ Y G qJd idG dG b e q 2dG Qs R e Qx R

t CG .1
.qJd Um idG dG
. N OOq dG SG .qJd T IQhdG MCG .2
?bQ da SGH SG qJdG b g e .3
40

10 bQ j``

Y a qde r n H A Ne Uh q HHd G eeCG LGdG GG dG q

.SG SG H dG H q G dG hP q HHdG SdG dP TT

.HLEG Qq H ?e qJd CG q e qJd qde g n G qdG g .1

?gG qJdG FN cPCG .2
? G jq OdG q SGh G b g e .3
? JQhOh gn G qJq d idG dG e vc q dG jQdG OY g e .4
.IQhdGh idG qJdG e
q c b PEG MCG
?qJdG OOq J b g e .5
?ITe dG g b e q dG RG g e ?q dG qJdG b g e .6

41

dGh HhG GqJdG `````Kh

q ````SCG
qJdG
l Gq J MJ q LddG fCG e Zh YCGh dG q J qGE
eeh e Y G e FHdG qJdG Gq J SGQO q Gdh ,FHdG
...Gh dG UNh AYCG FXh Y dO GP
b bf UN H l Ue qFHc bCG oJ e dG Xh Y Sa
dG q Y dd f a ,G Hh bCG H FHdG Sq dG e e cCG
cM Y
q j BCDE AHh jPCG cM Y
q J (A) HH q j dG (1dG)FHdG
.(2dG) dG r Ho

d dG Ld VJ SQ : 2 dG
c d FHc H q : 1 dG

(bdG dG f OY) Ncr dG OOq H CG JqbO H Je FHdG dG q

cJ q j eY dG r f OOq J jj PEG q dG dGh dG dGh dG dH q j dG
LQO JJ q OOq dG Gg jj c dG (jOdG hCG JdGh dc) OQGdG H
dG IQGM LQO JQG Y hCG q H YG Y hCG qY fCH dG Y G IQGM
dH 70 EG jh G EG dH 160h 140 H hGa
q dG q H dG r f OOq J jh
.S 45 dG e d c EG
dH 80h 72 Hh c EG dH 72h 64 H hGj PEG G M dG OOq J j c
.
q dG f ICGeG EG
:SCG
.L Z heh q e (FHdG dG q) 1dG dEG QG qJdG qCG q H .1
.dG d Nc OOq dG b SG .dG d N OOdG Y qG N e rHG .2
? dG d aGG qKd idG dG ge .3
: dG QJ qfGC rsJh Y L H KEG Nc b f OOq J b rMG .4
Nc = (220 -Y S OY)
42

q dG AHdG
q dG AHdG -4

q dG AHd IOq G SG e ...

RL qCG J qdG H qdG G cdG qUN g e

? G ILCG bH Y KCdG hO hdEG hCG FHc

43

q dG AHdG

FNh dG AHdG W
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
G FHdG OGq dG LGh q dG Y
Y YG G e CGbCG (1dG)
UdG Y eq CG, 10A-40A h 50Hz ,127V-220V
20A hCG 10A gh IMGh k Hc qEG LCG a d PG
.e
d qaJ dG G FHdG qJdG qCG qcCJCa
hP he qJJ g RdGh AHd fdG cdG

q c e SEd dU On Gq dG qCGh 50Hz OOq J

h`J `dq a b d G`qJJ ` dG `YdG
. 220V hCG 127 V
Y pco GPh ? 10A-40A `H OG e
r dh
? 20A hCG 10A UdG
1 dG

qcC `````JCGh ``HCG

2 dG

bH dTG G q FHdG RG JQG oY

H a qdG ,dH dUG I LCG
m W dG

q
q c Y 220V H dG o Wh H UG
RGdH ILCG J cJ Y qdOCG qc ,RL
IQY g dG dG qCG CG dG W H
cQCG n 220V dG
n pd Yn e Y
ch 2 dG c dSG J LCG e qG
.AHdG q dG
q c qcDj
H UN
RL a G FHdG OGq dG eq BG
q
.G q FHdG b qdG
44

MCGh q `````LCG
3dG fH SG cdG REH dPh M de T Ic eEH

: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
(6V)
q L he qJH jJ RL *
6V He KK *
6V HdG jh hG FHdG QdH j q *
IcQ Y r s e jr Z e e
6V qJJ e *
q
OZCG KKh H Ue
AGM OZCG KK e e IMGdG fe
j nYl HQCG *
s
q
.IcQ Y qc s eh H dc Ue
AbQR
q
eeCG *
GPEG HQCH AcG ) WGb N *
. (WH GOhe
s jdG RL c
afCG AbQRh AGM Ue
SCG *
q
.(3dG) cdH bCG
MCG e
q SCGh a K WdG ZCG
dG aCG qK Yk J iNCG WGdG ZCG
ILCG OY OGORG qc qfCG MCa e
.cCG I dq a Iq T eeCG qS G

3 dG

``````SCG
220V dq a b hPh 50 Hz OOq J hP L he qJJ G FHdG qJdG

iqe e MGh q ch RGdH sce n G ILCG q c jH s e dG FHdG dG

.q a 220V dG qJH
f G qFHdG ILCG OY e qde T FdG FHdG Qqd dq dG Iq dG JJ
n
q G n dG iq J CG j H G dq dG Iq dG b qC GOh j OdG Gg qGC qEG bdG
.OGq dG Y
45

e jbdG dSCGh q dG AHdG W

A```JCGh eq C ```JCG

4 dG

5 dG

f ch G FHdG Qq dG W qJ n a
? e q dG GdGh UTCG
cJ Y dG f e cSCG q dG jn GP
QqJ qG SCG qC g ? de FHc T
? XdG f d d (4dG) FHc
? HJ ZQ Xh r fCG jr N
n Cp d g dH
hCG Lqdc FHdG BH UG
TG Ohl
q
s J GP
(5dG) ? m cn P dK m N
n Cp ddG
q
BG H g Y Le qFHc Iq n pH fMCG f GP
? dH Ue
J eY ddG
s
q hCG Lqdc FHdG
jGH CG ,OGq dG AGQh kITe scjo GP ?UdG QhO g e
Y VdG UdGh UGdG J
q c GPh ,FdG dG
? G Ne RQH e s G (6dG)jRdG Md
AH SG H sG FHdG QqdG e Ohs n oj GP
? SdG e
? se H q FHdG ILCG H
n jo GP

6 dG

qcC `````JCGh ``HCG

q fdG cdH ,AHdG q H qJCG ,DhdG J
q c Y H HLEG e
n qnC
QHEH ,qh c e q Y n LGe Y OYH) FKh H bCGh ...RdGh AHd
.e jbdG dSCGh q dG AHdG W M (...ffG
46

``````SCG
N Y G
n EG ddG q e q FHdG Qq dG njo
U
n e Sh QdG S ,rS e e MGdG q j
(7dG).n pjG ndG s oj VQCH

7 dG

hJ b GP q a GqJJ
q G q FHdG dG j
.jG dG Wh QdG S W e q c H 220V
Y qdG Qj IjG SCGh QdG SCG H d
SC MCG dGh IjG SCd nQRCG ndG cdG
.QdG

q dG p j QdG S H UG G (rK hCG)p NCe p t pd

.Me q j QdG
q G c qc : (8dG) GQk
n dGd
s e
Y iNCGh UTCG Y o W ,Yf G AHdG W
: q dG GdG
8 dG

Y Y qj N a q FHc dBG e T
j eY *
l
(9dG) q FHc Iq g EG Vq j QdG S Y G g
L Y FHdG Qq dG Qhe H dPh dG q M EG H J CG
UG
TG jhJ Lhn dP Od .VQCG EG QdG S e
q
o Uj (5dG) m cn Pn dK Nn Cp q FHdG BH

n S q jo (NCG - UCG) dG hOe mpH

H Ue dG an W qC (10dG) jQCdG
GH VQCG
q jo (11dG) 1,20m W Sf
.q qde Ib qc Y

9 dG

47

10.b dG

10.a dG

11 dG

:nf FGG fG MG q dG GdG Y WG J *

.jG dH QdG pd r Vn Y eJ n KEG IQe mIQGO f SG dM ) jdG AGS q dG o dG k Je k b Qqd dq dG Iq dG H .(OGq dG L e) FdG FL hCG (bdG f ILCG Iq Y d G
: dG o UGa qcoJ GdG j
cdG) Oho
q G b e FHdG OGq dG e qcjo (12 dG )FQ Ua *
IQGO Y j CG N q c e jd R ,(RdGh AHd q fdG
EG aVEH bdG f q FHdG ILCG e c OY J KEG hCG IQe
.FHdG Qq d x Y Wc QhO
c jRdG Md Y qcoJ dG jJ q H UN
q iNCG UGa *
.46 U 6dG
12 dG

d FdG AG VJ Ua cJ q jo q dG GdGh UTCd jM cCG d

dG BG WdG Qn hO j : (10.b dG SGh 6dG QdG bCG Y OLG UdG)
Y VY
k VQCG dG Y gQhe KEG 30 mA Jq T J dGh Hq G qFHdG GQqdG Y j
.jG dG

Je q bCG
,GWCG KK GP H UG
jT o q G Oh
u
q jo dG FHdG BGh ILCG e g
.cdG ddG N
n Cp G P edG Se gh ,
q fCG a MGhh l co P e pKG
? IQcG BGh ILCG g e pU
o dG IOq G W g e .1
q M jdG Y kUe d
q fCG n dG j CG j dBG hCG RG e AL
q CH .2
.HLEG qYCG ? qXh j
48

UG
.dG qJJ r an n W H RGdH ILCG cd s e qdG FHdG dG
GqJJ H dG jh
q e q FHc cJ
q c q SSCG jG dGh QdG S
cdG q e e gZh UGdGh jQCdG S qeCG .fOH q a 220V qL Hhe
.q FbdG Xd eR a
q G
edG YGb GMG e q H o W dSG sdh IOq eh Ye
q oae qdG AHd
.jOd H UG
q

49

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

- UCG - MCG :GQdG e Sj a IOLG ZGdG cCGh ddG fdG Hc YCG

.dG UY - dG - Ue
- UdG - jQCdG S -
q
q QhV - QRCG
GP ......... cSCG cdG q dG j q dG FHdG ............ EG q d
hDa ............ EG dH eq CG ,jd ......... Z GPh Qd ......... Z
.NCHh .........`dH s Z GP mSCG SG EG
...... j qfC dc ...... q VdG
o UdG OGq d MG q FdG ...... Y kIOjR
.N
q c e p eh dG FHdG
2 bQ j``

:e U n e
q c eCG eY r V q K ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
.jQCdG Sh jG dG H qJJ Lj *
.dH dG q FHdG ILCG scoJ *
.dG q VJ Ua cJ ZQ G OQGh q FHdG dG MG *
Ohe

s e cJ QdG Sh dd
q G dG H S
q
n f e md
: dG g .q VJ UH
.qG cdG IQe IQGO J
t H q FHdG QqdG noj *
.q FHc H ddG
q g j dG dG j *
S OLh e qEG dG N e ddG

q j dG dG
n
o UdG j *
.jQCdG
.N

q c e ddG
q j dG dG
n
o UdG j *
e J
n OQCGh VJ UH Z de FHdG dG fc GPEG
h WdG a EG qdG hO N k sS dP LCG e
n r a aZ qe
H .(jG dGh QdG S H Te S) G Z b
n
r Z
: q dG
.VQCG Y
n dj dG qC AS
q CH
n oJ d *
p qC AS
.Qq dG fG Y j IQe IQGO J
q d
n
q CH
n oJ d *
.
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n Y c dG MG g e .2
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q J n .3
? bdG f d rUG
rdG FHdG
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`````Kh q ````SCG
UGG jGdG eCG WdG YGh OdG Y dG YGHh LddGh dG q J H
HL EG dT e OdG ec Ie Gg fY dG AHdG UCG dG
he gh a dG FcQ e JH M jQ EG gM eh JJe EG dS eh
dG AGS edG IG aGe e g e a ,h IOq e dP e VGZCGh ,j e c
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51

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q c
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n Lh Gnpd
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n j CG dG r dG g pjo dG AHdG N eq CG
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ILCGh dG FHdG
q

n e
n GPEG QOb a FHdG Qq d q G bdH d fEG L qCG dh ,bGdG
,kqe c GPEG 25 mA oJq T J CG Qq J f Y 25 V H j r S
r n W o MU
. 5 mA pJq T o b iq J dG Qq dG qEG j qfCG qGE
q H q Mh `L `q H `H `qKCG `j 20 mAh 10 mA H Qq dG oIq T b M
n hGJ GPEa
.dG

n dG
q qJ dG ha qdG Y jRq J mt J GMEG EG Oq Dj 30 mAh 25 mA H
.q e qfCch
e n cCG q dG Y dG qbH po d q G G qfEa 50 mA Qq dG Iq T b nH GPEG eq CG
.FbO HQCG
sj CG Y l cq Ce OG n KEG ojdGh q G oN
q dG q FHdG r dH poG g Odh Gnpd
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e EG j G UCG qEGh kITe rp nhOh FHdG Qq dG KCJ Y r dH G
o r Y .1
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o da ,ojo
.(198 ) qfG jH qJg Oo SG .2
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q hCq G SEG o J .3

jo
n
q e hCG W
o oG c rCG On U GPEGh ,(oG na EG poG a e AGdG
.(dG Y qbe G
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dDG

:SCG
.fOH AHdG SG Oq Y .1
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n bGe EG HLEG OSG) ? TH
q AHdG SG EG IYq dH OG e .3
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s bCG hCG q a 12VEG q a 220V e dG qJJ j G n jo GP .4
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G qJdG H q j q eR Iq e
FHdG Qq d BG Wb
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ddH SJ L qJJ d U

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54

cdG AHdG
MH dG -5
SdH dG -6
q FHdG dG -7

...dG qj eY AdG
q
? IdG RL TT e j X qj e qc H j dG IjdG J
q
Z S QG e Y N L
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MH dG

5
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aqT bQh a Y , G dG jJ Y oJ dG G dG S e
?...H Y
? dG e IQU N Y N NH SMG aC
q G n

MCGh q `````LCG
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
d`oe U `e) `fHEG e ` b @
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RL :FHc SGf @
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e bO H q Yo r n dG
q d e
(1dG)jG

1 dG

2b dG

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qd Ijc e fHEG b rn W MCG q bCG

(2a dG) .AT
q CG MCG a dG
Hq bCG q K AGdG H dG W f qdOCG
qCG MC a dG
q d I j c e G
(2b dG).IjdG j qdoG dG
H fHEG b Ve
q HdG H bCG
e q SCGh j`G `` H AG` dG ```bh `L dG
.( 3b dGh 3a dG) .MCG

3b dG

3a dG
56

aC
q Gh qMCG
cG jG H LdG b Wh AGdG H fHEG b W MEG KCH
qEG dG a qdG dG Mf e G LCG L q UN dG e
q c
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qdG dG W Y IcG AHdG J G AG Y l M
r dG qCG h
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``````SCG
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.cdG AHdG e q c e L q c j
.dG Igd Tc IGOCG FHdG SGdG
q

Je q bCG
q K AGdG H fHEG b rW MCG qdOCG
FHdG SGdG e AGdG d qdG G q bCG
W e d M e SG dG Ij d a
.(4 dG) HdG HdG dG
? dP aC
q G n
4 dG

FHdG G
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? dG IgX Y d G G IMdG IGOCG g FHdG SGdG g

MCGh q `````LCG

5 dG

OhJC
q G ,HdG HdG G Gq G EG aVEH
e Lh d b e e
RL gh FHc
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e OGq S Y q fe S S jh qdG LdG
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o
q e Ub Y q oK qG
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57

