Sicily, Normandy, Arnhem, the crossing of the River Rhine, the Burma campaign .... many famous world war two battleground where the us forces used gliders. This paper explains how the american glider pilots were trained, the training schools and the equipment shortfalls. Nearly 6500 american glider pilots were trained during the war.
The Silent Wings Museum in Lubbock (Texas) preserves and promotes the history of the World War II military glider program
Sicily, Normandy, Arnhem, the crossing of the River Rhine, the Burma campaign .... many famous world war two battleground where the us forces used gliders. This paper explains how the american glider pilots were trained, the training schools and the equipment shortfalls. Nearly 6500 american glider pilots were trained during the war.
The Silent Wings Museum in Lubbock (Texas) preserves and promotes the history of the World War II military glider program
Sicily, Normandy, Arnhem, the crossing of the River Rhine, the Burma campaign .... many famous world war two battleground where the us forces used gliders. This paper explains how the american glider pilots were trained, the training schools and the equipment shortfalls. Nearly 6500 american glider pilots were trained during the war.
The Silent Wings Museum in Lubbock (Texas) preserves and promotes the history of the World War II military glider program
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SILENT
SSAULT
US ARMY GLIDER PILOT TRAINING
ITH A MISSION to fly troop and equipment
transport gliders, combined with paratroops
‘massed assaults, the US Army glider corps
was part of a rapid build-up. Under the relentless pressure
of wartime conditions, the team had to mature quickly in
‘order to be ready for aetion when US airborne troops fist
deployed. As. result, misconceptions and haste cultivated
waste in all aspects of the effort. This was especially evident
in the glider pilot training programme, which underwent
several marked transformations in recruitment, equipment
and curriculum in a short space of time. Despite these
problems, a cadre of pilots was created who managed to
carry out some challenging combat missions, unlike any
achieved before or since
‘When planning for the glider echelon began in February
4941, the inital requirement was for 1,000 glider pilots
to support the two new airborne divisions. A new Flying.
‘Training Command (FTO) curriculum had tobe created from.
scratch, while suitable training aircraft were acquired and
students recruited. Air Corps personnel (Army Air Forces,
USAAK, after June 20, 1941) had no prior experience with
sliders, having been forbidden to take part in the ‘hazardous
sport ince 1931, But the Chief of the USAC, General Henry
‘Hap’ Amold, was a tireless force in propelling the glider
programme to meet goals supposting war planning.
‘The UK, which preceded the USA in establishing a glider
comps, had at first considered making glider piloting an
Additional duty of bomber pilots before choosing to train
Army soldiers for the duty. Their American counterparts
‘were always USAAF personnel with a unique qualification,
that of working closely with ground troops and landing on
the battlefield. In the beginning the leadership believed
that formation, night, and instrument flight requirements
envisioned for gliders warranted skills equivalent to those
instilled via a powered training course.
Get Training!
The Amy acted quickly to acquire an understanding of
glider lying. The Combat Glider Training Program began
with a dozen pilots being sent for instruction to the Elmira
‘Area Soaring Corporation School in Elmira,
a |
Inti nt They and pac
ff the period towed alort by ground winch, automobile,
and light aireraft. The three-week, 30-hour, programme in
June 1941 created a small cadre of knowledgeable officers
who helped formulate plans for the glider echelon. Twelve
flight instructors were then trained at Elmira through
September.
The slow pace in establishing the glider programme
frustrated General Arnold. On July 7, he ordered a
‘comprehensive plan for pilot training from his chief of staff,sncral Carl Spoate. The fundamental doctrine of
hat gliders had yet to be established, as the mission had
never been performed and the aireraft did not as yet exist,
so planning was built on a great deal of prognostication
The envisioned programme was to begin by training 150
existing Army pilots between July and October 1941 to serve
as the nucleus of an instructor staff For future advanced
bat gliders were available, The students,
between 10 and 15 per class, would be trained at civilian
Elementary Schools under contract. The same scheme
would be followed (instruction on sailplanes) for
the 1,000 line pilots, Instruction at the
Advanced Army Glider Schools would
continue with two-seat
gliders, emphasizing tow and providing the transitio
the combat gliders then in development
Spaatz submitted his plan on August 28, 1941 and it was
approved by his boss on September 4, Amold also took on
a succession of civilian advisers, experts from the civilian
slider community, to fill the service's knowledge and
‘experience gap.
‘Nationwide glider instruction resources had to increase
‘many times over in order to meet Army demand. In
July 1940 there had been just 124 registered gliders
in the country, along with five schools, and 120
licensed glider pilots, 45 of whom had commercial
ratiggs. There was soon keen competition
hte instructors oF those who could
quiehly quality
assuch, Most were Young men willing 10
relocate and live in spartan conditions in
order to have the opportunity to fy trom dawn to dusk,
six days a week
The 150 Officer Power Pilot Program was already behind
schedule when it began on September 20, 1941 with the
first nine of a 21-man class enrolled at Elmira. The rest were
re Dent prepares
fora flight with
(General Hap Arnold
(standing) nthe
US Army's st
slider, the Scieler
TG:2. The event
was the Natoma
Soaring Contest
September 1981
at Ena, New
ork ste of the US
Army’ fistfider
trainin. sox
(oot eae
the Lister
Kaufman 16-44
Showin easly
traning ols.
AROW/APRIL 2007 ISSUE 126 BEEtobe trained somewhere in the southwest where year-round
instruction was possible, For this the largest of the contract
schools, Twenty-Nine Palms Air Academy, was formed at
Condor Field in the California desert, on the edge of a dry
lake bed. The Academy's contract called for training 126
officers between November 30, 1941 and March 21, 1942.
