Lecture 4: Predicates and

Quantifiers; Sets.
Zeph Grunschlag

Copyright Zeph
Grunschlag, 2001-2002.

Announcements
HW1 due now

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Agenda
Predicates and Quantifiers

Existential Quantifier
Universal Quantifier

Sets

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Curly brace notation { }

Cardinality | |
Element containment
Subset containment
Empty set { } =
Power set P(S ) = 2S
N-tuples ( ) and Cartesian product
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Motivating example
Consider the compound proposition:
If Zeph is an octopus then Zeph has 8 limbs.

Q1: What are the atomic propositions and

how do they form this proposition.
Q2: Is the proposition true or false?
Q3: Why?

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Motivating example
A1: Let p = Zeph is an octopus and q =
Zeph has 8 limbs. The compound
proposition is represented by p q.
A2: True!
A3: Conditional always true when p is
false!
Q: Why is this not satisfying?

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Motivating example
A: We wanted this to be true because of the fact
that octopi have 8 limbs and not because of
some (important) non-semantic technicality in
the truth table of implication.
But recall that propositional calculus doesnt take
semantics into account so there is no way that
p could impact on q or affect the truth of pq.
Logical Quantifiers help to fix this problem. In
our case the fix would look like:
For all x, if x is an octopus then x has 8 limbs.

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Motivating example
Expressions such as the previous are built up from
propositional functions statements that have a
variable or variables that represent various
possible subjects. Then quantifiers are used to
bind the variables and create a proposition with
embedded semantics. For example:
For all x, if x is an octopus then x has 8 limbs.
there are two atomic propositional functions

P (x) = x is an octopus
Q (x) = x has 8 limbs

whose conditional P (x) Q (x) is formed and is

bound by For all x .

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Semantics
If logical propositions are to have meaning, they
need to describe something. Up to now,
propositions such as Johnny is tall, Debbie is 5
years old, and Andre is immature had no
intrinsic meaning. Either they are true or false,
but no more.
In order to endow such propositions with meaning,
we need to have a universe of discourse, i.e.
a collection of subjects (or nouns) about which
the propositions relate.
Q: What is the universe of discourse for the three
propositions above?

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Semantics
A: There are many answers. Here are some:

Johnny, Debbie and Andre (this is also the smallest

correct answer)
People in the world
Animals

Java: The Java analog of a universe of discourse is

a type. There are two categories of types in Java:
reference types which consist of objects and
arrays, and primitive types like int, boolean,
char, etc. Examples of Java universes are:
int, char, int[][], Object, String,
java.util.LinkedList, Exception, etc.

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Predicates
A predicate is a property or description of
subjects in the universe of discourse. The
following predicates are all italicized :

Johnny is tall.
The bridge is structurally sound.
17 is a prime number.

Java: predicates are boolean-valued

method calls

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someLinkedList.isEmpty()
isPrime(17)

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Propositional Functions
By taking a variable subject denoted by symbols
such as x, y, z, and applying a predicate one
obtains a propositional function (or formula).
When an object from the universe is plugged in
for x, y, etc. a truth value results:

x is tall. e.g. plug in x = Johnny

y is structurally sound. e.g. plug in y = GWB
n is a prime number. e.g. plug in n = 111

Java: propositional functions are boolean methods,

rather than particular calls.

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boolean isEmpty(){} //in LinkedList

boolean isPrime(int n){}

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Multivariable Predicates
Multivariable predicates generalize
predicates to allow descriptions of
relationships between subjects. These
subjects may or may not even be in the
same universe of discourse. For example:

Johnny is taller than Debbie.

17 is greater than one of 12, 45.
Johnny is at least 5 inches taller than Debbie.

Q: What universes of discourse are involved?

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Multivariable Predicates
A: Again, many correct answers. The most
obvious answers are:

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For Johnny is taller than Debbie the universe of

discourse of both variables is all people in the
universe
For 17 is greater than one of 12, 45 the
universe of discourse of all three variables is Z
(the set of integers)
For Johnny is at least 5 inches taller than
Debbie the first and last variable have people
as their universe of discourse, while the second
variable has R (the set of real numbers).