G SH dh HdG HdG H bCG @

W jH dPh FHdG SGdG Y VY FHdG
G Ub e (fHEG hCG LdG) qdG dG
c G S Y J q fG bQdG qCG MCa
( 6dG)
6 dG

OHEG Y q UCG Vh EG qfG bQdG OJ : Me

.d G dG

``````SCG
.dG IgX Y d G oj RL FHdG G

Je q bCG
G Ub e Hq bCG q K TdG e H aW MCG qdOCGh SdG e H OhJC
q G
c dG c GPEG qEG G S Y J q fG bQdG qCG MCa FHdG
(7 dG) .e LLR e SGH
Gg j eY SdG d qdG dG jH q fG bQdG qKCJ Y qCG q HCG - 1
.MH HJ j dH ITe c NCG
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q G
? MH d Hb dG LCG
q c qCG HdG H KCG CG g - 2

7 dG

58

SdH dG

SdH dG IgX
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? MH qEG dG j g ? J jEG KEG ITe Vn Yn RdG TT Y N L
q H QT aC
q G n -

MCGh q `````LCG

1b dG

1a dG

1OY H
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( 1a dG) . B h A Jjc H YJ
q CG
hCG f HEG r n b e G MGh cCG
q M EG q bCG q K MEH U dG
cQJ e A IjdG e qdoG dG SdG
.fL dG SGdG
SGdG jL e q bCG q K fL dG JCG
( 1b dG) .MCG e
q SCGh H e

59

LdG b SH HdG f YCG

(2dG) .MCG e
q SCGh fHEG H
A

2b dG

2a dG

1OY H
: ddG Gq H OhJC
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3 dG

MEH Ud hCG fHEG r nb e GMGh cCG

Y G S Y q fG bQdG OHG Me dP e qcCJCGh
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r W MCG j qdG dG LCG dP H
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q dG dG dG W G Ub e BG q bCG
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qSCGh fHEG H LdG r nb SH HdG f YCG
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4 dG

aC
q Gh qMCG
f

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NCG Gg j dG d MH G dG Y ,fdG HdG
dG j
q e Ggh hCq G d qdG dG Y IcG AHdG qc e GAL HcH
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60

``````SCG
.SdH j CG e oj MEH dG EG aVEH

Je q bCG

q jo .HH Z Se QG e Y N L
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61

q FHdG dG

7
AHdG GfCG
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? fHGh LdG r n b e
q c Hd IOq G f oJ GP @
e J qfCG qEG e d H FHc SGfq Ijc J e g c @
? dP aC
q G n .Y Ie aJ H dG H

MCGh q `````LCG

1 dG

2 dG

3 dG

: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
UdG hCG fHEG e KG b LdG e KG b jG e iNCGh AGdG e b H qe cQ e e
eM q c j
q
.(1dG) .jG e bQ
MEH UdG hCG fHEG r n b cCG
r fe dG VCG q K (W AGdG b SH)
He qdG aW YL mcQ Y e
q c
(2dG) .G aJ H a
H LdG r nb SH H dG f YCG
.(3dG).MCG e
q SCGh fHEG
, r n b SH dh HdG f YCG
a LR e NBGh UH hCG fHEG e gMCG
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q CG j
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4 dG
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q Gh qMCG
Y qj TdG b H qdGh HG dG rW o ao J ,fdGh hCG HdG
G dG
r W H ddG HdG
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Y J MH LdG d qdG dG Y J dG AHdG qCG Y dO a
.UdG hCG fHEG b Y J dG J
AHd K eq EG AHc QX MH dG Y j qfCG q dG QdG KCG d a
.jHEG H JG AHd K hCG LdG H JG

``````SCG
:Yf AHdG
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.dH qde (dG QqH) hr en : e
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. Yf e fc qc HPJ H dG f e AHc q c aJ

Je q bCG
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q d
Gq G SH H H bCG qdG aW j dG AHdG f Y q JC .1
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FHdG
dG
q
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? ddG dH NBGh LG dH G OdG r n b MCG jo GP @
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MCGh q `````LCG
AGS MH dG M BG q M EG H b dG QdG EG LdH
hCG SGdG
q Ijc GfG Iq M qCG MCG FHdG G SH hCG SGdG
q SH
b dJ qY Iq e e OGOJ M iNCG EG dM e J d qfG bQdG
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.iNCG EG dM e J AHdG q c qCG SCG dH
63

aC
q Gh qMCG
LdG Y J dG AHdG q c
q c qCH qSCG AHdG q c H
q G NG d
T e IMGdG q J Fd Hb Zh He Gq L IU qc e fe
MH
q
.z e { JdG H d ej H q FHc
q FHc T e n q e OY e fe
q FHc T g q LLR AHc q c
q
q CG qEa dH
: z q { JdG H d en jo H
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(q > 0) LG dH qLLdG AHd G
q dG J AHdG Yn nf H d
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q = - n.e :
o a ddG dG eq CG
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: dG qFHdG dG b

e = + 1,6.10 C

dG e Gc GOY dH Y f dG q FHdG dG qCG ZQ : Me

b GMc ddG SGb H SG Qq j e Ggh IU b J dG q FHdG
:iNCG
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``````SCG
.eo L Y J dG AHdG q c
q jo Fja QGe q FHdG dG
(C) ddG b IMh ,d Hb QGe qFHdG dG
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: dG q FHdG dG d Ye e b q FHdG d
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n IN*

. eY e fc qc HPJ H edG f e FHc T aJ

64

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e H dJ KEG LdG e b Y X dG LG q FHdG dG qCG Y GPEG
0,032 C hJ b GP jG
q = 0,032 C d fG
dG dG OY Y HCG .1
q
.dS eY GP jG b Y J dG dG qCG Hq CG . 2

UG
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q j FHdG G EG aVEG
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: dG
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n IN*

. (C) ddG b IMhh d Hb Fja QGe qFHdG dG

T
q c aJ H eY e fc qc FHc T PJ
.edG f d FHc

: f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 `bQ j`
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q Oe L j .2
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: ddG IOq G GQNG H e dG G q J
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66

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LdG e b
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LdG e b
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4 `bQ j`
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5 `bQ j`
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q = 4,8.10 C hJ b GP q FHc T Oq e L j
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dG q FHdG dG OY Y HEG .2
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6 `bQ j`
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q
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q G@
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q J QH bCG
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.
q Gh
q G H q eCG
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.fG Z jGh fG jG EG q JCG
.jG fe
q H aCG
.IOq G qH fG IgX aC
q G
.jq RZ Gbe qTCG
.dGh IG Y q dG Z GMG W QOCG

71

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12

G`````MGh IQq````dG
JSGh gQOe , YGfCG : bhG
gW e jGh jJh bhG f
FdG YqdG
IQq dG
IQq dG H

-8
-9
-10
-11
-12

? e IFdG eh ? dG jJ qY qJ a
? bhG SG ObH FGO j GP
? h`dGh proG Y J GMG qY e j dG e
Ic ZQ IQG AfCG dG RdH gG dP
q c GP
? dSG QGWCG qc gPqJG LGdG WMG
? Fc CG Fja
q GMG g
? IqQdGh IAdG H dG e

72

: ```bhG

JSGh gQOe ,YGfCG

8
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG

? gQe g `eh `q ``dG RdG IQhQb NGO IOLG IOq ```G g e

o jN oj j Y M zRZ IQhQb{ IQhQdG J q J GP
? G Yqh Y `qdG F``dG
q `f g g ? F`S

GQdG jhJ q IOLG bhd dG

q dP GP
? gQOe g eh ? ObdH

.IjY bh dG e oJ
? Y G q j ch ? bhG J g e
? JSG g e

dG J fOH FdG e dG GJ
(... qdG ,qdG ,adG) qdG VGZCG e jdG
? JOL Y af ch ? JCe g e

73

qcC `````JCGh ``HCG

GdG Th qh c e QOe EG Lq dH dPh VdG FKh H bCG
,QH qdG jJ e IQjR ,b qd qfqdG dcdH e qJG) eCG EG qGe Hh
(...fOH q dG GSG M e M IQjR , qdG RdG
q d jq QGdG q

``````SCG
g e eh Gh Jdc RZ g e eh dGh jdc FS g e a ,IOq e G bhG
.Gh dc U
: gOq Jh dSG h JaH Je bhG q gCG
QG

hCG (qYU jW) a G qJ

SH fOH J jJ
jW) e
q
(.ehOG

dSG

hG

SSCH qde SG

dG

YU - PdG YU - AHdG fEG

Jf UCG e qW Q U L e fEG -q dG aq dG -q dG -OG
.qdG qH hCG AGOS - LhQ dG) jq R dG bhG H
(...jG

G dG

.SSCH qde SG

HhdGh JdG

GQdG

jdG

dG

aGQdG

GFdG

jRhdG

.q dG BG - GNdG - GQGG

hRG

jH e j
q FS : (hdG) dG
IO LG fG Gh J dG
.cGe HSQ

jq Y Oq Ge q J KEG dG RdG q j
(bqdG qjdG fGGh JdG jH)
WH dG Qq dG W H Ljh
.VQCG
: jQe JCjh
Y j qdGh q d aGG R dG .GRGaEG e ojh
(aGG RdG e Iah cCG gh) G RdG Y e jq H hCG jq H QHBG e G
.qdG QHBG

.adG - q dG - qdG

74

dG RdG
e SSCG e
je)
q
b c eh `G
HhdG e Jhe
( jEGh JdGh

J`e `q ``bCG
bhG Oq YCG ,dq dG KdG EG OSHh e e Y M e Y O YH
.JSG Oq MCGh q dG e LG

CG
q J H
G
q dG

75

`jJh ```bhG f
gW`` e j`Gh

A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
QN JdG q J Y e qcCd HdG
q IZQ fMCG oJ
? RdG q J Y j CG GPeh ?dP e jdG e .RdG IQhQb

? HG dG G
q eq dG j GPe

qdG fCG H
o
n jo jq Jh q YGPEG M Iq Y
.IOq e H cSG RL EG JdG RZ Uj
jO GPEG e IQU j CG GPeh ? dP e jdG e
? Oeo fCG SG

? IQGM Qe fH UNh
Me G dG IQhQb f GP
q

? GP .dG OJj e
q c eR FGG ICe

76

qcC `````JCGh ``HCG

GdG Th qh c e QOe EG Lq dH dPh VdG FKh H bCG
(...q fG jG dcH ,G j q WdG dcdH nen qJG) eCG EG
q Ge Hh

``jJh ``f ``jW

hG

HfCG T Y dG RdG oj
c dY Vh Ic QbCG GP
d S) q fe q e j
.(G
VQCG dG R dG q j
hCG eq dG e W
q H dPh
Sq dG fCG) .q SEG Q MCG
LG j J c (HG
.G e Vq dG

LRe HhdGh JdG jJ qj

Jhe Hh FS dM Y
V jq jM jQUh jQGb
.Y

77

qdG RdG

JdG
HhdGh

``jJh ``f ``jW

fGq N q q dG bhG q oJ
ee IOY Iqce Ic jq jM
EG oJh LQN hCG qdG jJ
jQU d jRqdG q
.UN
q

YOeh c q j
dG EG ScCG jo h
.Sd

78

hG

bhG
q dG

dG

bhG W e jG
edG
q YGbh WG

WG f

.G Z q M Td Hb RZ h q c
: j e e ,eq dG YGb e jdG GMG j hG TG Y LqdG G qd
be J Y S qY jW qJG - 1
.RZ
IQGT
q CG GMEG OJh d q c OHEG - 2
.bhG e dH
.Oqe AGg H e hG jJ - 3

FGGN

Rd bq dG q Sq dG HfCd
q gX cJ - 4
.q
q CG NGO qdG
.LBG Jh SG RH JdG IQhQb UG WqG fCG eS bGe - 5
.FGG q qc - 6

hM (qdG S qdG bhG qEG M) e Fq dG qMh qjRdG bhG qJ

e e eq dG YGb e jdG GMG j dP Od .oe Aa HqJ e GPEG QfG
: j
.Oq e AGg H e hG jJ - 1

q CG EG q dH qdG e q FGQ GP FGH q G b e jq RdG bhG e - 2 QfG N

.Rd qJ
.H G AdG d VY qJ CG Od fGqN hG M bGe - 3
.G IQGT
q CG GMEG OJh d
q c OHEG -4
.q dG q SM jW Y Rd q J
q CG GfG e q dG b RZ be J Y -5

79

bhG W e jG

edG
q YGbh WG

WG f

GMEG j CG Y UG PEG Lh .NG q dG Z GMG q j CG

: j e cf YGdG J qgCG e .edG
q YGb GMH j dd .qeJ qG

q c H dPh (...J ,aJ , W ILCG) RdH G ILCG fU - 1

.Hh SG MdH G
qdG qCG Md qc RqdH d G
pG QTEG hCG RG V Y UG - 2
q
.f Z RG G e G
.GMG q Y SG EG a f Aa
q c FJ - 3
a gjhJ EG aVEH Oqe AGg H eCG RdH G ILCG cJ - 4 NG N
.Fd Se

``````SCG
EG Oq DJ b YGdG Z SEG Y LqdG Wa ,qgCGh bhG SG jOe Oq J ZQ
.NGh GQfGh FGc qjHh qH QGc
CG fCT e qdG eGdGh W QYG H NCj ShQe jJ qj bhd TG
q SEG
.VdG bGMG qJ
qd oJh qFbdG WMG e jJ qc j bhG SG Y j b N qd jOJ
.Se eS YGb SG

J`e `q `bCG
? jq RdG bhd VdG TG q J qdG eGdG g e
? ObdH jhJ AKCG jdG q j IQdG q J jo GP
80

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

: hCG H LCG
.GRZ Iq Y e je dG RdG - 1
.qce q f LCG Y dG j - 2
.q Fc q Y g d EGq G q dG q Y - 3
.q Fja M K Y q dG bhG LJ - 4
2 bQ j``

: U e
q c eCG * eY V q K ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
: J G q d CGq G dG q Y - 1
dG - CG
jdG -
aGQdG -
jdG - O
: q dG e qJCG bhG q Yf - 2
.q dG f c e f g - CG
hdG H Je -
jq dG q H Je -

81

3 bQ j``

qdG q FjdG dG q e bhG FY e J qdG LCG EG dq dG FdG q JCG

: qdG e qc Y Lj
,jRhQdG ,jdG ,JdG ,HhdG ,SqdG ,G ,G dG ,AG ,G
.LhQdG ,dG ,dG ,hRG
4 bQ j``
.Q hG S SGH HQCG
h`````````````````````G

Qe
G
hdG
.dG
q ie Y qjdG fGGh JdG jH SJ
q
.Jf UCG e qW QU Le

JdG
dG
dG RdG
G dG
5 bQ j``

ILCG e Y hG qh bhG e Y GG hG
q G bQCG qoJ
.JSG
jq Qf LGQO

CG

JdG RZ

jRhc

IFW

jH

IQqS

aGQH

qS

.dSG R SG G h bQ qd SCG
82

6 bQ j``

: GQdG e Sj dq dG fdG IOLG ZGdG cCGh ddG fdG Hc YCG

- jdG - jRhdG - q dG -JdG IOq e - Jf UCG e U e - G
q J
.dG - hRG
................................ e dG qJCj - 1
.....................gQeh..................... Y G Yqh - 2
.Obc ......................... GF qdG J - 3
........................................ : e bh Iq Y jdG q LJ - 4
7 bQ j``

G G bhG e de cPCG
? gQOeh
8

bQ j``

HG IQdH
q eSG SG aZ
? GP .qdG edG
q YGb
qdG WMEG ,ILe Ia q H
.G Od gPqJG

83