Although it was established in November, operations did
not star until January 19, 1942. Both locations taught four
week courses, with a new’class beginning every other wel
seeking 30 hours in sailplanes with launch via winch oF
automobile - and aero-tow when a tug was available ~ and
‘with the emphasis on soaring and spot landing. As purpose
‘built military gliders and tow-planes were still lacking, sport
aircraft previously employed for civilian instruction continued,
that the
to be used. The results seemed meagre consider
slider programme was aleady a year ol
Get Gliders!
Without the benefit of much analysis, and with General
Amol pressing to move quickly, traning gliders were acquired
to-equip contract and Army schools, The solution was to buy
spot gliders; two-seat high-performance designs with glide
ratios of 20-30:1. Few models were then being produced i
the US, and the handful of established manufacturers and,
designers were approached in the spring of 1941 to solicit
proposals. The smallness of the nation’s glider industry
‘meant that multiple sources had to be pursued to ensure
sufficient aircraft could be delivered on an accelerated
schedule for the volume of training envisioned. Instead
of preparing detailed military specifications, the Air Coxps
relied upon established Civil Aeronautics Administration
(CAA) certification guidelines.
The fist contract was lt tothe Frankfort Sailplane Company
(ater the Aircraft Division of the Globe Corporation), in
Joliet, Indiana, for a military version of Its Cinema I two:
seat competition glider designed by Stanley Corcoran. The
aircraft was slightly stretched to become the training glider
1G-1, a stabiliser and elevator replacing the all-moving tail
It possessed a welded steel tube airframe and wood fram
surfaces, al fabric covered, The 9201b (417kg) gross weight
aircraft had a wingspan of 46ft in (14.Im) and a length of
23ft 21/2in (7.1m)
‘Work began with three experimental XTG-1s ordered on
May 26, 1941 for $5,788 and delivered between September
29, 1941 and March 1942. These were subject to flight testing
land ground loads trials which verified that the glider met
requirements, With some changes, including the addition
Of SCR-S8SA radios, the aircraft was found suitable and 40
TG-LAs were ordered in May 1942. Deliveries ran fom J
through November ata total cost of $111,016, ot 8
teach. Two more were apparently built offcontract, but
subsequently acquired by the Army
Despite Frankfort having been the first on contract, the
Initial USAAF glider delivered was from the Schweizer Aircraft
Corporation of Elmira, which had been asked to manufacture
lis wery reputable SGS 28 two-seat high-performance sailplane
as the TG-2. This featured a welded steel tube fuselage, al:
wing, and aluminium frame control surfaces, with
fabric overall. The 860Ib (390kx) aircraft possessed a S2ft
(in (15.8m) span and was 2sft 4in (7.7m) long,
Three XTG-2s, essentially 2-86 with minor changes, were
Asher ptr
The tremendous
presse to crate
‘combat sider
force meant that
Jn 1942 taining
saiiplanes were
ei cgi
as quiches
‘he mation’
producers could
fur them out
dn iaspratioat
Danner hans over
nwa TDs at
Frankfort’ Joliet,
Indiana, plant
A Schueler Th
fs shown nthe
Simplified ier
dope fish which
tres adopted
inwartine
place of the more
‘lou and
traitonal Army
The glder was
an all.wood and
fabric varant ofordered on June 27, 1941 for $6,478 and received in
September 1941. The first was delivered to Major Dent, the
Materiel Command officer in charge of glider acquisition
and testing, atthe 1941 National Soaring Contest at Elmira
Where he and General Arnold were photographed in the
alrcratt. An order for 18 TG-2s was placed on October 24,
1941 ~ the USAAP?s initial glider production contract ~and
the first was delivered in February 1942, with an added an
electrical system for lighting. Itwas observed that materials
left rom this work could be eadily used in additional glides,
and so 14 more TG-2s were ordered in June 1942, the last
boeing supplied in July. Total cost was $74,462, or $2,864
per aircraft with trailer.
The comparatively low number of TG-2s ordered was the
result of a decision to pursue a more suitable variant asthe
TG-3. This featured a low-set wing and roomier cockpit,
allowing easier access for pilots wearing Army-issue fight
ear, and Improving the rear seat instructor's visibility. It
also eschewed the use of aluminium in order to conserve
the resource for higher priority programmes. The aircraft's
lines were simplified for ease of construction in wood. The
US Government even built Schweizer a plant at Elmira to
speed up production,
Three XTG-3s were ordered on October 29, 1941 for
$13,209. The static test article was delivered on March 5, 1942
and flight examples by ealy July. However, a contract for 75
TG-3As was placed on March 24, even before light testing,
and later increase to 110, All were accepted between August
1942 and July 1943 for $440,416, ot $4,004 each with trailer
[At 1,2001b (44h), the TG-3 wing spanned att Oin(16.5m)
and the overall length was 27ft7in (8.4m), Manufacturing,
tually reached a rate of one per day.
The fourth production sailplane was derived from Jack
Laister’s pre-war ‘Yankee Doodle” single-seater. Although
Jack did not represent a production company, the Army
Invited him to submit a bid. He joined forces with St Louis
stockbroker John R Kauffmann to undertake production,
and the Laister-Kauffman Aircraft Corporation proved
exceptionally competent, unlike most of the other ‘start
ups’ the Air Forces worked with on gliders.
aister Kauffman’s product was the two-seat LK-10A glider,
or TG-4, which had a fuselage of welded stee! tube and
‘wood frame aero surfaces all fabric-covered. Wingspan was
Soft Oin (15.3m), length 21f¢ din (6.5m), and gross wei
875Ib (397kg) A static test article and three XTG-as were
bordered for $10,045 on a contract of October 8, 1941. The
ground test specimen was delivered ahead of schedule on
The flight tne at
Twety-Nine Palins
Air Academy,
Condor Fld i he
southern California
desert nthe
Summer of 1942.