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Multivariable Propositional
Functions
The multivariable predicates, together with
their variables create multivariable
propositional functions. In the above
examples, we have the following
generalizations:

x is taller than y
a is greater than one of b, c
x is at least n inches taller than y

In Java, a multivariable predicate is a boolean

method with several arguments:
tallerByNumInches(Person x, double n, Person y)
{ }
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Quantifiers
There are two quantifiers
Existential Quantifier
reads there exists
Universal Quantifier
reads for all
Each is placed in front of a propositional
function and binds it to obtain a
proposition with semantic value.
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Existential Quantifier

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x P (x) is true when an instance

can be found which when plugged in
for x makes P (x) true
Like disjunctioning over entire
universe x P (x ) P (x1) P (x2)
P (x3)

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Existential Quantifier.
Example
Consider a universe consisting of
Leo: a lion
Jan: an octopus with all 8 tentacles
Bill: an octopus with only 7 tentacles

And recall the propositional functions

P (x) = x is an octopus
Q (x) = x has 8 limbs
x ( P (x) Q (x) )
Q: Is the proposition true or false?
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Existential Quantifier.
Example
A: True. Proposition is equivalent to
(P (Leo)Q (Leo) ) (P (Jan) Q (Jan) ) (P(Bill)Q (Bill) )

P (Leo) is false because Leo is a Lion,

not an octopus, therefore the
conditional
P (Leo) Q (Leo) is true, and the
disjunction is true.
Leo is called a positive example.
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The Universal Quantifier

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x P (x) true when every instance

of x makes P (x) true when plugged in
Like conjunctioning over entire
universe
x P (x ) P (x1)
P (x2) P (x3)

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Universal Quantifier.
Example
Consider the same universe and
propositional functions as before.
x ( P (x) Q (x ) )
Q: Is the proposition true or false?

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Universal Quantifier.
Example
A: False. The proposition is equivalent to

(P (Leo)Q (Leo)) (P (Jan)Q (Jan)) (P (Bill)Q

(Bill))

Bill is the counter-example, i.e. a value

making an instance and therefore the
whole universal quantification false.
P (Bill) is true because Bill is an octopus,
while Q (Bill) is false because Bill only
has 7 tentacles, not 8. Thus the
conditional P (Bill)Q (Bill) is false since
TF gives F, and the conjunction is false.
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Illegal Quantifications
Once a variable has been bound, we cannot
bind it again. For example the expression
x ( x P (x) )
is nonsensical. The interior expression
(x P (x)) bounded x already and
therefore made it unobservable to the
outside. Going back to our example, the
English equivalent would be:
Everybody is an everybody is an octopus.

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Multivariate Quantification
Quantification involving only one
variable is fairly straightforward. Just
a bunch of ORs or a bunch of ANDs.
When two or more variables are
involved each of which is bound by a
quantifier, the order of the binding is
important and the meaning often
requires some thought.
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Parsing Example
A: True.
For any exists we need to find a positive
instance.
Since x is the first variable in the
expression and is existential, we need
a number that works for all other y, z.
Set x = 0 (want to ensure that y -x is
not too small).
Now for each y we need to find a positive
instance z such that y - x z holds.
Plugging in x = 0 we need to satisfy y
z so set z := y.
Q: Did we have to set z := y ?
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Parsing Example
A: No. Could also have used the
constant z := 0. Many other valid
solutions.
Q: Isnt it simpler to satisfy
x y z (y - x z )
by setting x := y and z := 0 ?

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Parsing Example
A: No, this is illegal ! The existence of
x comes before we know about y.
I.e., the scope of x is higher than the
scope of y so as far as y can tell, x is
a constant and cannot affect x.
A Java example helps explain this
point. To evaluate x y Q (x,y )
might do the following.
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Parsing Example Java

boolean exists_x_forAll_y(){
for(int x=firstInt; x<=lastInt; x++){
if (forAll_y(x)) return true;
}
return false;
}
boolean forAll_y(int x){
for(int y=firstInt; y<=lastInt; y++){
if ( !Q(x,y) ) return false;
}
return true;
}
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Order matters
Set the universe of discourse to be
all natural numbers {0, 1, 2, 3,
}.
Let R (x,y ) = x < y.
Q1: What does x y R (x,y ) mean?
Q2: What does y x R (x,y ) mean?

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Order matters
R (x,y ) = x < y
A1: x y R (x,y ):
All numbers x admit a bigger number
y
A2: y x R (x,y ):
Some number y is bigger than all x
Q: Whats the true value of each
expression?
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Order matters
A: 1 is true and 2 is false.
x y R (x,y ): All numbers x admit a
bigger number y --just set y = x + 1
y x R (x,y ): Some number y is bigger
than all numbers x --y is never bigger
than itself, so setting x = y is a
counterexample
Q: What if we have two quantifiers of the
same kind? Does order still matter?
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Order matters but not

always
A: No! If we have two quantifiers of
the same kind order is irrelevent.
x y is the same as y x because
these are both interpreted as for
every combination of x and y
x y is the same as y x because
these are both interpreted as there
is a pair x , y
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Logical Equivalence with

Formulas
DEF: Two logical expressions possibly involving
propositional formulas and quantifiers are
said to be logically equivalent if no-matter
what universe and what particular
propositional formulas are plugged in, the
expressions always have the same truth
value.
EG: x y Q (x,y ) and y x Q (y,x ) are
equivalent names of variables dont matter.
EG: x y Q (x,y ) and y x Q (x,y ) are not!