`````Kh q ````SCG

```dG
q
LCG Y j qdG b
q e FS g (hdG hCG) q dG
.GdGh adc q dGh jdc Fq dGh Jdc jq RdG e q Fc
Jf jH) jq Y Oq G cCG Y q KEG q dG q j
. cGe U HSQ q e (fGMh
q LfEG QHBG EG (q dG M hCG) G q dG QHBG H j q j
HfCG q oJ q K q dG G qJG e SJ iNCG QHBG M ijo h
G e Jh bJ j jCG q dG q EG QHBG H J qdG
GG EG hCG jq dG LCG e G EG eq EG Jh HfCG N q G q dG q oJh .H ddG FGdGh
.jq dG LCG e jq dG
djEGh LfEGh aSG q Y MGe q gCG G EG G G e G q dG f j
j q dG c e Hf hOG q dG Gg q gCGh .G EG Jqe f Y a G EG
jq dG Ge EG G g e q dG q Y d Ic OL Sq c c.LfEG We Y IH We
d HfCd N fCGh cSG ceCG EG djEGh q dG IQq eh V bf q a
qdG q fGSG : q q dG qG f Ve jCG cf ,jdG Ib e qG FG bq dG QY
jdG jRJh d dGh AJdG FUh ,HhdGh JdG e je gh q G q dG RZ H qRjh j
...gZh jq dGh q dG jR jRd dGh eGdGh ,RdGh
bhG Y aG HU e q j UGGh q dG b e CGq j GAL dG jJ j c
.YOG gqaJ LGdG q dG hdG M e
fGq N q q dG bhG jJ Y IOdG L jq J
jW Iq h Ic q c jJ EG LG d q S jq jM
WH jq dG EG AqdG g AGZEG cCG SCH fSd aO
HQCG G Gg eSG bh dG hCG G hCG VQCG
Ld fG GSG ,G e Vq dG LG : g bGe
jq dGh q UG LG e VQCG qG dG ,FdG
.q aG G q
(qH) jG LddGh bqdG c e

: SCG
? dG e LGSG qdG bhG g e - 1
? bhG J d G dG FSh g e - 2
? dSG b hdG q j ch jCG - 3
84

``` qdG R`````dG

IOLG ObdG GfCG MCG e g qdG RdG qGE
GMd dG
q q Hb Y IhY qfC qdG
.q q dG WG qajh dG KDJ FGT jq CG j
J h qaL cJ dG RdG Y j
q G RdGh q d aGG RdG g q FQ a V
.jq H hCG jq H e QHBG e G (aGG Z)
g qCG e dG RdG Fq dG dG g Gh
fMCG LJh .JdGh HhdGh jEG e iNCG OGe
cCG Kh dG jdG FGS dG RdG M
.AGh hRCGh HdG
q dG eGSG EG aVEG , qdG RdG qj
jdG b qd GQe ,aq dGh q dGh qd RG
.fGh eG e
QbCG GP HfCG T Y qdG RdG oj
c ,Gh QdG Y q M dY Vh Ic
f a j qdG G GH dG RdG T
Y FS dM Y f q a HfCG N SGH
J q EG fe q Jh Vd U S
Y jRJ qY h c SG cGe e dH
.IU fGSCG J hCG HfCG N
(qH) jG LddGh bqdG c e

: SCG
? ObdG GfCG MCG V J e qe qdG dG RdG UN g e - 1
.b qd Qc qdG RdG a jo qdG fG hCG ed eCG H cPCG - 2
? W e dH
q j e ZQ fG q e fMCG dG RdG jo GP - 3

85

F```dG Y``q dG

10
HdG GMG

MCGh q `````LCG
: dq dG Oq GGh Gq H OhJC
q G
a b *
eM *
(H be hCG) FHc be *
cCG Rd jhM q b *
.G Ae *
HG cdG CG
NOCG q K gq dG q M a b e H
q SCG
dG b qCG MCa cCG Rd jhG q dG
G Ae qj AKCG h eq dG e Iq Iq H L
q CJ
.Oeq dG e bQ W dG b jh

86

``M `e aC
q G
f H NBG e L q j h iNCG q Fja dM EG dG q j GMG AKCG
,(G Ae qY dG RdG) HdG cCG K X bdG f h ,dG cBJh cCG
.HdG cCG K gh jL L EG cCGh dG q j Ggh
YJ q j jL f e q H q Fja q cCG dG GMG j CG ,PEG
.q Fc
.Ye e vc qa ke YJ cCGh dG qEG f
.YdG
n e q a Yq dG dP Y f qdG G a HdG cCG K eq CG
HdG cCG K

``cCG + ```Hc

(Yq dG e)

(Y``G)

d dG
q GM E G
MCGh q `````LCG
HG cdG CG
ga H SCG q K H be qTCG
NGq dG fG qCG MC a. dG
h ,AG QH a T q j d
.G Ae qjo AKCG

``M `e aC
q G
qJ h W AG qfG hCG iNCG EG qFja dM e Oq e L
q qc qfCG YCG
.cJ
jjL L QX dP Y d k e cCGh G YJ dG GMG H AKCG

q cCG G GMG QYG PEG .AG QHh HdG cCG K gh

.cCGh HdG H M qdc Fc YJ g H Fja
.GMG q Y YG QhO d cCGh G qEG f
.YqdG dP noe a AG QHh HdG cCG K eCG
Ae + HdG cCG K

cCG + ``e

(YqdG e)

(YG)
87

````SGCn
. IjL LCG Jh LCG AKCG J
q g FdG Yq dG
.YdG n eo IjG LCGh Ye YG LCG q J
.FdG Yq d e cCG GMG

Je ``q ``bCG

jdG GMG H CG
: HdG RGd
.h cCG e q b ,(MGq b hCG) H be ,jq OQR ,e S ,jdG e

: hCG HdG
q
jJ 50 cm dW q fe S bCG ,jq OQdG ee
jj IU M qTC aW MCG KCGh
. 0,5 cm Y j b
H GPEG qd) jdG e G ZCG @
.(dH j G LCG r bn e
.jdG TCG q K NBG aW e dG eCG @
? GMG AKCG jdG d d e

: fqdG HdG
q
jdG NOCG q K hCG H q dG MGe YCG @
jdG qCG MCa .cCG b G
cCG K q lj d d GRZ GRe gq H j
.j qdG dH
q dEG q JCG ,jdG

: GL
q g
d q dG ITe ZCGh G dG SCG
.jdG cCG K RZ SCG

: IG HdG SC
q G
.q Fc YJ M qfCG
o rKCG - 1
.n G LCGh YG LCG Oo u MoCG - 2
88

IQq `dG

11
IQq dG OLh
AJGCn h eq nC JCG

.GAg q oJ He jq jL e f
q eo q dG jq OG LCG e jdG qCG YCG
aC
q G nh a ,CGq J (IOq G qJ Y oj CG dG UCG G Gg) IAdG fc EG
? GAg H q FdG YdG

IQdG
q OLH q`SCG
.Aq d Hb IAdG qCH qSCG q Fc YJ aC
q
qc q J jG e e OY e f
q oe IAg qc qCG a HCGh QdG KCG d
.IQq P e jL
HdG cCG K IAg qeCG ,(cCG JQq P) He JQq P e J
q e cCG IAa
.Hc IQq Ph cCG nJQq P e J
q a

IAdGh IQdG
q LC
q G
d fo
q G GQq dG a J LP IAdG EG SCG ,IOq oG d Meo IAdG cJ LCG d
.Se Gjc T Y
GdCGh MCG PdG Gjd oJ IMGdG IAdG Y eo iNCGh IQq P H d
.oe

:eCG
QdG

jdG

LhQdG

cCG

HdG

IQq P

Pq dG
AGN Ijc
AG

AGU Ijc
G

AH Ijc

LhQdG

AGM Ijc

HdG cCG K

HdG

AGOS Ijc
cCG

IAg

PdG

89

````SGCn
q Jh dG H h IOq oG dH jDhQ q J jq jL e IAdG J
q
.IQq P e IMGdG
.IOq G H Je IMGdG IAdG GQq dG o J
q
.dG jq hc PH GQq dG oJ ,GAdG d

q FdG PdG SH HdG GMG

MCGh q LCG
MCG c HCG ,GMH cCG e HdG YJ eo g HdG cCG K qCG k Y
.HdG IQq P Ph cCG IAg P SH HdG cCG K IAd P Y
IAg P H qEG HdG cCG K IAg P Y MCG CG qfCG MCG
.HdG IQq P P EG cG cCG r JQq P r nLP Jh cCG

````SGCn
: j c q FdG PdH o un jo q Fc YJ cCG HdG GMG

+
HdG cCG K IAg

cCG IAg

90

Hc IQq P

scG q dG LCGh dG q dG LCG

FdG PdG

MCGh eq CJCG

q q dG G
cCG RZ

AG

cCG K RZ
HdG
QdG RZ

q dG LCG d FdG PdG eq CJCG

g qCG MCa ,cdG M e HoG dG
GAg e He GQq P e fe GAg
GAg gh hRhCGh Q dGh cCG
: e GQq P e fe
iNCG
q
nJQq Ph cCG IQq P e fG
AG IAg @
q
.LhQg
IQq P e fq G HdG cCG K IA g @
.cCG nJQq Ph Hc
GQq P HQCGh Hc IQq P e fG
G IAg @
q
.LhQg

````SCG
G

hRhCG RZ

: Yf dG FdG LCG
,He GQq P e fe
q GAg GP f LCG
.H f LCG q Jh
...hRhCG ,QdG ,cCG GRZ : eCG
, GQq P e fe
q GAg GP f LCG
.n cq eo f LCG q Jh
.HdG cCG K ,G ,AG : eCG

Je q bCG
jdG cCG K RZ

hRCG RZ

QpOodG RZ

LhQdG RZ

dG Y eSG GAdG P Y OYH

EG LCG J qUCG , f LC HG
.qceo LCGh H LCG

91

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

: ddG GQdG e
q c Y
w J dG dG G hCG SG cCG
.iNCG q Fja dM EG q Fja dM e f l
l
q -1
.IjL LCG Jh LCG AKCG J
l
q -2
.w Fc YJ KEG J LCG - 3
.w Fc YJ KEG J IjL LCG - 4
.He GQq P GP GAg e le
w f l L - 5
q
2 bQ j``

: Sj rcCGh dG hG fGp - 1

YdG eo

YG LCG

HdG cCG K

........................

HdG GMG

cCGh JdG

..........`pd q dG GMG

........................ ..................h dG

dG GMG

........................

FdG YdG

3 bQ j``

: qddG MG e U H qc x eY V
.dG qjhc PH GAdGh GQq dG osoJ .1
. kH vf k L q j He GAg e j
q q f L qc .2
.cCG hCG IAg e IQq dG J
q .3
.cCG hCG IQq P e IAdG J
.4
q
92

4 ``bQ j

q f L
q c SG eCG x eY V , f LC eSG GAdG P Y OYH
.qceo

IAdG P

SCG

hRhCG

jEG

qqdG G

IAdG P

QdG

KCG dG

LhQdG

qqdG G
5 ``bQ j

.IAd fG
GQq dG OY qjjQqdH f
q
AG IAg jq jQP qCG a LhQg r nJQq P eh cCG IQq P e AG IAg J : e
.3 hJ
: ddG LCd GAdG jjQdG Y PEG HEG
.AG ,jEG ,HdG cCG K ,QOqdG RZ ,cCG ,LhQdG
6 ``bQ j
IQq P
(10 kg) c (10 m)gb
: HG hH qG G Y OYH .1
HdG
5,1
2
? M
q bCG GQq dG e
q CG -CG
LhQdG .G IAg ch AG IAg c Y HG -
7,1
1
m = 20 g gQb c GP dG e b jd .2
cCG
66,2
4,1
.a HdG e fe
dG qCG fYG EG
hRCG
q
33,2
5,1
? j dG HdG GQq P OY Y HG -CG
.MGh
dG g e -
q U h L EG L HdG GQP Vh EG ,Y G
q
-27

-10

93

`````Kh q ````SCG

IQ`dG
q
Y dH ,dOG JYJh UGNh
G LCG SGQO EG aVEH AdG qJ
q
...HdGh SdGh gdG e UdG SG Y j dGh IOq d qSSCG fG
q
Gq L IU roL Y jdG S UCa UCG b EG IOq G FL GPEa
J dG zatomos{ jZEG UCG e IQq dG c AL bh .GQq dG q oJh dG UGH
q
dG
q ge hc H Oq e oL UCG g PEG IQq da zCGq j dG AG{
1
. m b iq j
10

10

SCG
.dG H h IOG
q dH jDhQ L IQdG
q qGC Y qj e qH ,dG
q Y OYH - 1
.HGL
q Y ? GQq P e MGh f e H dG Oq GG
q c J
q g - 2

H q LCG
? gJ hO dG Ib jRCG c
: OG``Gh Gq G
.
q N -q LLR SCc -be Z H

MCGh q LCG
.SCdG dG VCG @
.dG ZCG q M SCdG
q G
q UCG @
.AdG VYCGh SCdG e jH dG NCG ,jCG KK H @
.dG NGH e jDhQ hMCG @

aC
q Gh qMCG
? YG Oq MCGh Fc YJ Y f M e qCG qHCG -1
. CG dG AZ e dc YJ b qG c EG qJCG -2

94

IQq `dG H

12
ch I Qq dG M
AJGCn h eq nC JCG

dh ,IAdG e UCG IQq dG J CG q jdG e qfEa GQq P Y e fe

IAdG qCG
q
? ch M ae EG dG c

scCJCGh HCG
,GdG T Y) VdG FKh H dH
qcCj Gq L U l r L IQq dG d
r qfCG j (...G
q j UN

q
q hdEG n pe SH qEG OLh e MdG
,Iq e e 50 Qb q G G Ye Y JQH
( e cCG) MGdG dG GQq P qCG q j c
GQq P Y b J q dh dGh G He
Rhj G qc dh ,(e HdG) NBG Y
H CG, *(nm) efdG QYCG H
IMGdG IQq dG b
n
hdEG NCG J GQq d IQU
.G e QG AG QYCG
-26
10 kg `d OMBG H Qs n Jh ndG ge a dG eq CG
-9

* 1 nm = 10 m

: eCG
UUqdG

jG

HdG

cCG

LhQdG

0,3

0,23

0,15

0,14

0,11

IQq dG
(nm) gb

34,5

9,3

2,0

2,7

0,2

10

-26

kg

: Me
a UUdG IQq P eq CG ,SG
G e g jG IQq Ph IQq P
q
q NCGh UCG g LhQdG IQq P
.dGh IdG GQq dG e
95

````SCG
e OMBG Hh jn o o dG H W M hGa c eq GC efdG QYCG H
n IQq dG b Rhj
-26

10 kg dG

Je q bCG
0,2 mm hj b GP IU Hc qM Y IQY G Qf e jG QGdG qCG dG e

.UGe
qfCG YG GPEG HdG q fG
GQq dG OY Y HCG .1
q
q

.HdG q M c MCG .2

IQdG
q fe
q
AJGCn h eq nC JCG
J dd SG dG jG b qCG YCG MH LdG e b Hc Y
J dG dG ed HG eY aC
q G dh Y dS q FHc T cH dc
? LdG b Y

Va HCG
CG GjM jGh LLR dG dG LR n H M IOq G W q j dG qCG
.jG cJ hCG LdG cJ AGS J
q CG CGj qfCG LCG
L :G e KG Yf
q bCG Y f IQq dG qG VaCG CG PEG
OdG j
q e Ggh hCd He dS q FHc T iNCGh Le q FHc T
.IOq d FHdG
eq EGh ddG dG H LdG GQq P e YfG b jG b J CG eq EG MG KCH
dG c h ,jG b GQq P e LG dG H fG b LdG b j CG
eM jG b Jh Le q FHc d eM LdG b j M IMGh dG
.dS q FHc d