The ets made up
most of AAs,
lus some pre-war
ian types.
Apress day at
Twenty Nine Pas
ino atioof
16-28 ands ready
for tow ofthe dy
lakebed adjacent
the eld. sara
‘MARQAPRIL 2007 SUE 20 BEIshea tiple aco
tow by a Stinson
(049, Such cian
tow planes were
ted until Army
‘models were
provided S08
firs
December 2, the testing completed on the 27th. Th
flight-worthy example arrived in late February, less than 90
days after go-ahead,
Although the rest of the XTG-4 flight test gliders took
most of 1942 to complete the Air Forces pressed alnead with
proiction. Minor changes, ineluding the alton ofthe
SCR-S8S radio, yielded the TG-4A which was the frst
slider order: 75 were requested on March 4, 1942, and 75
‘more in July. This made the TG-A the most produced US
training sailplane of the war, The fst production algcraft
was delivered in July 1942 and the balance in June 1943 for
around $800,000, at a unit cost of $4,062.
‘Search for all-wood types
‘tone point in 1942 the Wat Department plannes to acquire
{646 training sailplanes of the TG-1 through -4 types. But
this would clearly have stressed the production capacity
of the small manufacturers beyond their limits. Directives
stated that gliders were to be procured only from firms not
already engaged in priority War Department work. As a
‘some contracts went to less-experienced firms. The
results clearly showed the risk this entailed,
The bad news stemmed from the USAAF effort to eliminate
‘metal from the trainers. In searching for another source for
TG-8s, a June 15, 1942 contract for SO articles was given
to Air Glider Inc of Barberton, Ohio. The firm, headed
by Dr Frank Gross, had only been formed on June 4 that
year. The Army quickly discovered that Air Glider had
Virtually no experience, personnel, or the resources to build
anything. That it got a contract at all suggest influence from,
‘on high’. As might have been expected, the company’s
performance was very poor, with months going by before
iteven established production facilities. It insisted that the
Schweizer plans had errors and received a TG-3 fr reference.
Still i failed to deliver, yet efforts to kill the contract were
‘met with opposition from a powerful Oho congressman, It
was May 10, 1943 before the job could be cancelled ~ after
$415,421 had been spent on a single aiecrat taken up in
July as the last USAAF World Wat Two training glide, this
was pethaps the most expensive sallplane ever
“...ABTER $415,421 HAD BEEN SPENT ON A
SINGLE AIRCRAFT... THIS WAS PERHAPS THE
‘MOST EXPENSIVE SAILPLANE EVER.”
Three contracts were let for new all-wood designs. One of
these —for a side-by-side seating trainer - went to another
startup, Wichita Engineering Company of Wichita Falls
Texas, Three XTG-10s were ordered on June 25, 1942 for
$10,500. However the company fell far behind schedule and
sought additional funds amounting to more than six times
the orginal contract value, By summer 1943 it was lear that
the Army did not require additional sailplanes and it moved
tocancel the XTG-10. Work was finally halted in November
and what there was ofthe three gliders was collected.
Hawley Bowlus had a good reputation asa sallplane designer
and builder. Consequently, Bowlus Sailplanes Inc of San
Fernando, California, was awarded a $14,000 contract on
April 28, 1942 to construct four all-wood two-seat trainers
By January 1943, the company had not delivered anything,
Dut requests to ce-negotiate the contract, After months of|
effort, twas finally cancelled on August S.A single XTG-12
had flown in summer 1942 at Twenty-Nine Palms and this
machine was taken up by the Army.
The third all wood trainer was ordered via a June 26, 1942,
$9,000 contract to Briegle Sailplane Corp of Bevery Hil
California, Its XTG-13 possessed 40ft 4in (12.3m) span,
Isft 7¥/ain (3.7m) length, and 445Ib (202kg) maximum
gross weight. The firm was late delivering its fist twin
tandem glider, finally doing so in November 1942 while
seeking additional funding, The contract was cancelled on.
February 3, 1943 when the remaining alrcraft were still not
forthcoming, One TG-13A was testflown at Twenty-Nin
Palms where it was apparently wrecked, The remaining,
‘example was collected and $3,000 paid,
Through the Roof
A detalle plan for mass traning ofthe 1,000 glider pitots
‘sas finally put forth on December 2, 1941 and approved
‘on December 20 Instruction would follow the four-week
pattern before moving on to the Advanced course on actual
transport glides, However, the US entry into Word War Two
EE Ww. meenTHUSIAST. COM‘made it clear that transferring power pilots to the ranks of
slider pilots was unworkable
By the end of December, a new scheme was devised for
recruiting glider pilot trainees from within the ranks or as
new recruits. The initial qualifications were completion
ff civilian power pilot training or at least 30-houts glider
time and meeting the physical requirements of Army
powered pilots. More unusual was the radical decision to,
{rain enlisted personnel with promotion to Staff Sergeant
upon graduation. However, the pendulum now swung to
the opposite side ~ there was a mistaken belief that flying
sliders would be easy and the pilots readily trained, with
few proficiency requirements
The 1,000 Glider Pilot Training Program was approved with,
the intention of graduating al personnel by January 1, 1943.