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DeMorgan Revisited
Recall DeMorgans identities:
Conjunctional negation:
(p1p2pn) (p1p2pn)

Disjunctional negation:
(p1p2pn) (p1p2pn)

Since the quantifiers are the same as taking a

bunch of ANDs () or ORs () we have:
Universal negation:
x P(x ) x P(x )

Existential negation:
x P(x ) x P(x )

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Negation Example
Compute: x y x2 y
In English, we are trying to find the opposite
of every x admits a y greater or equal to
xs square. The opposite is that some x
does not admit a y greater or equal to xs
square
Algebraically, one just flips all quantifiers
from to and vice versa, and negates the
interior propositional function. In our case
we get:
x y ( x 2 y ) x y x 2 > y
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Blackboard Exercises
Section 1.3
1.3.41) Show that the following
are logically equivalent:
(x A(x ))(x B(x ))
x,y A(x )B(y )

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Blackboard Exercises
Section 1.3
Need to show that
(x A(x ))(x B(x ))x,y A(x )
B(y )
is a tautology, so LHS and RHS must
always have same truth values.

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Blackboard Exercises Section

1.3
(x A(x ))(x B(x ))x,y A(x )B(y )

CASE I) Assuming LHS true show RHS true.

Either x A(x ) true OR x B(x ) true
Case I.A) For all x, A(x ) true.
As (T anything) = T, we can set
anything = B(y) and obtain
For all x and y, A(x )B(y ) the RHS!
Case I.B) For all x, B(x ) true similar
to case (I.A)
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Blackboard Exercises Section

1.3
(x A(x ))(x B(x ))x,y A(x )B(y )
CASE II) Assume LHS false, show RHS false.
Both x A(x ) false AND x B(x ) false.
Thusx A(x ) true AND x B(x ) true.
Thus there is an example x1 for which A(x1) is
false and an example x2 for which B(x2) is
false.
As F F = F, we have A(x1)B(x2) false.
Setting x = x1 and y = x2 gives a
counterexample to x,y A(x )B(y ) showing
the RHS false.
//QED
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Section 1.4: Sets

DEF: A set is a collection of elements.
This is another example where mathematics
must start at the level of intuition. Sets are
the basic data structure out of which most
mathematical theories are built. For many
years mathematicians hoped that sets
could be defined directly from logic, thus
giving a full-proof foundation to
Mathematics, when compared to other
sciences. Effort failed!
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Sets
Curly braces { and } are used to denote
sets.
Java note: In Java curly braces denote arrays,
a data-structure with inherent ordering.
Mathematical sets are unordered so different
from Java arrays. Java arrays require that all
elements be of the same type. Mathematical
sets dont require this, however. EG:

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{ 11, 12, 13 }
{
,
,
{
,
,

}
, 11, Leo }

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Sets
A set is defined only by the elements
which it contains. Thus repeating
an element, or changing the
ordering of elements in the
description of the set, does not
change the set itself:

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{ 11, 11, 11, 12, 13 } = { 11, 12, 13 }

{
,
,
}={
,
,
}
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Standard Numerical Sets

The natural numbers:
N = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }

The integers:
Z = { -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }

The positive integers:

Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, }

The real numbers: R --contains any decimal

number of arbitrary precision
The rational numbers: Q --these are decimal
numbers whose decimal expansion repeats
Q: Give examples of numbers in R but not Q.

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Standard Numerical Sets

A:

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2 , , e, or anyirrationalnumber

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-Notation
The Greek letter (epsilon) is used to denote that
an object is an element of a set. When crossed
out denotes that the object is not an element.
EG: 3 S reads:
3 is an element of the set S .
Q: Which of the following are true:

4.

3R
-3 N
-3 R
0 Z+

x xR

1.
2.
3.

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x2=-5

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-Notation
A: 1, 3 and 4
1. 3 R. True: 3 is a real number.
2. -3 N. False: natural numbers dont
contain negatives.
3. -3 R. True: -3 is a real number.
4. 0 Z+. True: 0 isnt positive.

x xR x2=-5 . False: square of a

real number is non-neg., so cant be -5.

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-Notation
DEF: A set S is said to be a subset of the set T iff
every element of S is also an element of T.
This situation is denoted by
ST
A synonym of subset is contained by.
Definitions are often just a means of establishing a
logical equivalence which aids in notation. The
definition above says that:
ST
x (xS ) (xT )
We already had all the necessary concepts, but the
notation saves work.

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-Notation
When is used instead of , proper
containment is meant. A subset S of T
is said to be a proper subset if S is
not equal to T. Notationally:
ST

S T

(x S

xT )

Q: What algebraic symbol is

reminiscent of?