96

scCJCGh HCG
: ddG q dG KdG GC bCG

IQdG fe
pn oL e qdCj ,gHCGh cGdG cCG EG eq dG qM e ,dG Oq e AT qc
gjJ h ,n pe ibCH jDhQ J H qbdGh ndG e GQq dGh .GQq P Yn J bO
b gn Mh G g jf da ,Gq L IQdG FdG
q hdEG G n pe SGH a
fdG hqe a ,jQdG Y Ic GQJ
q IQq dG e pT dh .IQq P
r Qn pe e cCG
1804 Y h .UCG g e EG CGq j dG gG J IQq dG CH hj S ndCG e cCG e
MGdG dG GQq dG L qEG FdG jq f (Dalton) dGO L fEG FdG YCG
(e HdG GQq P) NBG Y CG GQq P Y J qd e He (e cCG GQq P)
a T FdG GQ q M jW bh p dh edG e Id jq dG g nobh ...
o er W .. jdG dG Q Oq CG M
q dG Gg bGe qh ,
q U qj
IQq P gh ahe IQq P UCG e Iq e 1836 qNCG , bO rL cG EG 1897 S
g qCG eW YG bh .FHc T qfC hdEG e IMGdG n q S ,LhQdG
.iG Ub Y HdG q M c IQq dG S Y Rq J fhdEG
pdG
r r njRq dG (Ernest Rutherford) OQaQPQ fQE
r G pddG Q nq M 1911 S
f V eZ T fhdEG dM QhJ adG dY jce IGf e J
q IQq dG qCG
q dZ a qcJ qfCG qEG ,IQq dG
n NGO Gq L GU Gq M J IGdG qCG q Jh , ne FGN
.c
bG OQaQPQ cG e a r e Y H
(Niels Bohr) QH rf cQG
q dG FjdG
S f e r L g fhdEG qCG
HjEG fG IGdG M hJ
q dG geh
M cGdG c gZ hO IOs GQGe
hCG W J GQGG gh , dG
.er o dG c aZ
IQq dG qCG MdG KCG a Gg fY eq CG
Le FHc d eM IGf e fq e
p r L d eM fhdEG e Yh
97

dG G e ZdG Y dPh ,c e a qcJh IQq dG ce IGdG R .hCd He

qJG a fhdEG Y eq CG .IQq dG b e 100000 Y 1 gb j M ,J dG Gq L
OLh MG ie jJ qEG H IQq dG IGf M cM W EG q dG j qfCG
.s e IGdG M e H e MGdG hdEG
qH Is G dG dG YSe e

: dG
q q SCG
.IQq dG CH dG
OQh dG gG Oq MCG .1
q

.jQdG Y IQq d MGh AdG q J hO dM dG SCG Y HCG .2

.IQq dG CH dG Gg AdG dM qJG dG UGh fG
e q JCG .3
q

.NG f Oq MCGh IQq dG fe

q W G G e j dG dG gG q JCG .4
.MH IQq dG e bd HdG G EG q JCG .5
.MH LdG J d dG VGaG g ddG dG GfG qCG q HCG .6

````SCG
.dM FGO q FGY cM fhdEG e Y Te
q jq ce IGf e fe
q IQq dG
.IQq dG q UN e q UN PEG a iNCG EG IOq e e j dG g gOY qGC qEG He fhdEG q c
me = 9,11 . 10 kg.:hJ Gq L IU c MGdG hdEd
qC dPh IQq dG c f g IGdG a f IQq dG b e Iq e dCG Fe UCG IQq dG IGf b qGC ZQ
.IGdG c eCG gEd Hb q fhdEdCG c
q = -e : dG q FHdG d He dS T hdEG
q dh Le q FHc T IGd
.JGf d He JfhdEG T L qC q FHc dOe IQq dG
.IQq d iNCG q UN q FHdG Th H IGdG
-31

Je q bCG
. 27.10

-19

hJ JGf T qCG dG e QdG IQq P fhdEG OY Y HCG

98

q F````dG Req ``dG

q FdG dGh IQqdG eQ
q FdG YdG Oe

-13
-14

cCGh LhQgh Hc GQq P e fq G jSCG IAd P

? IAg qc cJ RGHE qY Hc g g
? FGG ICe d Y CO2 HdH OG e
.qFdG dOGh qVjqdG dOG g dG G OG e
? H dG e

99

IQq dG eQ
q FdG n dGh

13
AJCGh eq nC JCG

H2SO4 HdHh FGG ICe d Y CO2 HdH OG e

qe Fd Y KG HdG Hh jdG M IQhQb

? jhOCG

scCJCGh HCG
q Hc d .HoG dG o
s G GAdG dG qbOCG
SSCG Y qe U e qd SCG ,Qb qc j qeY jH
.gOYh d fG
GQq dG GfCG
q
.IQq P
q d q Y eQ OSEG Lh dd
: IQq P EG ej H G dG UG Y OSH
Hydrogne JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,H `H LhQdG @
Carbone JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,C `H HdG @
Oxygne JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,O `H cCG @
.JdG SG e dGh hCq G aG FK gh ,Al `H edCG @
Aluminium
JdG SG e ddGh hCq G aG FK gh ,Cl `H QdG @
.HdG IQq P eQ e G Od dPh , Chlore

GQq P e e
jGh G JAg EG SCG Gg
q c fG
q
aQCG H dh ,CH dhCq G dG f LhQdGh HdG
,dHh IAdG IOLG GQq dG OH SCG h Y eQ qc
.jEd C2 H6 h d CH 4 q FdG dG Y C
q G

: Me
s jo Ggh

C1H4

e H CH4 dG cCG ,G IAg EG dH

.e IAg OdG jq OMCG GQq dG GfCG L Y

100

: dG Y MCG dG
f N
q
q pH
.hRhCG RZ IAd O3 @
AG IAd H2O @
.jQgQdG eM IAd HCI @

SCG
gSG GC j JQq P H q d dG G aVEG EG fMCG C fh ,JdG SG e hCq G H IQq d ejo
.G H

: `eCG
jM

Qa

jc

Fer

Fluor

Soufre

Fe

hRCG

jOU

Hc

cCG

Carbone Oxygne Hydrogne

C

Qc

Nitrogne Natrium Calcium Chlore

N

Na

Ca

LhQg

Cl

SG
IQq dG

SG
JqdG

geQ

Sf

edCG

SG

Cuivre

Aluminium

SG
JqdG

Cu

Al

IQq dG

geQ

GQq dG OH SCG h dG Y eQ q c aQEG e d fo

q G GQq dG ReQ HH IAdG U n oJ
.IAdG IOLGh q qdG

: eCG
cCG K
HdG
Hc IQq P
cCG JqQPh
CO2

AG

HQCGh Hc IQq P
cCG IQq P
GqQP
LhQg JqQPh
LhQg
CH4

H 2O

101

LhQdG RZ

RZ
cCG

IAdG

e JQq P
LhQdG

e JQq P
cCG

Jfe
q

H2

O2

: Me
.KG j hCG hjo gOY c GPEG qGE IAdG U GQq dG OY j

Je q bCG
.LhQg GQq P Yh Hc GQq P HQCG e J
q JdG RZ IAg qCG Y -1
? U g e
C... H... O... dG Hc cCG -2
fG
(dG dG) KCG dG IAH UG
q
q
.IMGh cCG IQq Ph Hc nJQq Ph LhQg GQq P
q S e

q c OYh d fG
q GQq dG GfCG Oq MCG , H2SO4 g jdG eM IAg U qCG -3
.e

102

YdG Oe
q FdG

14

IOq G Mh q FdG YdG

A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? q Fc
q
n qen CG CG c PEG .H nIAdGh eH nIQq dG
o qe

MCGh q LCG
: ddG Oq GGh Gq H OhJC
q G
(dP QqJ EG aHhQ Ge ) hdEG Ge *
QNG SCc *
.SdG jd Fe *
.GOd Fe *
SCc SdG jd FG G e b SCG
.fdG SCdG GOd Fe e bh QNG
Y q e hdEG Gd q bdG SG qCG e JCG
CGbCGh qc Y dd JhG SCdG VCG qK dG
.qdG d q G dG
MCa iNCG SC dG SC c i IODn o H SCG
.k e dG e Oq dG QRCG SGQ QX
dH fQbCGh qG d qjOdG dG jL e CGbCG
.HdG
q jq OdG

aC
q Gh qMCG
.SdG jch GOdG r nd H Fc YJ hH dG QRCG SGdG QX aC
q G*
qCG Y
q j Hh YdG b GG qc d q G d jq OdG dG H hdG *
.YG IOq G c J q j M dG FdG YdG
q j M dG FdG YdG qCG LCG CG GQq P e fe
IOq G qCG h
q
.YG IOG q d fG
GQq d G OdG q J
q
103

SCG
IqOG M CGe

.IOq G d fG
q GQq d G OdG njo dHh ,YG IOq G noJ Fc YJ q c AKCG

FdG YdG dOe

qcCJCGh HCG
.q Fg PH OhJC
q G
PdG SH G GMG LC
q G ,FdG YdG M TdG SQdG EG LdH
.q FdG

Ae + HdG cCG K

cCG + `e

:ddG dOH YdG Gg PEG q FdG dG SH

CH 4 + O 2

CO 2 + H 2 O

? IMGh cCG IAg j G IAg GMG qCG j Gg g dh

cCG GAg e SG OdG PEG g a ,jo IOq G M CGe qEa dc eCG c GPEG
? G e IMGh IAg GM
G r JAg r LnP Y MCG c HCGh cG IAgh G IAg r L
n P qaCG
: nqG GQq dG P SH (AGh HdG cG K)

hCG

cCGh G JAg qJ Y q dG GQq dG P

104

r nJAg r LP SH qS GPEG qEG k e G r LP Y G qfCG MCG

.G IAg P e cCG

G dOG fRGe Lh Gd cCG rFg e YdG qj d IMGh IAg GMG qG j Ggh

CH
CO
O : j c G GM
2O
4

+ 2H

Hh (YG GAg OY N e) YdG b GQdG e f qc OY hH qfCG MCG

.dOG RGJ q (G GAg OY N e)

SCG
.oGh Yd FdG dG Hc n oJ fRGe dO Fc YJ q c sjo
.IOq G M GC e Hc po MG GPEG qEG ,fRGe FdG YdG dOe J

Je q bCG
: ``pd qdG GMG ndO fRGe Hc cCG
C HdG -1

.d qdG GMG e f g Je qCG Y

C2 H6

jG - 2

UG
: FdG YdG SGQO IQq dG jG SG H
aVEG e) hCq G G IOY qj H UN
eQ GQq dG e f
q
q c EG n jo -1
.JdG SG e (G H ddG hCG dG G
.e
GQq dG GfCG a YGn jo H IAg
q c OYh d fG
q
q c
o soJ - 2
.IOq G M CG Fc YJ
q c j
.fRGe fc GPEG qEG Lf J Y IGOCG FdG YdG dOe

105

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 `bQ j

: e U e
q c eCG (*) eY V q K ddG fdG Hc Yp CG
GQq dG f f Y jj CG - 1
.qce q f L HdG cCG K - 2
.JGf T b e jhe IQq dG hdEG d G dG - 3
.IQq d Uh IAd eQ jo - 4
LhQdG IQq P eQ g

He

.q Fc dOe f Fc YJ Hd - 6
.IOq G M CGe Hc n p o MG GPEG qEG fRGe q FdG YdG dOe J - 7
.IAdG e UCG IQq dG - 8
2 `bQ j
: dq dG fd IOq G GQG H e U QN
q c eCG * eY V
: e HdG cCG K IAg J
q -1
He GQq P K -1
Hc r nJQq Ph cCG IQq P -2
.cCG r nJQq Ph Hc IQq P -3
: f d HdG cCG OMCG IAgh HdG cCG K IAg -2
GQq dG OY -1
GQq dG f -2
dG -3
: f d AG IAgh HdG cCG K IAg -3
GQq dG OY -1
GQq dG f -2
dG -3
106

3 `bQ j
.... C3H8 + .... O2

: fRGe Hc ddG q FdG OG cCG

1
.... CO2 + .... H2O

.... HCI + .... AI

.... H2 + .... AICI3

.... N2 + .... O2

.... NO2

.... H2S + .... CI2

.... HCI + .... S

.... CH4 + .... CI2

.... HCI + .... C

5
4 `bQ j

q f LCG EG LCG g q U ,hG IOQGdG LCd GAdG U Y OYH

: HLEG J e H q f iNCGh qce
JAg

G
cCG
HhdG
OjEG
edCG jQc
qddG c

O2
C3 H8
I2
AICI3
C2H6O

1
2
3
4
5
5 `bQ j

IAdG `U

F`dG LP

qdG `G

SCG

jG

q qjOedG IjdG qCG dG e k H CG k qce hG gDhSCG IOQGdG LCG fc EG qH -1

IQq P AGG IjdGh H dG IQq P AGOdG Ij dGh LhQ dG IQq P q F dG P dG
.cCG
.hG OQh L qc U cCG -2
107

? je e g

IQq dG P
q bCG O G b eG dG e FGhCG
Hb IOq G qCH WaCGh Sd ffdG adG
Ad Hb Z AL Y G q M EG qd
(qffdH qefG jh) SeWCG q jh
bh ,OG b eG dG e NGhCG
fdG dG q bCGh Sd jf Y ASG
VQCG gh UY HQCG e J
q IOq G qCH SQCG
.AGdGh QdGh AGh
dO L q bCG ,q Y SGQO Hh 1803 S
jf Y LGdG ba WaCG qj f gLH
.Ijc T Y IQq dG qeh SQCG

G
H IQq dG gH f qe 1913 S
q
fhdCG Y eh Le d eM IGf e
GQe Y IGdG M UGe GQhO dM
G g jo h ,Gq L IOq Q bCG GPh IOh
.gH PH PdG

qJCG
: We c . 1
Y eSG dG cCG q K ,dq dG GQdG Y
q J qdG G hCG gG Y HCG
.
HLEG QGZ Y dPh ,dGG dG
1 IQdH UG
q
108

Fc YJ Y J

ke YJ

GqQdG e Oh OY e q J

qFc dOe Y oonJ

IqOG q j L UCG

qFc YJ oqoJ

.IjL LCG nJ h LCG KEG J lq

2
7

I
6

II

III
3

IV
V

? IQdG MU g e .2
qbG fH ILGG hG JH SG Y MCG ,CGq J IQq dG qCG QJ
q Y g
: j c V EG I e qfehQ
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jhH SCG
GdG

VG

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bhG

ifci-iipc.ntc-cnrc.gc.ca/technology_sf.html
www.technology_co.htm
www.ac-orleans-tours.fr/hist-geo3/carto-bedin/petrole.htm
www.bretagnenet. com/strobinet/degazages/petrole.htm
www.dotapea.com/noiranimal.htm
www.culturediff. org/histosciences.htm

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109

jOQdG dG

OQdG G cJ
jdG
dG
q dGh eG
q
dOG dG

`````q `dG ``J`e

Q`` ` ` ` `G
.jG q YCG -1
.qcGh e dG q q dG LCG q YCG -2
.fG q YCG -3
.G q YCG -4
.G q YCG -5
.cq dG q YCG -6
.q dfG q YCG -7
.q G G q YCG -8
.FdG Yq dG q YCG -9
.IQq dGh IAdG q YCG -10
.GQq dG ReQ cCG -11