Twenty-Nine Palms was the site of a 30-hour Preliminary
course, which would be followed by an Advanced course
fon combat gliders at an as-yet unidentified site. However
even before the programme could get underway, Amold
threw everything into uncertainty when on April 1, 1942
he raised the requirement to 4,200 glider plots, with 2,000
required by January 1, 1943 and the rest by July 1
The fei of potential glider pilots had tobe greatly expands
Revised qualifications for candidates, established on April 13,
‘were initially similar to those already promulgated. Those
accepted were officers or enlisted personnel between 18
land 35, volunteers from within the ranks or new recruits
Prior fying experience was measured by a pilot certificate
from a powered course, or a glider pilot with 30 hours or
200 glider flights. No one who had ‘flunked out’ of a pilot
programme would be accepted. The individual had to
complete screening and physical tests, with passing seores
reduced from those for power pilots
The US Army had never before faced such a challenge
in pilot taining, But the curriculum adopted on April 15,
1942 to meet the 4,200-pilot requirements paralleled the
earlee plan, with 30 houts in twin-gliders over four weeks
plus 72 houts of ground school Included were 2!/2 hours
Instrument insteuction (hooded) and one-hout night tow.
Advanced instruction was envisioned as SO hours, but was
at that time tentative. Preliminary Schools were already
boeing placed on contract
Planning was upset again on May 8, 1942 when 6,000
pilots became the goal, with 3,000 needed by September 1
and the test by the end of the year. Part of the motivation
for this was ealy strategic intent for the Allies to return to
Europe in 1943. To meet the new requirement, plans were
reformulated, reducing the training period to increase the
ro In adton
to ow planes,
procured custom
brut winches or
sound taunching
Yeas supped y he
Glier Equipment
Company and
photographed
fn summer 1942
Pains.
A staged phat ofa
‘and to Army
Stent dr plots
beside w 762
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graduation rate. Light aicraft instruction was added as the
‘most expedient means of training, via ‘deadstick’ landings.
Students would get four weeks, 30 hours, in aircraft followed
by one week, eight hours, in sailplanes, and then one week,
eight hours, in transpor gliders.
‘On May 11, 1942all Army units were instructed to promote
the glider pilot programme within the ranks However, owing
tocontinuing lacklustre recruitment, only about a third of
the first classes, starting June 1, were filled. Schools ran at
reduced capacity. The programme was behind once again.
Something dramatic had to be done.
As one measure, the Army turned to the CAA, which,sent letters to 85,000 certificated pilots advertising the
programme. Public recruitment was widespread, Even the
Selection of non-volunteers was considered, which would
have marked a significant departure ftom tradition Instead,
‘on June 11 the decision was made to accept personel with
no prior flight teaining and to promote everyone to Staff
Sergeant upon entering the programme, Students who had
washed out ofa pilot course were now accepted provided
they had not been outed because of a flying deficiency:
Physical and test score requirements were further lowered.
The deadline forthe 3,000-pilot requirement was extended
to September 28,
Entrants lacking flight experience were labeled Class By
students, while those with previous training were Class A
Instruction for Class B began at Preliminary Light Plane
Gliding Schools with 5 weeks, 40 hours - 21 houts solo - of
light aircraft day/night instruction (Phase I), and then 2
weeks, 15 hours of ‘deadstick’ landings (Phase ID. Class A
students entered the programme in the Preliminary Phase
with 4 weeks/30 hours. Both groups then went to an
Hlementary-Advanced Glider School for 1 week, 8 hours, in
win government contracts, with power institutions now
emphasised. Eighteen new Preliminary Schools had to be
formed to join the two contract and five USAAF Flementary
Advanced Schools already operating. The short timeline
meant that many of the activities intially operated out
of tents
By the end of June 1942, recruitment goals were finally
being met. The glider pilot candidates, as a whole, were
ff a different educational and social calibre than the
usual aviation cadets, and were, on average, older. Many
‘were more motivated by the promise of flight pay, rapid
‘advancement and combat assignments than by the notion,
fof an aviation career, although the glamour of flight was
certainly’ factor
Just as the programme settled into a working routine its
{goals were altered again, On August 10, 1942 Washington
Set the pilot requirement at 7,800 by March 1, 1943, with
the course to continue producing graduates at 12,000 per
year with no final number stated, The programme was once
Again expanded to graduate 700 pilots every two weeks
through February 1943 and 462 thereafter.
Pes Se
‘one of tvo-sea gliders, to include formation landings. After
this came a planned 1 week, 8 hours, in the 9- or 15-place
cargo gliders then being developed, plus 60 hours ground
school, which would include light aircraft maintenance
The course content was not rigidly followed by the schools,
and some of it was altered by the USAAF over the following
‘months in order to meet short-term exigencies. The dual
instruction paths only complicated matters, with schools
running dozens of students through either phase at any
he revised programme required many more training sites,
to be rapidly established across the country to handle the
‘massive influx of students, Civilian schools sprang up £0
The US glider industry was straining to produce Army gliders
ata high rate, but the numbers were simply insufficient to
‘meet the volume of training. To solve this problem, the
USAAF ‘appropriated’ nearly all the serviceable civilian
sliders in the country. Unlike many transport aircraft that
were commandeeted or impressed, the War Department
paid the ownets for the sport sailplanes. However, they
‘were given no option for refusal and received only what the
government deemed fair compensation. Sixty-one gliders
were bought between April and August 1942 for a total
386,60, or an average $1,421 each. Many were single-seat
‘machines, some with open cockpits and most of litte real
military value
The commercial gliders were a very mixed lot of foreign
Bowtus 16-12
In ight test at
Twenty Nine Pals
of 199.
and domestic products or one-off designs. Many were built
by enthusiasts rather than manufacturers, so workmanship
varied widely. Acquiring the pats to maintain this menagerie
\was frustrating. Few of the appropriated machines survived
their Army service; either being destroyed in mishaps or
deteriorating after being set aside. However, the Army did
not have to rely on this assortment for long.