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-Notation
A: is to , as < is to .

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The Empty Set

The empty set is the set
containing no elements. This set is
also called the null set and is
denoted by:

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{}

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Subset Examples
Q: Which of the following are true:
1.
2.
3.
4.

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NR
ZN
-3 R
{1,2} Z+

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Subset Examples
A: 1, 4 and 5
1.
2.
3.

4.

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N R. All natural numbers are real.

Z N. Negative numbers arent natural.
-3 R. Nonsensical. -3 is not a subset but an
element! (This could have made sense if we viewed
-3 as a set which in principle is the case in this
case the proposition is false).
{1,2} Z+. This actually makes sense. The set
{1,2} is an object in its own right, so could be an
element of some set; however, {1,2} is not a
number, therefore is not an element of Z.
. Any set contains itself.
. No set can contain itself properly.
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Cardinality
The cardinality of a set is the number
of distinct elements in the set. |S |
denotes the cardinality of S.
Q: Compute each cardinality.
1.
2.
3.
4.

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|{1, -13, 4, -13, 1}|

|{3, {1,2,3,4}, }|
|{}|
|{ {}, {{}}, {{{}}} }|

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Cardinality
Hint: After eliminating the redundancies just
look at the number of top level commas
and add 1 (except for the empty set).
A:
1.
2.

3.
4.

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|{1, -13, 4, -13, 1}| = |{1, -13, 4}| = 3

|{3, {1,2,3,4}, }| = 3. To see this, set S =
{1,2,3,4}. Compute the cardinality of {3,S,
}
|{}| = || = 0
|{ {}, {{}}, {{{}}} }|
= |{ , {},
{{}}| = 3
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Cardinality
DEF: The set S is said to be finite if its
cardinality is a nonnegative integer.
Otherwise, S is said to be infinite.
EG: N, Z, Z+, R, Q are each infinite.
Note: Well see later that not all infinities
are the same. In fact, R will end up
having a bigger infinity-type than N, but
surprisingly, N has same infinity-type as
Z, Z+, and Q.
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Power Set
DEF: The power set of S is the set
of all subsets of S.
Denote the power set by P (S ) or by
2s .
The latter weird notation comes from
the following.
Lemma: | 2s | = 2|s|
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Power Set Example

To understand the previous fact consider
S = {1,2,3}
Enumerate all the subsets of S :
0-element sets: {} 1
1-element sets: {1}, {2}, {3}
+3
2-element sets: {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}
+3
3-element sets: {1,2,3} +1
Therefore: | 2s | = 8 = 23 = 2|s|

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Ordered n-tuples
Notationally, n-tuples look like sets except
that curly braces are replaced by
parentheses:

( 11, 12 ) a 2-tuple aka ordered pair

(
,
,
) a 3-tuple
(
,
,
, 11, Leo ) a 5-tuple

Java: n -tuples are similar to Java arrays

{}, except that type-mixing isnt
allowed in Java.
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Ordered n-tuples
As opposed to sets, repetition and
ordering do matter with n-tuples.

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(11, 11, 11, 12, 13) ( 11, 12, 13 )

(
,
,
)(
,
,

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Cartesian Product
The most famous example of 2-tuples are points
in the Cartesian plane R2. Here ordered pairs
(x,y) of elements of R describe the coordinates
of each point. We can think of the first
coordinate as the value on the x-axis and the
second coordinate as the value on the y-axis.
DEF: The Cartesian product of two sets A and
B denoted by A B is the set of all ordered
pairs (a, b) where aA and bB .
Q: Describe R2 as the Cartesian product of two
sets.

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Cartesian Product
A: R2 = RR. I.e., the Cartesian plane is
formed by taking the Cartesian product
of the x-axis with the y-axis.
One can generalize the Cartesian
product to several sets simultaneously.
Q: If A = {1,2}, B = {3,4}, C = {5,6,7}
what is A B C ?

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Cartesian Product
A: A = {1,2}, B = {3,4}, C = {5,6,7}
A B C =
{ (1,3,5), (1,3,6), (1,3,7),
(1,4,5), (1,4,6), (1,4,7),
(2,3,5), (2,3,6), (2,3,7),
(2,4,5), (2,4,6), (2,4,7) }
Lemma: The cardinality of the Cartesian
product is the product of the cardinalities:
| A1 A2 An | = |A1||A2| |An|
Q: What does S equal?

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Cartesian Product
A: From the lemma:
|S | = |||S | = 0|S | = 0
There is only one set with no elements
the empty set therefore, S must
be the empty set .
One can also check this directly from
the definition of the Cartesian
product.
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Blackboard Exercise
Section 1.4
Prove the following:
If A B and B C then A C .

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