GQ`` ` ` ` G
.fG jG UY H dH bCG -1
.fG QH bCG -2
.FdG YdG n eh YG q eCG -3
.q FdG YdGh q FjdG dG
H q eCG -4
q
.H q Fc YJ Oe cCG -5

111

OQdG G cJ
AHd qFG dG qbf -15
.AHd OQdG G q bf Y cq dG KCJ -16
.fdGh ffCG -17

? Gq dG e N hT A OG e
? GPe CG dG
q jG g ? jG EG J HH OG e
? q WdG h q JhRCG ISCd q SSCG fG
q g e

112

q FG dG q bf
AHd

15

AHd q dG AG q bf
AJnCGh eq CJCG
? qe H WdG f CH e FHc e J Y jo GP

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
(6V) FHc e -Wb -FHc -bQ eeCG - (6V) jJ RL *
.Ue SCG .( qe Ae) q f Ae *
IQGO REG q J q dhCq G H H bCG
RL e fe dH FH c
e qJC Gh W dGh j dG
.(1dG) n G qdd G eAe

1 dG

AG e 100 mL FHdG G SCG

G
r On hrdCG ac qc) qoG
dH G bCG qK (e jQe
(2dG) .InG IQGdG
2 dG

113

.Aj G qCG MCa ,IQGdG ZCG

? FHdG Qq d RY AG qCG j Gg g
bdG eeCG bCG ,dP e qC
FHc Qq J Qhe EG j qfCG MCa IQGdG
(3dG).IQGq dG Gq L V
3 dG

SCG
.HH dh FHdG Qq d bf q dG AG

AHdG d FG
q dG Hb
q
AJCGh eq CJCG
? OdG AG dh G AH hG FdG aVEH fdG Uj GP ,jq QdG fd
? AHdG f Y IQOb FGdG g

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
. (6V) FHc e -Wb -FHc -bQ eeCG - (6V) jJ RL *
: `d cdG f d q Fe d *
qdG G ddG c .SdG jc -

4 dG

qoG AG q c VYC
q Gh HdG q FHdG IQGq dH MCG
IQGdG ZCG q K ,d Fe G f e q H
j eeCG qCGh b q j G S qCG MCa
AG f dG QdG Iq T e H aQCG Qq J Iq T EG
(4dG) .q dG
114

dG dh qd GdG Y q FG dG e Gq e K HdG f YCG

SG Y Gq L V FHc QJ Iq T EG j eeCG qCG MCa SdG jdh
EG jo qfCG M (q dG AG EG dH CdG g e e) ddG
q chCG qdG r nd
EG dH CdG g e e) SdG jc SG Y qf Ic FHc QqJ Iq T
.(dG e

aC
q Gh qMCG
qdG FG Gh Sq dG jd FG G ,ddG
q ch qdG
q aN
.FHdG Qq dG f Y qG AG e QbCG

SCG
QbCG g e eh jJ q dG AG e g e a ,Jhe q HH dh FHdG Qq d bf q FG dG
.FHdG QdG f Y q dG AG e H
.OQdG H FHdG Qq dG f Y q dG AG e QbCG Fe q c jo
: eCG

JdG jQc

JdG ehc K

SqdG jc

Je q bCG
c Hb e Hb QbCG .OQT edCG jQd FG G qCG k Yp
.AHdG d ddG
q

115

q bf Y cdG KCJ
AHd OQdG G

16
AJCGh eq C JCG

.jq QdG A jo ,q q eM n jo jQdG fd

? q f Ae hCG Gqce eM G dP j GP

MCGh q LCG

jQH

: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC

q G
aGdG e JOhdEGh 100mL S hP QNG SCc - Wb - (12V) jJ RL *
.eeCG -Ue
SCG -
q
n pe - G - (HdG e l U
n f)
.( qe Ae) q f Ae *
.JdG Gfh SdG jc ,dG e Me *
,jdG RL e fe
dH q FHc IQGO CG
q
JOhdEG a IQe QNEG SCc) Gh eeCG ,WdG
(1dG) (aGdG
1 dG

W MCa ,IQGdG ZCG q K G qe Ae dG EG G CeCG

(2dG).Gq L IU Io Iq T P Qq J EG j eeCG qCG

2 dG

e e W
n pe qG AG EG VCG q K IQGdG aCG
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3 dG
116

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n pe G EG VCG qK IQGdG aCG
f e Y MCG jdG q Y KEG .dG e
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(4 dG) I1 e aQCG I2 FHc QJ
4 dG

dh HdG f YCG q K G qe Ae dG EG jL e DeCGh QNG SCc ZCG

.Me
q c JMe
q SCGh dG e Y VY SdG jc e SH
dh HdG f YCG q K G qe Ae dG EG jL e DeCGh QNG SCc ZCG

q c JMe SCGh SdG jc Y VY JdG Gf e SH

.Me

aC
q Gh qMCG
.G cJ JQG G M J hH
q G q c e fOR qc
jc hCG dG e e AGS Iq e
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q G dH
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SCG
Jh cdG JQH q bdG JJ PEG G cJ H AHd OQdG FG G q bf qKCJ
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Je q bCG
Z iNCGh qdG Y q e e IMGh fe Z b JRM
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117

fdGh ffCG

17
AJCGh eq CJCG

q FHdG QdG f Y IQOb jq OQdG dG j dG e

? AG e k fQe dH
UCG Hh ffCH JG UCG J g e
? e Ae IQhQb eY Y fJdH JG

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
SdG e U - (10 cm x 15 cm) LLR d - Wb - (24V) jJ RL *
S GP TJ Qh e d -FHc H e
q c Iq q (3 cm x 15 cm) fdG hCG
.Ue
SCG -q T JRL -G -IQ qb -(jJ QdG e W Y) bCG Y 5 mm
q
: `d Iqce jq OQT q Fe d *
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1 dG

qK LdG d Y TdG Qh d HCG

.JdG jQc Hq TCG
dG NGO AGd L qc e d
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U
q c Y MCG q K LdG d He
Y M b cCG Gg ,q T IRH
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118

Y MCG d WdGh qdH dG UhCG

.(2 dG) qe g c dH IQGO

2 dG

TdG Qh d Y SCG ,IQ qdG SGH

Y SdG jc e I b G dG Yh
ehc K e I b , A dG ie
K e Ibh B dG ie Y JdG
(3dG) . C dG ie Y SdG ehc

3 dG

: dG Y q jQJ GQfG MCa IQGdG ZCG

o b) G f A dG e bfG ,QRCG qd .(jdG R ddG dH

o Ur
n dyG G
G f B dG e bfG ,
q JdG qd R LG d H
o UG G
o b)
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G f
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aC
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4 dG

jc r nd AGMH G f C dG eh A dG e bfG QRCG dG QfG aC

q Ge IMGdG q oJ SdG e qJCe jL e e d SdG ehc Kh SdG
aC
q G c Le q FHc d eM qfEa q dHh La G Hj ,SdG IOQT
`K r nd AG`MH `G ``f C dG ``eh B `dG e bfG JdG dG QfG
q oJ hdG e qJCe jL e e d SdG ehc Kh JdG ehc
d eM qfEa qdHh f La G Hj ,ehdG K IOQT e IMGdG
.dS q FHc
K OQGTh SdG OQGT e SdG ehc d OQdG FG G qcj ,PEG
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119

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r hCG Le IOQT Le d eG SdG IOQT YoJ
.ffCG hCG k dS IOQT Ya dS d
G j LG SdG OQGT Y IOjR qfCG LCG CG ,dH
OQGT qEG J CG dS OQGT Y SdG jd OQdG
G j ddG
q ehdG K OQGT Y IOjR qfCG c ,jdG
qEG J CG Le OQGT Y JdG ehc d OQdG
.JdG OQGT
: qbf aC
q G Gg
f LG SdG OQGT IH dc AHd SdG ehc K 5 dG
.( 5dG) G f ddG
q ehdG K OQGTh IHh G
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qfCG dh G f ddG
q d j
q
q jdG
(5dG) G f ddG
q ehdG K OQGT IH dc AHd JdG ehc K dG Y IdG J Ige IOG
qfCG dh G f LG JdG OQGTh
q d dc j
q
.HqdH

SCG
.dS OQGTh Le OQGT ,OQGdG e Yf e jOQdG
FG
q
q dG qcJ
: e
dG bf
q qJG OQGdG e f c
q cM H AHd jOQdG
q
q eDs oJ
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q
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q
.jdG OQGTh

Je q bCG
f OMC
q Gh JdG jQd OQdG FG G cJ Y HCG HdG HdG Y OYH
.(qe CG qje) jQdG OQGT

UG
.AHdG f Y dG
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FG
q
q
q dG
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en cJ OGORG qc
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.dS OQGTh Le OQGT :OQGdG e KG Yf OQT
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q OQGdGh fJc LG OQGdG YJ
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q
q FHdG QdG
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q
120

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q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

: ddG fdG e U H
q c eCG

eY V

.FHdG Qd V bf qcG dG e - 1
.FHdG Qd q L bf G AG - 2
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q c-5
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.RY -QbCG -bf -q bf -rf -e -OQdG -fJdG
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q c jo -2
.OQdG H
.cJ H AHd ................. G ................ qKCJ -3
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G f ...............`d q YL cM H AHd jq OQdG dG q bf es DnJ -5
.G f .............`dh
3 bQ j``

. sG AG Y dG jh G Y hCG j ,QNG HfCG jd

AGLE eRdG GG cP e HfCG e qc i EG q dG e qoJ H U
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121

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.SCG dG eSG HdG REH b ,IOq G d d cJ fQ

2 H

1 H

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? FHdGQq dG f Y QbCG jq CG dG H e Oq M
? NBG e cJ cCG PEG
q CG - 2
5 bQ j``

dG JdG e`pd Fe j
.edG OQGTh JdG OQGT Y
dh Y HdG SQdG IG HdH b
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g c dG Y q dG qd q jQJ GQfG
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? ffCG e g JdG ehc K IOLG ehdG K OQGT qCG
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122

jq dG dGh q eG dG
dG FG Gh eG FG G
pH b
eM Fe VM LQO
b Fe jq b LQO

-18
-19
-20
-21

e G FdG Hh qeM QK

? H QqdG H qJ GP
? WdG Y hCG qdG Y UQdG GG dP f
q GP
? gW g e ? gQX q G eGdGh q G QeCG g e
? GPh ,q dG d Fd n oJ qdG dG q UN g e

123

eG FG G
dG FG Gh

18
AJCGh eq CJCG

FGdG IOL bG G RG g e
? q FGdG dGh
Ae IQhQb Y pH = 7 HdH OG e
? iNCG Y pH = 7,5 HdGh q e e
Te Y Y pH = 5,5 HdH OG e
Y Y pH = 8 HdGh dG Me dGREG
? jSCG e UN
f
q

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
Qq e nbpe hP) HEG hCG bQ RL :e pH RL *
QNG ShDc -(1 dG) . e (14 EG 0 e
.AHdG q bf H RGd -TdG Qh-100 mLS
aL Ae-d hCG JH Y - ( qe Ae) q f Ae *
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aL Ae q bf EG H q JCG q dhCq G HH bCG

.AHd dGh
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124

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q K (cCG hCG dG EG) G qe Ak e QNG SCc CeCG

(2dG) .7 OdG EG a e pH`dG RL e ZCG
aL Ae SH dh HdG f YCG
.11 OdG EG e pH `dG a
dG SH dh HdG H iNCG Gq e bCG
Y qc jQgQdG eM h GOdG h
bQH h qG AH G Z H dPh ,IM
.Iq e
q c TJ
d dH 2,3OdG EG GdG Y e pH `dG a
1 O dGh (3dG) GOdG dH 13 O dGh
.jQgQdG eM dH

3dG

SCG
.G pH q jo h 25 C 14 h 0 H hGj OY QG
q OQT q Fe q c j
q

.d Hb QGe FG G pH
pH `dG d n n jo RL e pH `dG
. 25 C pH = 7 :qdG Ad
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.jq p dG dH oJ a

125

25 C

pH > 7 `H q J dG J eq CG

: jJ
LQO f q dG AG

pH e UCG pH

d
q OQT
q c q eM q jo
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q OQT q eM
...(C ea) HQSCG eM ,jQgQdG eM ,dG Y :eCG
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q OQT qc qjpb q oj
.IQGG

q pb
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q OQT

Je q bCG
q eM Y fdGh qe Ae Y gGMCG qEG bh QNG ShDc KK neu bo
jW Y dG Gh eG G e
q c EG q dG q e p oWh
q pb Y ddGh
.HdG
.e pH`dG RL a e Vd q bCG

126

pH

`b

19

e pH `dG SG
MCGh q LCG
:ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
.TJ Qh - 100 mL S QNG ShDc - (1 dG) jn eo e pH *
e Fe -GOd Fe - qnG e Fe - ( qe Ae) q f Ae *
.QOtd Fe -jQgQdG

e pH `dG ILC GfCG

1 dG

2 dG

bCa nne qnG e FG G pH H CGHCG

: j c HdH
FG G e q c Q NG SC c SCG e e SG
q AG H J qnG e
.e pH `dG
G Z b (2 dG) H G MCG Ad G Z e cCJCG eY fe q KCG q K
aW j CG Y UG e q c SG
.(Y d jOJ) SCdG b dG
127

Y G

b CGbCG qK e pH `dG qTCG .(3 dG) RG nbr pe Y JK

pH

3 dG

qKCGh G e G NCG qK RG J bhCG .QNG SCc Y GH ,dY

qnG eM jhG QNG SCc JCG qLCGh (4 dG) qG AH G ZCG q K fL
.(5 dG) TJ QH

4 dG

GdG Y bCG ,q dG jdG f JH

.QOtdGh jQgQdG eMh GOdG d
pH b Y C
: dG hG fhG
q
q G Gg

pH

5 dG

QOtdG

10,57

eM
jQgQdG

GOdG

eM
qnG

FG G

1,98

12,04

3,45

pH

128

SCG
: q gCG e ,YGdG e Om Yn GMG j G pH `p d U b Y d
.jn e e pH `dG qGC e jGdG qcC dG .G qc d SG
q AG Z .b q Y q c KEG G AH G Z . pH pIMh e 1/100 q M EG J qSM
q hP a bO b RL e pH `dG

pH Qh SG

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh GqH OhJC
q G
hCG (6 dG) IH Y e jT T pH Qh Y *
-

100 mL S QNG ShDc - (7dG) rjnTo Y T

.IQb
-GOd Fe - qnG e Fe - qe Ae *
.QOt dG -jQgQdG e Fe
(dG jT e GU GAL hCG) rjnTo qHCG ,IQdG SGH
eSG ddG GdCG e jdG Y IgdG GdCG QbCG q K qnG eM
.G pH b jd dPh ,G pH Qh Y Y
6 dG

7 dG

.iNCG dG e HdG f YCG

: dG hG fhG
q pH b Y C
q G Gg
129

QOqdG

eM
jQgQdG

GOdG

qnG eM

FG G

10,5

12

3,5

pH

.e pH `dG SH HdG HdG Y

q dG dH pH b QbCG ,dH dM
.jhe J EG Gq L HQe qfCG MCa

SCG
.e

pH `dG e qbO
q bCG q dh ,jq OQdG dG pH d iNCG IGOCG pH

Qh
.q jJ q dh pH d q Y jW pH Qh SG

130

 VM LQO
eM Fe

20
AJCGh eq C JCG

? GP ,Uhb qJ f dG hCG JdG IK OGR qc

? jq QdG Ae IQhQb Y z 5% eM Ae{ HdH OG e
FG d IQN J GP.N FS zdG Ae{ jQgQdG eM qCG G e
? cJ f qc
.dG eGH dhGdGh QGh Wdc QdG H FYh
q Gh UQGdG UJ GP
? IG eGH
o oJ jdG eMh jQgQdG eM qCG M

q G q b OLh rPn EG aC
q G ,YP bGq Mh dqcCG q Fc IOq e g qnG eM qCG G e
? qnG e FdG Gg AGMG ZQ cCG dhW Y