Tehad quickly been recognized that sailplanes were not ideal
trainers for anyone intending to fly the combat gliders then |
being developed. This, along with the quantity problem,
prompted Hap Amold, in the summer of 1942, to seek
advice from his friend Charles Stanton, CAA administrator.
sexing Goppingen
3 Minima was
preiously owned
by person close
the Army lider
programme ano,
Fo its way to
righ ld
be photeruphe.
nS
aRowaPR 2007 ISSUE 28 ED‘Working with engineer Harold Hoeksta, in three days Stanton
conceived the conversion of light civil aircraft into gliders by
removing the engines and adding a third seat, installing a skid
under the elongated nose, extending the vertical stabilizer
forward, and reducing the height of the landing gear, All
three seats had flight controls and basic instruments. The
Aeronca Model 651 Defender was the basis forthe design It
was squat and unattractive, but had the low ground attitude
and about 10:1 glide ratio more closely approximating that
of transport gliders, Stanton then telephoned Lee Smith,
president of Aeronea, to ask if his company would be willing,
to manufacture such gliders. Smith agreed,
‘Aeroneca Aircraft Corp of Middletown, Ohio, was placed on
Army contract on July’ 8, 1942 to build three XTG-Ss derived
from its L- military liaison variant of the Defender. As a
"measure of the value of working with a highly experienced
high-volume manufacturer, Aeronca had the fist XTG-S ready
In just two days, nine days after the idea was fist proposed
“The type was accepted by the Alt Forces on July 22,
Equipment Shortfalls
In July, Flying Teaining Command had an immediate nes for
934 light trainers, 144 one- and two-place sailplanes ora like
‘numberof three-place gliders, and 180 cargo glidets, At that
time Materiel Command could provide none of the promised
three-plae gliders and no transport machines Liaison airraft
were transferred from other activities, and May’and some June
1942 prosction was diverted to the schools, the Stinson
e-L and Piper Ll being prominent. It was not until August
and September that necessary equipment finally arrived in
meaningfal numbers,
Programme capacity by summer 1942 was 3,336 students,
‘with 834 entering instruction each week. However, the number
of aircraft was simply inadequate fortis instructional load and
students were backing up in the system, On July 18 it became
necessary to slow the flow temporarily, and some schools
closed. reduced goal of 1,500 fully qualified glider pilots by
September 26,nd another i,SO0 by December 31, was adopted.
This may have been tolerated by strategic planning that had
proonype Bree
fown a Twenty
Nine Pls where
‘tas reputedly
wrecked. an
“AERONCA HAD THE FIRST XT'G-5 READY IM
JUST TWO DAYS, NINE DAYS AFTER THE IDEA
WAS FIRST PROPOSED.”
Fight testing quickly showed the conversion to bea suitable
training glider. Consequently the service turned to the light
aircraft industry to rapidly build hundreds of similar gliders,
With the XTG-5 as an example, Tayloreraft and Piper made
similar conversions of thei liaison designs, All vhs defied
the eal edict not to use firms already engaged in military
production - but the problem of training glider quantities
‘was rapidly solved
The Aeronca contract was extended to 250 T6-5s. Again, the
wisdom of the approach was validated when the company
delivered $0 within a month, and all but one of the total
between July and December 1942. The government spent
around $565,000 for the projec, of a unit price of $2,236,
Seventy-five were deployed tothe China-Burmalnclia theatre
forpilot currency and low-volume priority combat missions,
The airraft grossed out at 1,2601b (572k) with its 35 Sin
(10.8m) wingspan.
The TG-6 was derived from the Taylorcrat -2 (civil Model
DC-65 “Tandem. Taylorcraft, based in Alliance, Ohio, called
the glider the Model S100 for tanton-laylorcratt- possibly
a joke. Modifications closely paralleled those of the TG-s.
The company received a contract for 250 on July 23, 1942
and deliveries spanned August 2 to November 28. The cost
was $656,754, or $2,596 per aircraft. Wingspan was 35ft
Sin (10.8m), length 25ft 21/ain (7.7m), and a gross weight
(of 1,2601b (571k).
The thied three seat glider conversion was based on the Piper
aH (civil J3C Cub). Piper, of Lock Haven, Pennsylvania,
signed a contract for 250 TG-8s on August 19, 1942. These
‘had a through axle and hydraulic brakes, plus a steerable tail
wheel. All were accepted between September 11, 1942 and
April 1943 for $533,435, of $2,108 per aircrat.
pushed the re-entry to the Continent back a year.
The L-ls served as preliminary trainers as well as for tow:
Other tow-planes eventually included the Vultee BE-3 and
IES Valiant, and Stearman (1-17 Kaydet. Link trainers had
also been introduce to the Hlementary-Advanced course, with
about eight hours, although these were of limited usefulness
for gliders. Actual instrument fight instruction, no matter how
brie, as hindered bya lack of suitable equipment which meant
that some students were passed without the training.
Aircraft were not the only deficiencies. Instructors proved
dificult to secure. The problem was partially resolved by
‘keeping certain graduates on as instructors. However, the quality
‘of ground schooling particularly suffered and standardised
instructional texts were completely lacking. Individual
Institutions created or procured what they needed, though
without uniformity until Army manuals began tobe distributed
in 1943,
4s
“ficient taining
‘Miers forthe
“my were those
‘comertd frm
Tight planes, ke
the Aeonca TS
her, Hundred
of such ers
‘stonishingh shart
time to fila ne
derived from
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F “i
The hoped-for 40-hour Advanced course required 369
transport gliders to meet the graduation numbers, plus trickle
to replace a 3% attrition or supplement grounded machines
Alike number of Douglas C-47 Skytrain or C-53 Skytrooper
tugs were also essential. But FTC was told to expect only 90
sliders and $2 C-17s for the time being. The WACO CG-3A,
hha been procured asa nine-place combat glcer, but evolving
tactics had quickly determined that the 15-place WACO CG
4 Haig (or Hadrian) would be the principal assault aircraft
The 100 CG-3s were devoted to taining, but these did not
satisfy the requirement for advanced training on the CG-4
prior to graduation, Fist conceived in May 1941, the CG-4A,
‘was frustratingly long in reaching training units
The first CG-ts were delivered on September 11, 1942 a
‘month later than planned. But the numbers were initially
low and by late September the chronic shortage of gliders
and tow-planes made it impossible to attain the numerical
training goals, Production of C-47s was slowly ramping up
and the few aircraft then available were heavily committed
to other duties. It took a conference of general officers in
July 1942 to assign an embryonic force of Troop Carrier
‘Command (TCC) tow-planes, the 61st Troup Carrer Group,
Intended asa
‘combat der the
production before
6-4. The Cs
wove: Chasen as
the US army's
primary tctcal
fransprt ler
the WACO C644
‘leo had to serve
This carly erample
has ets
to suppor initial training, with the 63rd due to follow in
November. The entire production run of Lockheed C-60A
Lodestars through January 1943 (79 of 129 machines) was
directed tothe programme as tow-planes. These freed up one
fof the TCC groups, but the schools had to pilot the C-60s
‘with their own personnel
The first group of the 60 men remaining from the original
150 power pilots finally received their CG-4 course (about
two hours transition) at the Elementary-Advanced Schoo!
in Lockbourne, Ohio, in September 1942, They were then |
distributed throughout the Advanced Schools as instructors
The Army formed advanced courses in five locations
Even when the WACOs began to appea, they were occasionally
grounded to fx design deficiencies or manufacturing defects
For the first few months typically 50% of the CG-s were
grounded. Some ofthe problems stemmed simply from lack
‘of familiarity with the operation andl care ofthe new aecraft
Also, as with any new aircraft rushed tothe fe, logistics and
‘depot support was not yet in place
Concludes in 4129, the May/June 2007 issue, published on
April 27 a
MARCWAPRIL 2007 SUE 128 ELst lider, a SccierT6-2, for flight ater beng removed
ict copy of sucess tion desig twas contracted
in he spn of three months 4 tn atkoscs MASA
tt, Read Co LNE-1 was ull for Navy and Marine Corps side plot taining an fstured usual desde eating.
ramen 143 aad the ders were transfered tthe Aras the TG-2, though they were simply
A Schler Tn clan markings ha
porate nea the noses sed to lower the
The TG-} was an improved T6-2, mae sltabl
1 hw ARENTHUSASTOM,SILENT
US ARMY GLIDER PILOT TRAINING
BILL NoRTON
ITH SIX MONTHS of experience through
late summer 1942, glider pilot training
became more efficient and effective. The
profusion of types and models of appropriated sport gliders
mntract-built two-place trates were a burden. The
glide ratios were not representative of combat gliders in
{evelopment and sorte rate was slow. Consequently, these
re not ideal as military trainers, even when towed aloft on
double or triple aero-tows. The three-place gliders began to
displace the sallplane in the autumn of 1942, While more
,eof transport lider, these could not be ground
Even with two students aboard, they were still
only effective for instruction on aero-tow and use of spoilers
forspot landings. By mid July 1942.ll ground launches had.
been dropped ~as wells soaring instruction, such as use of
and
t weeks, 35-45 hours, in SO to
Intplanes plus 240 hours of
students streaming
CPT course was ei
6shp (26 10 48.4KW)
ground school. The 2,150-plus
from the CPT were not always acceptable, as so
‘were physically disqualified from glider training
or insufficiently ver, this part of
the programme came to an end on January
15, 1943 as the requisite number of pilo
passed out,
Inthe autumn of 1942 the curriculum shifted
to four separate four-week stages. Class B.
students received 30 hours in power-planes
at Preliminary Schools. These and the Class
A candidates then received 30-hours of
instruction at Elementary Glider Schools,
followed by 30 hours in taining gliders at
Basic Glider Schools, and then a planned
4@hours in transport gliders at Advanced,
Glider Schools. Basi teaching included
some instrument, night, and navigation
ined. Ho
Bach stage took place at a different
Tocation, keeping the students moving
eee)
ies
ew fom the
Perrier
nr
ro anne
sot: The unique
Pens
pena
cone
enn
ois
air
ed
AY/IUNE 2007 SUE 29fother than operation and maintenance. However, some
fundamental content was soon established.
Glicer development and tactics maturation in the US and
the UK made it clear that combat gliders would most likely
bbe nothing more than winged trailers towed overa landing
zone at no more than a few thousand feet and released for
couple of minutes of fight. Furthermore, the CG-4A, a
‘comparatively simple aircraft, was found to be relatively
easy to fly. After February 1943, when WACOs had been
introduced in sufficient numbers to be used earlier in pilot
training, and with most of the students having passed
through the Preliminary and Elementary stages, instruction.