MCGh eq CJCG
.Uhb Iq T H dPh dh ZQ dG dG Y hJ
WaCG e GPEGh .Ze a Uhb J hdG AG e Se qH J KEG
.qS qfCc jh Uhb dG j ,AG q c IOjR
QHh IOq eS YGb GMH qEG G qcG jQgQdG eM SG
eY dEG Qe g c Gq Mh qcCG qfCG G IdG JQN H dPh jT
. JQhQb
.IQG b Y f H

qMCG
.VM Y
q J Uhbh ,q eM dG Y qCG YCG
.VM Y J jQgQdG e qcCGh Gq G r nU qCG c
.J OR qc VM jQgQdG eM h dG Y j dH

SCG
.fH Jh cdG IOjH JJ q e VM LQO eM q d : e VM g d
.qcGC h bGq Mh (qFGdG Oq Gd dH) UQb q eG G c ,VG LQO OGR qc
131

MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
.G - e pH - 100mL S GP QNG ShDc*
.JdG Y hCG dG Y - q G Ae *
1 H

bCG q K .G e SG
q AG H J dG Y e q c QNG SCc SCG
.dG pH

pH bCGh

Iq e
q c q G Ae e 10mL aVEH dG q jQJ qNCG
.J dG OGR qc Jr J pH b qCG MCa
2 H

bCG q K .G e SG
AG H J q G Ae e q c QNG SCc SCG
q
.AG pH
.G pH Iq e
q c bCGh AG dG Y e eq g q c q jQJ VCG
.GcJ dG OGR qc jJ pH b qCG MCa

: Me
.jG j e q H G

pH

b q Y
q c b

SCG
pH

b fG q OQT Fe VM LQO OGR qc

.dH dGh G

.dH dGh VG LQO OGR eM Fe

pH b fG qc

: jJ
.qjOQdG qFG dG VM LQO H os n oJ IGOCG

132

pH

QGe

J`e `q ``bCG
. 2 ^8 hJ
q N pH bh 2^3 hJ d Y pH b qCG Y

.G VM LQH dG VM LQO QbCG -1

.
q G pH b e jhe J q M dG Y pH b H q ZCG H b CG -2

UG
25C pH<7

GP jq OQT d g q eG q FG dG

.cdH qKCJ LQO jq OQdG dG VM

.G pH b jH OQT Fe VM LQO EG q f
dGh VM LQO JQG Y dO q M
q OQT Fe pH b VfG
.dH

133

: f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

-OY QGe :GQdG e Sj ZGdG J e ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG

.qbO
q bCG -qbO cCG -jdG dG -S -Y HQCG -q eG dG QGe
.pH
q jo h ............h U H hGj ...............
q OQT q Fe
q c j
.e pH `dG RH d Hb .........
q OQT q Fe pH
. 25C S e qbCG pH `H................ o
J
q
.pH QH b e..................e pH `dH pHb q Y
2 bQ j``

.WN H
q c eCG * eY V q K ddG fdG Hc YCG -1
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q d
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.cdH KCJ LQO qjOQdG dG VM
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q OQT pH b JQG
.CG J e WG fdG ZU YCG -2
3 bQ j``

:ddG Oq GG H e q eG OGG j Y Yj H b
AG ,jQgQdG eM , qe Ae ,dhGdG Y ,GOdG ,qdG Y
.jdG eM ,SJdG ,hdG
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.eM FdG pc qCG q H -1

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.G pH b e jhe J qM dhGdG Y pH b L qJ H bG -3

134

5 bQ j``

LQO b M qjYJ JJ hG IQcG FGdG qJQ ,pH`dG b Y OYH

:VM
JH Y WW Y

jdG eM d Y
2

3,2

3,5

qe Ae

2,4

FdG
25C pH

6 bQ j``

100 mL

Y e MGh
q c j , 5 EG 1 e qbe ,QNG ShDc N JRM
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q eM
:j c q e M GP hdG AG e q c SCc
q c EG
n VCG
5

1900

900

700

300

100

bQ SCc
V(mL) : AG q
q c M

:ddG dG Y a
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n b
q
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q -1
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`````Kh q ````SCG

eG
QeCG
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Y dh , pH=7 `H jJ qJ QeCG e qCG G e

HdG cCG K e Y J G
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KG
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u GRdH fe G
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135

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Wd NG YhQGh HdG e
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Y J K QTCG
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s nK eh GQhCG J K CGdc H GQhCG
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ch eNdG JG cBJ ,dP Y IOjR
G IOLG q fG K dGh B G
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dG HCG cBJ

: SCG
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q
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q

136

 jq b LQO
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21
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG

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?HdGh AH ZG KEG IdG ie Y G e AH fMCG f GP

MCGh q `````LCG
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IU e - G -QNG ShDc*
.Ae - IN
o r n co *
j QNG SCc IG e e e VCG
Y MCa jG q MCG qK AG e 100mL Y
.
q HU e qCGh q eo W qCG MCa .IG
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.jJ hj
q HdG
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MCGh eq C ```JCG
G qcG GOd
q FG G SG ,jQgQdG e dH CdG g c
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. JQhQb eY dEG Qe g c
.
q HU e Ph IQG b Y f H

qMCG
Y
q J GOd
q jq hdG q UN h IG dH HdG Gh IQGG UN qCG YCG
.jb
.J OR qc jb GOdG h IG j dH

137

``````SCG
.fH Jh cdG JQH JJ q e jq b LQO q b q d :e jq b g d
.jhch (qFGdG Oq Gd dH) Gq e q dG G c ,qjdG LQO OGR qc

MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
.G-e pH- 100mL S GP QNG ShDc *
.aL Ae hCG dG Ae -q G Ae *
1H

bCG q K .G e SG
q AG H J aL Ae e q c QNG SCc SCG
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q c q G Ae e 10mL aVEH aL Ae q jQJ qNCG
.J aL Ae OGR qc J pH b
2H
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cordier2.free.fr/sitephysique/progres3.htm
www.keepschool.com/quiz-Chimie-3eme-Atomes_ions_et_solutions_ioniques.html
physiquecollege.free.fr/troisieme.htm
www.phychim.ac-versailles.fr/donnees/college_lycee/Devaluation/cap_exp/lien%20III-2-f.htm
www.physagreg.fr/college.php#chimie3
missiontice.ac-besancon.fr/sciences_physiques/eleves/index.php
www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/physique/Sc_index.htm
www.ac-strasbourg.fr/disciplines/physchim/college
colleges.ac-rouen.fr/langlois/physique/fichiers/accueil_troisieme.htm
www.col-europe-obernai.ac-strasbourg.fr/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=84
pagesperso-orange.fr/physique.buil/activ_3e/chimie-3e/rev_acid_base.htm
www.lachimie.com/intro/index.html
pagesperso-orange.fr/physique.buil/ex/acide_base.htm
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164

: f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

ZGdG cCG q K dG dG SQ YCG

:SG GQdH
2 bQ j``

:ddG IOG GQNG H e dG HLEG n NG

SfG jhGR j se IBGe e

66gQb jhGH Fe e OQGh T .1

:b GP
. 66e `cCG*
.66 h`J*
.24 hJ*
AB:
q M L
q d qG IBGG J .2

G e He A'B' q M IQU*
.AB G e cCG A'B' q M IQU*
.AB G e He A'B' q VGaG IQU *
.IBGd dH AB G e IXe A'B' q VGaG IQU*
.AB

3 bQ j``

:GQdG e Sj a IOLG ZGdG cCGh ddG fdG Hc YCG

AdG - qVGaG - GXe -e- S -IQU -q G -OQGh -QfG -G
-SfG -G
.U ..............Y AdG Oj q ............Y VY ..........jn .1
.Y OQGdG AdG .........`H Je Mh e QfH IBGe Y..............q j .2
dG e ..........e YT Y ......... q FV T
q d qG lIBGG oJ .3
.OhQdG f Y OdG EG dH OQGdG
.4
gXHh ............H qe IBGe Y o fG
..........G ........J
q
q
.IBGG EG dH .........e
165

4 bQ j``

:e U e qc eCG eY rV
n qK ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
.U L S Y AdG OQh qc SfG j .1
.OhQdG e f IBGe Y q FV T j CG .2
.IBGG Y G OdG EG dH gXH qe IBGe q M L IQU J.3
.dN e AdG Qhe f q M L
q d IQU IBGG .4
.Qe IQU e e qfCch qe IBGe Y G AdG j .5
5 bQ j``
M qe IBGe Y AB M L IQd qG ddG SdG H e dG SdG NG
.seo qH n Sp Qo q VGaG g e
q c qCG Y
:1dG

:2dG

:3dG

6 bQ j``

q FdG eG q TCG H e r SQ
o oCG q K HG dG SQ fG
n KEG A dG e Qq G FdG dG Qn e S QG e G
.M qG IBGG Y SfG

166

7 bQ j``

S e SH o rp coCG q K HG dG SQ fG
(SI) OQGdG dG Qhe j dG G M IBGG
.I dG SfG H A dH

8 bQ j``

Y dG SI dG Qe
r p coCG q K HG dG SQ fG .1
k Yp M2 h M1 qG JBGG Y hdH dG JSfG
.jRGeh He qfCGh
qfCG q H SI OhQdG jhGR b e dH hCG adH AGS .2
. SI OQGdG d jRGe JBGG H e G dG L
9 bQ j``

dG SI dG Qe
r p cnCG q K HG dG SQ r Yp CG
M2 h M1 qG JBGG Y GdH SfG Y

.aM e aM Y JeGh

`````Kh q ````SCG
qG IBGG
FdH hG jdG e bQ W e qedG JM n G qjOdG IBGG J
q
.dG cGO IOq e e AH q h LdG e d G dG Y We
dGh G e bdG jq dG ILCG YU jo IBGG e dG Gg qCG qGE
EG j CG b Ld eeCG dG Y j AdG e GAL qCG e SCG Iq d gZh
GqL U LLdG dG H ILCG g jGG noJ dd.cdG fG dG
167

H o W q j K edG e dY LQO EG d
Y IQOb edCG hCG dG
q e Gq L bQ q fe
.Y IOQGdG q TCG ne Y
SCG
H OGj dG dG qCG Y
e SG .1
q j e dG
q
d h q fG dG g jq OdG IBGG AdG Y
.LdG
d eeCG LdG Y AdG SfG qj na .2
? jq OY IBG LdG

pcoG
(IqG PdG Qe hCG)

H q LCG

:j c U gZh q W X HqNh Iq e QU P Ige e q d g

:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
(250mm x 50mm) dG e jGe K *
(200mm x 254mm) e ie
q Qh *
jT AGZ fCG *
dCG qK AGdH jGG iMEG b WCG

q c e 2mm cQJ iG
q QdG W Y
Y jdG H fdG IBGG dCG q K Mf
H Y ddG IBGG q K hCG e

5mm H

.(1T) fdG e 5mm

1 dG
168

IBGG H U dG G dG i e Y iq oG Q dG WCG
(2T) K H QdG e qG AG dCG K iNCGh

2 dG

dN e fCG CG jo ceo Y M b cCG Ggh

.L TCG jDhH SCGh gQNCG ge EG (3T)

3 dG

Me
p
.hCq G coH jCGQ gTCS e QbCGh KK Y VY Lh N P coe U

? je e g
dG H XG c
YSe dG H G HC XG c n oj
G A dG fCG e fCG e Fj a
qdD e q b q h .OG Y OG dG jdG
G QfEG AdG F SGQO
dG
n
dG
q dG Y q c Fb gZh S fGh
.jdG
Gg Hc jL e dG HG H AL e RHCG eh
,AdG e S e jf MJ dG QHEG jf
e J q TCG SGH q J jDhdG qCG SH YR a
EG H e dP AdG q J bh ,FG G EG dG
G q TCG SGH qJ jDhdG qCG KCGh dG HG AL CG
jf EG UJh
,G Y H FG G e
q
.AdG SfG IgX H qJ dG J q gCG e jG jdG Y nIGf
r n Z IjL
169

AdG
q QfG

25
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG

(...b ,Ie ,G) e U L ZCG eY

?dP S e.eo qfCch G dP hj ,Ae H SCc

dG Y ZQa SCc dG f
QdG Y Ae H SCc h

dG e bCG Y Y G iQCG Ae H AfEG hCG VM b a L EG a e fCG eY

?dP aC
q G .G

QfEG IgX
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
SQEH j qeo e Sfa hCG) Qd q TC Qe *
.(jRGe q FV eM
.e
q Ae H jM *
qFdG ed j e FdG QG VCG
.s e e AG S Y OhQdH e G
1 dG

h .GfG e AH FdG gQfG UGJ QG e G q FdG eG OJ eY

OdG EG dH IOQGdG eG e e Xe e dG Y e AL q Jj bdG f
(1dG).OhQdG f AG S Y
170

iNCG aqT IOq AG jH dh K H H bCG

:e Gh
G RG eh
q
T d S q FV M Qe *
FV
Qq e HCG Ub *
qdG SdG e fGSG f *
.(P) (SH)

2 dG

Qq G HCG U dG Y

(P) fG SG f VCG -

. 2 dG c UdG c aGe I gce j H

c qfCG MCG FdG QG J Y q FdG eG J hCG HdG M

Y G fG e AH S dG IOq e
A L jh OhQ dG f i e
(3dG).e
3 dG

aC
q Gh qMCG
bGNG Y j gQe
q dh AGdG n G QG e G q FdG eG J
.AGdGh aqdG SdG jg e
q c H UdG dG ie Y SdG hCG AG
,Qe J q J SdG EG AGdG e hCG AG EG AGdG e AdG Qhe qCG j Ggh
.AdG QfH IgdG g Jh
HdG qbe dP ch dG c SfG Ad M QfG IgX Y IOjR
d AG qCG ZQ hCG HdG eq CG ,m U
n m S hP
l U
o L SdG qC fdG
.cdG QhO d d eCG a dG H
171

``````SCG
,eSG Y j h dG SdG EG j aqT Sh H UdG dG Y AdG OhQh Y
.AdG QfG IgdG g q Jh

: jJ
NBG qT Sh EG qT Sh e Qhe Y Q j dG q dG g AdG QfG

: iNCG jJ
p qG ( SI FdG dG ,qFdG eG ) oAdG q j *
H UdG dG f o
(GOQGh YT ,kIOQGh k eM) GOQGh GAV aqdG SdG
dG ie oG (IR FdG dG ,q FdG eG) Ao dG q j *
.(Ge YT ,Ie k eM) Ge GAV aqdG SdG H UdG
(I) OhQdG n f aqdG SdG H UdG dGh OQGdG dG AdG o f
q J *

172

A dG
q QfG ffb
jG fb : hCq G fdG

MCGh q `````LCG
. SdG G AdG
q Q gEG e INCG HdG YCG

aC
q Gh qMCG
dG qCG qj SfEG IgH UGh
KG IdG e H b e e SdH
q
OhQh Y q dGh P SdG S Y IG q FdG
q n jr n oG KCG g IR G
. I q dG SI G
Y q dGh IRG dG
q KCG q G dG qEG f , YT q jRGG G qCG
dG
q qE a q dH . I q dG SdGh AGdG H UdG dG
q Y SI dG
q OhQh
hGh NI Od h SI OQGdG d
q hG G Lj IRG
(SI,NI) OhQdG
.(3 dG)
q