‘was further streamlined to a single stage on CG-4s, This
‘created a stable training environment in which standardised
Content, methods, and training materials could be developed
and disseminated. But it was still May 1943 before CG-4
and Douglas C-47 Skytrain availability, and student load
pressures, began to eas
Pile-Up
By the autumn of 1942 the glider pilot programme was
running at full team, but itil appeared that the mandated
rate of graduation would not be met, principally because
of equipment shortages. Only 300 students, 75 from each
Advanced course, were moving along every two weeks. Only
1,800 pilots were expected to graduate by September 28,
at arate of 200 a month, or just 2,035 by March 1, 1943,
Little could be done to alter the situation so these numbers
were accepted. The goa lly in accord with real
capabilities. But on September 30 new objectives were set
at 4,000 graduates by March 1, 1943 and 400 per month
afterwards through to the end of that year, or a total of just
Towards the end of 1942 there were 10,294 trainees in the
programme. It was taking nine months to move a student
through the 16 weeks of instruction, When pupils exceeded
available capacity forthe next schools they were moved to
‘replacement centre pools’ to await openings. At the time
only 3,258 of them were actively engaged in training: 1,451
via CPT, with the remaining 5,585 languishing
in these ‘pools’. An average of six months was spent at these
typically remote and dreary bases with litle of nothing to
{do and the men were given only meagre information about
what to expect. Although some remedial measures were
taken, such as half-hearted attempts at infantry training and
lightplane availability, morale ~as well as flight proficiency
ummeted
“AM AVERAGE OF SIX MONTHS WAS SPENT AT
THESE TYPICALLY REMOTE AND DREARY BASES
WITH LITTLE OR NOTHING TO DO...”
Immediate measures to ease the backlog included bringing
to an end the training of Class B students in early October
1942, and new ones ceased being recruited on November 16,
basic instruction increased to two months ~ one month of
‘deadstick’ work in lightplanes and one in training gliders
stil at contract schools, while the Elementary phase was
eliminated, Schools began to close at an increasing rate. By th
time these courses ceased In March 1943, 8,520 Elementary
And 6,760 Basic stage pupils had graduated, with less than
5% washout rate. Twenty-Nine Palms passed out its last class
In March 1943. In 13 months of operation it had insteucted
1,240 glider pilots, ‘washing out’ only 39, At the end it had
59 gliders and 17 tow-planes
‘On December 21, 1942 Hap Arnold unexpectedly directed
that the Advanced instruction be shortened again to just
eight hours to accelerate training. This apparently arbitrary
decision would clearly produce pilots with inadequate
training and it generated discontentment throughout the
programme. It evolved to include three hours of solo flight,
and two night flights, one of them solo, Flight 3s co-pilot or
passenger was added in an effort to somehow supplement
the meagre stick time
It was proposed that 9,295 glider pilots would be graduated
by October 27, 1943 after which the training programme
would probably be shut down. However, the autumn of
1942 had seen hesitation in buying thousands more CG-4,
suggesting that fewer pilots would be required than had been
previously stated. However, the operational commands were
able to make better educated assessments of glider needs as
part of integrated airborne assaults and so expressed a need
for 6,290 WACOs by 1944, As combat gliders and pilots
reached operational units in early 1943, new considerations
came into play. Airborne Command and TCC saw the need
for only 6,000 gliders and a commensurate number of
pilots that year, or as Few as 4,000 men, with no practical
‘means of dealing with a surplus until units began deploying
‘overseas, These Commands were only just learning how
to employ their assets and were understandably hesitant
to give gliders priority without better appreciation of theit
potential contribution, Adltionally, the new TCC groups
found it difficult to accommodate glider pilots and their
aircraft, with suitable proficiency training, until the units
‘were well established, Clearly some advance planning had
been lacking
0 ofthe men
most Inflcntal
Inthe US Army
hae programme
‘nas Corps
‘ef Genera
‘Tap’ Aol
(tear) and Major
Fred Dent (ron.
They are tying out
the Army's fist
slider Sweet
6-2 during
September 1911
in New York:
Reputable
sapame maker
Hawley Bowlus
‘businessman,
cventual fy,
Inthe Calorie
too late and with
too ite evidence
of production
‘apa 0With these and other mixed signals, on February 11, 1943
there came anew direction that only 4,054 glider pilots were
required, on hand by December 31, 1943, With 636 already
graduated, this left 3,418 to train during the year. The rate
ff graduation was to be slowed to 250 per month. Schools
‘woitld he closed commensurate with this plan
The upshot of all this was that thousands of students,
including all those in or awaiting Elementary and
Basic instruction, were directed to other assignments.
he disposition of 7,321 excess glider pilot trainees was
determ
ned by April 1, 1943: 1,929 personnel continued in
the programme. Of the others, those who had entered the
programme from within the service were reassigned. Those
from civilian life were either ditected to other training oF
allowed to separate, although the Army expected few would
choose the latter option in light of the wartime emergency
But so deep was the disillusionment that 1,147 of these men
stepped! out of uniform,
Even Keel
With a focus simply on getting CG-4 pilots into the field
rather than creating well-rounded airmen, the programme
Could be reduced to essentials. By the summer of 1943 all
the sailplanes were idled. Even the need for the three-seat
trainers had passed, although this came when some 238 were
still tobe delivered. Despite the fact that they would simply
ne stored, Materiel Command decided to let production run
its course. On August 5, 1943, the Air Forces also received
88 training gliders from the Navy’s aborted combat glider
effort. As these had no role at that late stage, they joined
the hundreds of others in what was fast becoming a storage
problem.