``````SCG
:(jG fb) Qfd hCq G fdG f
OhQdG e G dG j

jGh dG
q fb: qdG fdG
q gCG CG gLdG a G dG QfG e j dG hCq G fdG EG aq J CG H
Y OQGdG dG e Jh QfG a q j dG qdG SdG W e
q c KCH BG
.G dG e

MCGh q `````LCG
.HdG HdG SG dG Gq G H OhJC
q G
.HdG HdG c SdG fGSG f VCG
T Y dch IR e T Yh SI OQGh T Y MCa SfdG qTCG
.G dH qEG qgCG d dh IR' e
173

d G dG Y G (NI) OdG qYCG

MCa (I) OhQdG H SdG fG SG
: jhGR OLh
OQGdG dG WJ Y f i jhGR .OhQdG jhGR q Jh OhQdG f (NI) OdG
e (IR) G dG WJ Y f r jhGR jhGR q Jh OhQ dG f (NI) O dG
(4dG).QfG
e

4 dG

(SI)

jhJ G YCG q K i OhQdG jhGR b aJ Y j dG G UdG jhH CGHCG

MCa r QfG jhGR b QJ
q qc UdG jhJ e RGdHh dG HJCGh ,UdG
cCG He OQGdG dG e c qc fG Gg OGOjh OdG f j IR dG qCG
.dH dGh SdG S e
e MCa r QfG jGhR QGe Iq e qc bCGh i OhQdG jhGd ee jOe QNCG
: dG hG
i()

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

89

r()

6.5

13

19

26

31

36

39

41

41.8

JQH JJ QfG jhGR b qCG MCa d aGG i jhGdG QG r jhGR qc QGe QbCG
g EG IOY Qj )

42 b RhJ CG hO idG g FGO J qfCG qGE i OhQdG jhGR b

.( JdG H idG dG
f AYh AG q c e HdG f IOYEH
(5T) SdG fGSG f e H FGO

q bCG QU AdG QfG qCG qEG MG f

q SCG
e UCG FGO H QfG jhGR qEa dHh Iq M
Y c q
q bCG QU H dG
q dh i OhQdG jhGR
G Y q G q SdG e hCG HdG
. = 42 e cCG ' = 49 ib QfG jhGR Y
qT Sh SdG qEG f SCG d
.AG jq QfG e q gCG jq QfH q j
5 dG
174

``````SCG
:(jGhq dG fb) Qfd qdG fdG f
Y G OdG f q TCG J NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG Qhe Y j QfG q c
r < i <=> SdG dP jq QfH Je Iq H SdG H UdG dG
idG dG J dHh Iq Mp n cCG Qo fG j NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG fG Y
.jq QfG cCG dG SdG c qc n UCG QfG jhGd

:eCG

Je q bCG
AGdG e GdH dPh QfG HH bCG AG jQfG e LdG jq QfG fQe LCG e
.jRGe q FV eM SH LdG EG AGdG e q K AG EG
H UdG dG Y G OdG e AdG OQh e GPEG IOG fQG e qCG g .1
?GP ?aqdG SdG
jhGR GP Ie q FV eM Y MCG i=30 hJ OhQdG jhGR b fc e GPEG .2
.LdG EG dH r =19h AG EG dH r = 22 QfG
.jq QfG cCG js CG (LdGh AG) SdG H e PEG Oq MCG

175

q G QfEG
qdG SfEGh

26

AGdG EG e qT Sh e QfEG
MCGh q `````LCG
: e Gh
QfG SGQH UG G RH OhJC
q
q G
FV T d S qFV M Qe *
Qq e HCG Ub *
.(P) (SH) qdG SdG e fGSG f *

1 dG

2 dG

HCG UdG Y (P) fG SG f VCG

UdG c aGe I gce j H Qq G
e G qFdG G OhQH j Vh
AdG d GSG LdG Y jq OY S QG
GfG
q CG hO eSG Y SdG
Sd G LdG e I cG EG jh
c (e i=20 ) IU OhQh jhGR
.1dG
eG qCG MCG FdG QG J Y
LdG Y SdG a J q FdG
EG J qfCG M eSG Y GSG
H UdG dG f dh I dG AGdG
d G LdG ) AGdGh S dG
e fG HS M e Y (fGSCG
(2dG) .SdG EG AGdG
f AYh AG e HdG f YCG
f qSCa S dG Y VY FGO
Y c q Iq M
q bCG fG e dh MG
.SdG e
176

``````SCG
NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e Qfd CdG g c
AGdG EG ne mqT Sh e q e qc QfG Ad j
SdGh AGdG H UdG dG f fH dh
(3dG
q ) r > i <=> .NBG qdG

3 dG

dG f q FdG q TCG J AGdG EG e qT Sh e AdG Qhe Y f QfG q c

. SdG dP jq QfH Je Iq H qdG SdGh AGdG H UdG

QfEG Y OhQdG e KCJ

.hCq G c SdG fGSG H AG e HdG f YCG
dG LQdG e bfG i OhQdG jhGR b aJ Y j dG G UdG jOCG
:MCa j e HJCGh ,(i = 0)
Ggh ,OdG f Y IOQGdG rjG OM e cCG IN G OdG Y IR IG G OM r > i e FGO dh i OhQdG jhGR b JQG e JJ r QfG jhGR b qCG j
jhGR b JQG e bGTEG OGOj e jr M Qn o X IG n jr G eh f bdG .IG jr G GTEG M Y i OhQdG
jhGR b QJ eY (r 90Sd G LdG e IG rjd GjT HGbG n jr G qCG M dG i b RhJ eY d q qc Ak NG q K . = 42 LG dG i OhQdG
.GTEG IjT J G
Mh NG e dh MG f
q SCa AH SdG e HdG f YCG
' = 49

LG n n dG i OhQdG jhGR b H Y IG d q qdG ANG qj

. = 42 dG Y VY
177

``````SCG
Qhe Y Ad Ql fG SfG n U j NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e QhG Y j c
LpM k b OhQdG jhGR b J eY e j QfG qGC qGE ,AGdG EG en mqT Sh e
.q G Qn fG oIgdG g q Jh qdG SdG dP qjQfH k Je
.AGdGh qdG SdG H UdG dG ie Ad qc SfG
q G QfG Y qJj
l

UG
qT Sh EG qT Sh e Qhe Y dh AdG Qe q d NBG e g QfG
.NBG
:KG ffd J q Fja lIgX AdG QfG
(jG fb) hCq G fdG OhQdG e G dG j
(jGhdG fb) qdG fdG e hCG (hCG dG)NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG Qhe Y j QfG
q c
:SdG dP qjQfH Je Iq H q TCG J (fdG dG) AGdG EG qdG SdG dP
r < i <=> hCG dG SdG H UdG dG Y G OdG f r > i <=> fdG dG rSdG H UdG dG f GPEG AGdG EG qT Sh e AdG Qhe Y QfG dSG q G QfG qj
.Ad qc SfG dP Y qJjh LG jhGdG b OhQdG jhGR b Rh

178

f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``

ZGdG cCG q K dG dG SQ r Yp CG .1
:SG GQdH

.AGdG jq CG 2h 1 SdG H e Oq M .2
2 bQ j``

:ddG IOG GQNG H e dG HLEG n NG

:e IG eG J NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e q FV eM q eY .1
.qdG SdGh AGdG H UdG dG *
.OhQdG f SdG H UdG dG Y G OdG *
.G q FdG eG *
:e IG eG J AGdG EG qT Sh e q FV eM q eY .2
.qdG SdGh AGdG H UdG dG *
OhQdG f SdG H UdG dG Y G OdG *
.G q FdG eG *
:J qjQfG cCG NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e qFV eM q eY .3
.OhQdG jhGR b e cCG QfG jhGR b*
.SfG jhGR b e qbCG QfG jhGR b *
.SfG jhGR d jhe QfG jhGR b *

179

3 bQ j``

:GQdG e Sj a IOLG ZGdG cCGh ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG

- OhQdG jhGR -jq QfG-qT Sh -AGdG -OhQdG -cCG-QfG-J -J
.
q bCG
J qfCG M INCG g .......... q FV eM Qe qe IBGe VJ eY .1
.NBG qT Sh EG ............. e q eY f BG .........h
e ........ QfG jhGR b J ........ EG qT Sh e q FV eM q eY .2
jhGR b JQG OhQdG jhGR b JQG GPEGh ,SfG jhGR b eh ......... jhGR b
.qc qFdG eG .......... LG jhGdG b............b H Yh .........
4 bQ j``

:e U e
q c eCG eY V q K ddG fdG Hc YCG
BG Jh J NBG qT Sh EG qT Sh e q FV eM q eY.1
.OhQdG jhGR b fc e f
FGOQfG jhGR b J NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e q FV eM q eY .2
OhQdG jhGR b e UCG
.qdG SfG Y Ad q G QfG j .3
e hCG NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG q e AGS q G QfG
o
r jn CG .4
.AGdG EG NCG Gg
b OhQdG jhGR H Y qc SfG j AGdG EG AG e AdG Qhe Y .5
.AGdG EG LdG e AdG Qhe Y IgdG f H dG b e cCG
5 bQ j``

Y I dG f JOQh (2)h (1) M e

q c Q q J Z SQ dG dG q
.NBG qT Shh AGdG H Ua S
180

? (2) CG (1) G QfG Y dG G g (3) q FdG G g .1

.bdG G SH cCG q K SdG fCG .2
.AGdG qjCG 2h 1 SdG H e Oq M .3
6 bQ j``

gf AG NBGh AGdG gMCG aqT Sh H Ua H jRGe q FV eM Qhe Y

:dG dG q e g c q TCG

?GP ? IOQGdG jr G g J CG jr d g .1
.G jr Gh IG jr G Oq Mh IOQGdG jr G Y rPn EG s nJ .2
.AG jq CG 2h 1 SdG H e Oq M .3
181

J
AdG
q Qe q d

27

G IQaq dG

A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? IAVEG Y zG{ IQadG IQb aC
q G

IAVEG Y IQaq dG IQb aC

q G
G e L jq FGO bH EG dP H q d OY T IQGdG
q e q dbT AG qaj
.IQGdG
q fH q G QGG e QOdG AdH dG L bdG g OGOJh .q FG
j h MGh Fe H q gCS IAVEG Y q FG G J IQb J e qCG q M
.a Pf Y Ad
Y e MGdG dG j eY .FG OdG eSG Y QGG e oG AdG j
jhGdG b e cCG b GP i1 OhQh jhGH I1 dG Fe Nh AGdG H UdG dG
H AGdG j ,(i1> ) LG
r1 S fG jhG H AG q c j
UG jGhdG fb M i1 e je
UdG dG Y fK q Jd SfH
I2
MdG e I2 dG AGdGh AG H
I1
GPEG i1 e je i2 jhGH I1 d HG
q Jj dH ,GSEG T GP G fYG
dG c AG iNCG Iq e dG
(1dG ).dG dh hCG
1 dG

qdG EG j q M de qco SfG f FG G GNG e AdG qj Ggh

.cdG S ie Y d dG
182

qcC JCGh q `````LCG

bCG fBG H b dG dG
q U e qcCdG j
SH H FG G q q VJ HH
(qe MGh gj b GP ) bQ aqT
2 dG

GdG MC s G uG aW MCH eCG

IOY s e q e q U) TG dM q FHdG
NBG FV Qe
q CG hCG (Rd q eeCG LGdG
dG dG Y dG
(2T) Gq H eh
l
q a
.S c qEG o n
q oj

jdG
dCG
q
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
jdG dCdG Y INCG GdG jG c
.gZh
q dGh JG jOe
J gQhO g e ?jq dG dCG g g e
?dTG CGe g eh ?jOG

jdG dCG J HGc

qcC `````JCGh ``HCG

FKh H bCG ,DhdG J

q c Y HLEd
Ge Hh (... ffG QHEH , qh c e qY LGe Y OYH)
.(e Jd fJ dcd L a IQjH)
183

``````SCG
qFdG GQTEd bdGh sLG d qjdG dG J
.LG M IH hCG jb ae Y

jq H d

:QG Iq e q fGSG AGLCG KK e jq dG dG J

(0,001mm) SCGdG IT S a b hP ce AL .Ic jq QfH j
LR e e ,dG b q j
q
bQ Ib T ,dG dG q j dH AL j
q f LR e e gh ,( 0,05mm S GP) Gq L
q
.dG LR qjQfG e H UCG qjQfH
dH j ,eh Y IOq e e e LQN Z 3 dG
. dG Q N q J q CG O dh j dPh dG
(3dG)
e cCG OhQh jhGR dG dGh dG H UdG dG Y Opjn h jq dG dG AdG j
EG W e dG j AdG qE a dG dG e qjQfG cCG dG LR qGC h ,LG jhGdG
.G IQadG Ic UG
HdG c (4dG) be q qc SfG f NBG
q

4 dG

eq g Iq Y jdG dCG n oJ jJ UeG hH AdG f Y JQbh fhe H

:e cf
,JdG HGc) jW ae Y eG qd dPh JG Ge FdG G H HQ HGc) Ib ae hCG (...dG dG HGc
(...q T HdG hCG fG SGGh
,q dG IdG) fEG q WH AYCG d dPh ,dG Ge .GG SGH (..q ddG QG ,AeCG ,dG
184

G dG
q
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
AG e kcn H j edG Y kf IH ae Y AGdG o HY pgj G IjT qjCG
HG e bG qfCG
q X qch
Hh H HK aG Jh Y
.YOG dG J
IjdG dG qjCG e j
eeCG IQq dG Fd iAGj q G
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www.proftnj.com/opt-refr.htm
www.espace-sciences.org
www.ostralo.net/3_animations/swf/descartes.swf
www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/index.html
www2.fsg.ulaval.ca/opus/physique534/resumes/12b.shtml

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fr.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576625/optique.html
http://www.forum2.math.ulg.ac.be/viewsection.html
www2.fsg.ulaval.ca/opus/physique534/optique/fibre10.shtml
fr.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566545/fibre_optique.html
http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/m162130/Utilisation.html
www.telcite.fr/fibre.htm
ophtasurf.free.fr/mirages/mirages.htm
www.linternaute.com/science/divers/pourquoi/06/pourquoi-mirage/mirage.shtml

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giik.net/cheminlepluscourt/explications.php
lamap.inrp.fr/?Page_Id=33&Action=3&Element_Id=803&DomainScience
Type_Id=14&hemeType_Id=30
pagesperso-orange.fr/guy.chaumeton/2d03ph.htm
un.arc.en.ciel.free.fr
www.espace-sciences.org
www.spc.ac-aix-marseille.fr/labospc/spip.php?article95
www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/index.html
agora.qc.ca/encyclopedie.nsf/Categories/Sciences_et_techniques

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n pe
jhc GOU
( r pe) n rpe
HCG Aq dG W
( qFq dG WCG SGQO) qrW
n dr d
q FV H
cS
n ornH

Sinusodal (courant alternatif)

Sacle
Sonde
Soude caustique
Spatule
Spectre de la lumire blanche
Spectroscopie
Spire
Spot lumineux
Stator
Sureau

Xe

Symtrique
T

dG qJJ
dGd q
q pe
Qpe pdGd snpe

Tension du secteur
Tournevis
Tournevis testeur

Transformateur

rTp
HoJ

Trombone
Turbine

e
q Y

Uniforme
Universel

LM b
dq a b
ib b
fHn
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) n U LR
VGaG

Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale
Vernis
Verre dpoli
Verre poli
Virtuel

208

Le q Y e Fb

HY Ne
GC
(dJ) MG
MG
OhorNCG
SCG
(q fGQf hCG) bGTEG
TEG
YTEG
(LR) o ZCG
qVGaG
hdBG
mAe o SrfG

Frottement
Probabilit
Rainure
Actylne
Luminosit
Rayonnement
Radiation
Dpoli (verre)
Virtuel
Electron
Jet deau
Dviation

GfG
AdG QfG
qc SfG
AdG QfG

q q M
n QfG
qjQfG
ffCG/fCG
(jdH de U e) fHEG

Diffusion de la lumire
Dviation
Rflexion de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Anion (s)
Ebonite

Jaillir

n Hn
frnH
qFV H
ejO IH
UH
jOdG
q fHH
or H

Vernis
Spot lumineux
Galet de dynamo
Plexiglas
Bicarbonate de sodium
Sureau

209


P
HoJ
OOq J
FV cJ
e cJ
AdG cJ
AdG
q q J
FHc OJ
Fc YJ
J
aJ

Attraction
Turbine
Frquence
Photosynthse
Installation domestique
Focalisation de la lumire
Dispersion de la lumire
Electroneutralit
Raction chimique
Electrisation
Rpulsion
Tension du secteur

dG qJJ

Courant du secteur

dG Qq J

Courant continu

q e Qq J

q eo L

Arbre dun moteur

VGaG L
H q f L
qce qf L

Objet virtuel
Corps pur simple
Corps pur compos

Particule

jJ RL

Alimentation (en lectricit)

(he Qq J) L

Sinusodal (courant alternatif)

TT ,(FM hCG) LM

Ecran

qnG eM
jpr p dG ep M

Acide actique
Acide sulfurique

jQgQdG eM
p hCG) q peM
(q r M

Acide chlorhydrique
Acide (solution)

FV rnjoM

Pinceau lumineux

VM
o

Acidit

210

Le qY e Fb
fa Ne
A

SCG
(M) hCG eM
G eM
(a Ae) jQgQdG eM
jdG eM
VM
jJ RL
he
he
QOof
qQOof
QOodG
LM jhGR
SfG jhGR
QfG jhGR
OhQdG jhGR
(fCG hCG) jq e IOQT
qe
q pL
b Sb
IQq P
jq jr QoP
P
JdG ,UdG Q

Actylne
Acide (solution)
Acide actique
Acide chlorhydrique
Acide sulfurique
Acidit
Alimentation (en lectricit)
Alternateur
Alternatif
Ammoniac
Ammoniacal
Ammoniaque

(ou solution dammoniac)

Angle critique
Angle de rflexion
Angle de rfraction
Angle d'incidence
Anion
Aplati
Arbre dun moteur
Arc-en-ciel
Atome
Atomicit
Attraction
Axes des abscisses, des ordonnes

B
Ipe
e

Balai
Balayage
Bandelette

jo T
qjb
() b

Basicit
Basique (solution)
Bicarbonate de sodium

jOdG fHH

Bobinage

q e

Bobine longue

Th

Ijoc hCG Hoc

Boule

Gpe

Brleur
211

(nbr pe hCG) e
Ije

Cadran
Calibrage
Calibr

n je
jOq dG fHQc
(Jc hCG) qe IOQT
qjhc
qdhQg q
H qFHc T
dS T
S e
Le T
HjEG e
jQc
edCG jQc
(qdG e) jOdG jQc
ba hCG W
QG e
q
OGqY
qe
qbf
(eM) q e
qce q f L
H q f L
dc
qe QqJ
dG QqJ
eo

Carbonate de soduim
Cation
Causticit
Centrale hydraulique
Charge Electrique lmentaire
Charge ngative
Charg ngativement
Charge positive
Charg positivement
Chlorure
Chlorure daluminium
Chlorure de sodium
Crpitement
Coaxial
Collecteur
Compteur
Condenseur
Conductibilit
Convergent (faisceau)
Corps pur compos
Corps pur simple
Coulomb
Courant continu
Courant secteur
Courbe

D
Dpoli (verre)

(LR) o ZCG
GfG

q H (SQ hCG) q
Aq dG QfG
e
(q VJ) Ua
AdG q J
(RL hCG) IqY
(eM) IYe

Dviation
Diagramme
Diffusion de la lumire
Direction
Disjoncteur (diffrentiel)
Dispersion de la lumire
Dispositif
Divergent (faisceau)

212

pZ

Douille

LGqQO (Iqdoe) hCG ejO

Dynamo (ou gnratrice) de bicyclette

E
Ebonite

(jdH de U e) fHEG
TT (FM hCG) LM
(qJJ) q a
q JGQ AHc
q LLR AHc
J
(FHc e hCG) ec
rU
(OhrdEG hCG) inr ne
hdCG
FHc OJ
FHc e
cS AHc
FHc rp S
(GLCG Tc) G
r pe
cQ
Fc YJ dOel
FGG ICe

Ecran
Efficace (tension)
Electricit rsineuse
Electricit vitreuse
Electrisation
Electroaimant
Electrocution
Electrode
Electron
Electroneutralit
Electroscope
Electrostatique
Electrovanne
Endoscope
Etrier
Equation dune raction chimique
Extincteur dincendie

G
jq H d
f
QqdG S
jQCq dG S
QY S
j S
e S
Ar n V q Te
IQq e Veq h
cJ
q Fc U
Oo Oq J
(dJ) MG

Fibre optique
Fiche
Fil de phase
Fil de terre
Fil dnud
Fil neutre
Fil sous tension
Filtre de lumire
Flash dappareil photo
Focalisation
Formule chimique
Frquence
Frottement
Frotter

dO

E
Galet de dynamo
Gnratrice (ou dynamo) de bycyclette

ejO IH
LGqQO (ejO hCG) Iqde
Mq f

Gicleur

213

jq H IQU
q M IQU
q VGaG IQU
e cJ

Image optique
Image relle
Image virtuelle
Installation domestique
Instant

IOQT
dS IOQT
Le IOQT
OQT

Ion
Ion ngatif
Ion positif
Ionique

H
Ae SfG

Jaillir
Jet d'eau

(UCG Sf hCG) T
Sfa
(fGQf hCG) bGTEG

Laiton
Lanterne
Luminosit

FHc RL g
q fe
e
GS
qe IBGe
Ye
Fg P

Masse d'appareil lectrique

Mthanier
Mica
Mirage
Miroir plan
Multiple
Modle molculaire

( ) Oe
gEd Hb
OY
IGf

Neutre (solution)
Negligeable
Normale
Noyau

Nylon

VGaG L

Objet virtuel

QGe

Orbite

HHJ SQ
HHqdG Ge

Oscillogramme
Oscilloscope

214

P
Paratonnerre

YGdG aGO
L
FHc SGf
IQhO
FVc
FV cJ
qFV oM
OhQdG e
eY
UH
seo
Qq J e
QTe
MG
Fc YJ pe

Particule
Pendule Electrique
Priode
Photolectrique
Photosynthse
Pinceau lumineux
Plan d'incidence
Plaque signaltique
Plexiglas
Pointill
Prise de courant
Prisme
Probabilit
Produit d'une raction chimique

YTEG
OhNoCG
o T
OQGh o T
e o T
e o T
TEG
Ye
Fc YJ
cY
Aq dG SfG
qc SfG
Aq dG QfG
qM QfG
qjQfG
Sc
q FHc T
JGQ
cY QGe
cY IBGe
aJ
QGhq O

Radiation
Rainure
Rayon
Rayon incident
Rayon rflchi
Rayon rfract
Rayonnement
Ractif
Raction chimique
Rflecteur
Rflexion de la lumire
Rflexion totale
Rfraction de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Rfringent
Rseau lectrique
Rsine
Rtroprojecteur
Rtroviseur
Rpulsion
Rotor

215

rnoc
b
UCG e
Ic

Sachet
Secteur
Section principale
Simulation

( he Qq J) q L
r pe
n pe
jhc GOU
( r pe) n rpe
HCG Aq dG W
( qFq dG WCG SGQO) qrW
n dr d
q FV H
cS
n ornH

Sinusodal (courant alternatif)

Sacle
Sonde
Soude caustique
Spatule
Spectre de la lumire blanche
Spectroscopie
Spire
Spot lumineux
Stator
Sureau

Xe

Symtrique
T

dG qJJ
dGd q
q pe
Qpe pdGd snpe

Tension du secteur
Tournevis
Tournevis testeur

Transformateur

rTp
HoJ

Trombone
Turbine

e
q Y

Uniforme
Universel

LM b
dq a b
ib b
fHn
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) n U LR
VGaG

Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale
Vernis
Verre dpoli
Verre poli
Virtuel

Q
Qaurtz

(dG QqH) hr e
216

Le q Y e Fb

HY Ne
GC
(dJ) MG
MG
OhorNCG
SCG
(q fGQf hCG) bGTEG
TEG
YTEG
(LR) o ZCG
qVGaG
hdBG
mAe o SrfG

Frottement
Probabilit
Rainure
Actylne
Luminosit
Rayonnement
Radiation
Dpoli (verre)
Virtuel
Electron
Jet deau
Dviation

GfG
AdG QfG
qc SfG
AdG QfG

q q M
n QfG
qjQfG
ffCG/fCG
(jdH de U e) fHEG

Diffusion de la lumire
Dviation
Rflexion de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Anion (s)
Ebonite

Jaillir

n Hn
frnH
qFV H
ejO IH
UH
jOdG
q fHH
or H

Vernis
Spot lumineux
Galet de dynamo
Plexiglas
Bicarbonate de sodium
Sureau

217


P
HoJ
OOq J
FV cJ
e cJ
AdG cJ
AdG
q q J
FHc OJ
Fc YJ
J
aJ

Attraction
Turbine
Frquence
Photosynthse
Installation domestique
Focalisation de la lumire
Dispersion de la lumire
Electroneutralit
Raction chimique
Electrisation
Rpulsion
Tension du secteur

dG qJJ

Courant du secteur

dG Qq J

Courant continu

q e Qq J

q eo L

Arbre dun moteur

VGaG L
H q f L
qce qf L

Objet virtuel
Corps pur simple
Corps pur compos

Particule

jJ RL

Alimentation (en lectricit)

(he Qq J) L

Sinusodal (courant alternatif)

TT ,(FM hCG) LM

Ecran

qnG eM
jpr p dG ep M

Acide actique
Acide sulfurique

jQgQdG eM
p hCG) q peM
(q r M

Acide chlorhydrique
Acide (solution)

FV rnjoM

Pinceau lumineux

VM
o

Acidit

218

O
Paratonnerre

YGdG aGO

Frotter

qdO
QGhq nO
InQhr nO
LGQq O (Iqdeo ) hCG ejO

Rotor
Priode
Dynamo ( ou gnratrice) de bicyclette

P
IQq P
ju jr Qn Oo

Atome
Atomicit

Q
JGQ
HHJ SQ
cQ

Rsine
Oscillogramme
Etrier

R
SfEG jhGR
QfEG jhGR
OhQdG
o jhGR
LpM
n jhGR
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) U
n LR

Angle de rflexion
Angle de rfraction
Angle dincidence
Angle critique
Verre dpoli
Verre poli

S
rpcSn
GS
FHn q nc rSp
jQCdG rSp
Qr qdG S
mQY S
jeo rSp
n r neo rSp

Stator
Mirage
Electrovanne
Fil de terre
Fil de phase
Fil dnud
Fil neutre
Fil sous tension

T
IOQT
dS IOQT
(fCG) qje IOQT
qe IOQT
Le IOQT

q pOQT
FnHnc nT

Ion
Ion ngatif
Ionique
Cation
Ion positif
Ionique
Rseau lectrique
219

(UCG Sf hCG) nTn

dS T

Laiton
Charge ngative
Charge Electrique lmentaire

H qFHc T
Le T

Charge positive

jr To
To
poe To
p oe T

OQGh To
rTp

Bandelette
Rayon
Rayon rflchi
Rayon rfract
Rayon incident
Trombone

U
U
jhc GOU
qVGaG IQU
jq H IQU
q M IQU
q Fc U

Radiation
Rainure
Image virtuelle
Image optique
Priode
Photolectrique

ba hCG W
AdG
q W
(qFdG
q WCG SGQO) qW

Crpitement
Radiation
Rainure

pcY
q Y
OGqnY
(RL hCG) IqoY
eY
OY

Rflecteur
Universel
Compteur
Dispositif
Plaque signaltique
Normale

r pZ

Douille

p
(VJ)
Ua
o
Sfa
(qJJ) qa

Disjoncteur (diffrentiel)
Lanterne
Efficace(tension)

220


gEd Hb
pb
()
q rpb
jq rpb
n ob Sb
r
L

p
M
b
n n
dqa b
io
n b b

Negligeable
Secteur
Basique (solution)
Basicit
Arc-en-ciel
Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale

fJc/Jc
p
Sc
qjhc
(Ijc) Hc
fHc
jQoc
r pedCG jQoc
(dG e) jOr dG
o jQc

Cation (s)
Rfringent
Causticit
Boule
Carbonate de sodium
Chlorure
Chlorure daluminium
Chlorure de sodium
Electrostatique

cS AHc

Electricit rsineuse

qJGQ AHc

Electricit vitreuse

qLLR AHc
FVc
(q FHc n pe hCG) n rep n r nc

Photolectrique
Electroaimant

r n nc

Sachet

dc

Coulomb

Instant

dd
qjH pd

Spire
Fibre optique

QGen

Orbite

(eM) IpYe
(eM) qe
QG q e
( ) p pOe
pYnn eo
pXeo

Divergent (faisceau)
Convergent (faisceau)
Coaxial
Neutre (solution)
Ractif
Symtrique
221

pheo
uoe
(GLG Tc) G
r pe
Icoe
G
q dhQg q
QOtdG
JdG ,UdG Q
u eo
qH (SQ hCG) s
cY IBGe
qe IBGe
AV q Te

Alternatif
Collecteur
Endoscope
Simulation
Brleur
Centrale hydraulique
Ammoniaque (ou solution dammoniac)
Axe des abscisses, des ordonnes
Transformateur
Diagramme
Rtroviseur
Miroir plan
Filtre de lumire
Quartz

(dG QH) he

Sonde

r pe
OhQdG e
r ne
(OhdEG hCG) inr ne
se

Plan dincidence
Balayage
Electrode
Aplati

HjEG e
S e

Charg positivement
Charg ngativement

Ir pe
HHdG Gpe

Balai
Oscilloscope
Multiple

Ye
FGG ICnpe

Extincteur dincendie

q Fc Yo J dOn eo
njoe
(sbpe hCG) Inje
dGd s npe
Qpe dGd q npe
qpUCG rne
ueo
FHc e

q npe
(npe) rn pe

Equation dune raction chimique

Calibr
Calibrage
Tournevis
Tournevis testeur
Section principale
Condenseur
Electroscope
Bobinage
Spatule

222

heo
Fc oYJ nroe
pe
nnoe
nrne
QqJ n rne

n r pe
seo
pcY QGpe
QTr en
LGQq O (ejO hCG) Iudeo
qfe
ke
e

Alternateur
Produit dune raction chimique
Uniforme
Courbe
Direction
Prise de courant
Socle
Pointill
Rtroprojecteur
Prisme
Gnratrice (ou dynamo) de bicyclette
Mthanier
Cadran
Mica

qpbf
QpOof

q QOf
np J
Mf
q
q Fgn P
IGf
FHc SGf
f

Conductibilit
Ammoniac
Ammoniacal
Fiche
gicleur
Modle molculaire
Noyau
Pendule Electrique
Nylon

`g
FHc RL ng

Masse dappareil lectrique

h
Tp hn
IQe
q Veq h

Bobine longue
Flash dappareil photo

223