Some semblance of stability in the progeamme permitted
concentration on effective taining, Pilots who continued
to linger while awaiting training were provided with
lightplane flight time and infantry training, both of
which later proved valuable in-theatre, The reduced flow
of students made it possible to concentrate all CG-4A,
training at South Plains in Lubbock, Texas, by mid-April
1943, The Advanced course returned to the four week,
hour, curriculum, By Apri 1943, Lockheed C-60 Lodestars
hhad taken over all tow duties. The instruction continued
tocontain night, formation, and navigation taining with
a minimum 20 landings. Ground school was 105 hours
with a good balance of military indoctrination, physical
and combat training. Many
of the students also attended a glider mechanics course at
neatby Sheppard Held, Texas.
Pest nce seat
ier trainer, at
acy, ready tf
eof omverting
las ghplane
Despite the change in instruction requirements, Lubbock
still required 114 CG-4As, but had only 90 owing to
continued maintenance and logistics issues. Training,
with these precious few aircraft emphasized safety and
‘preservation of materiel’. However, t was accepted that
tore tactical training had to be introduced to ensure that
pilots were truly combat-ready. Consequently, in August
1943 activities such as tactical landings, double towing of
two CG-4s behind a single tug, ‘snatching’ a glider out of
short feld by a passing tow-plane, contour cross-country
tow (maximum 200% - 60m), landing over obstacles with
‘minimum ground roll, landing on the fuselage skis, and
instrument instruction in the Link Trainer were added,
However, this content could only be inserted by an inctease
to 25 hours, This was approved in mid-August provided
the course did not exceed a month and the graduation rate
remained unchanged. The instructors finally felt good about
the capabilities of the pilots they were passing out.
As the time for graduating the frst glider pilots approaches
the service had to face the discomfort felt by many
traditionalists within the officer comps atthe idea of enlisted.
personnel with minimal training piloting Army altcrat
Some of the men being awarded wings had as litle as 16
0.35 hours of flight instruction, although the averag
usually much more. The USAAF hit on the Flight Officer
(FO) rank 35 @ compromise, established on November 21,
1942, Similar to Warrant Officer, it wasn’t quite a non
‘an officer, Even the wings awarded at
com and not quit
{graduation were different; a'G’ superimposed on the centre
‘were senior officers who felt the entire
da waste
shield Still, ther
slider echelon scheme had been misbegotten a
ff resources. Resistance and antipathy was encountered
throughout the war.
“SOME OF THE MEN BEING AWARDED WINGS
HAD AS LITTLE AS 16 TO 35 HOURS OF FLIGHT
INSTRUCTION, ALTHOUGH THE AVERAGE WAS
USUALLY MUCH MORE.”
After a year of tumultuous effort, the fist 20 glider pilots
sgracuated at Stuttgart, Arkansas, on November 23, 1942, By
July 31, 1943 the programme had graduated 3,081 pilots:
another 1,000 were anticipated by the end of that year. On
August 21 the 1944 glide pilot requirement was set at 200
per month, This reflected continued production of combat
gliders and some growing appreciation of their role. Nev
Standards required that the trainees, stil enlisted USAAF
personnel, come in with power experience - such as CAAD>
AY DUNE 2007 ISSUE 29 IEWORLD waR Two
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training of aviation cadet “washouts' ~ so that only the
Advanced course was required,
Focus Shift
Troop Cartier Commanel began receiving gliders in quantity
luring the first months of 1943, working towards a goal
ff 38 per squadron. However, it was still months before
‘operational traning came together. This was partally because
the required skills were till being defined, but also because
it required a new level of co-ordination and co-operation
between the ground and air elements. Airborne doctrine
and tactics were still nthe formative stage. Considerable
texperimentation and establishment of safe practices was
tundertaken, and there were frequent changes in training
content, Sceptics sil had to be won over to the combat
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potential of the transport glider
‘With delivery of the CG-4As to the field lagging, early
shortage of spares, and TCC initial focus on cargo and
parattoop operations, glider operations were slaw in coming,
Up to speed. Some TCC groups were deploying overseas
without their glider echelon. The 108 glider pilots per group,
assigned faster than the resources were available to support
them, were largely idle during this period, and morale and
proficiency suffered, Local ground courses were organised
but there was no opportunity to log hours enough even to
‘eam flight pay
‘One measure which addressed pilot inactivity was the
‘creation of the Glider Pilot Combat Training Unit at Bowman
Field, Kentucky, in April 1943, Here comprehensive taining,
was Cartied out for men en route to their TCC assignments,
1 Wo. AmEENTHUSIAST. COMPart of this included flying precision landings over an
Improvised SOft barrier ~ stich asa wall of bamboo poles or
a sheet stretched between posts - toa n
point a fev hundred feet from the obstacle. The stents also
ings, in which the gliders approached
‘get down speedily where field length or
obstacles wete not an overriding concer. But, a slow final
ipproach over obstacles to a modest landing speed was
favoured, although an initial speedy descent was taught to
avoid enemy ground fire. Instruction also sougt
basic military skills and battlefield capabilites, in addition.
to knowledge for the combat employment of the CG-44,
Eventually, squadron training an large-scale manoeuvres
in glider pilot knowledge
br skills to be reinforced. Those involved in exercises went
back to their units and, along with field manuals which
began to appear in 1943, helped guide more practical
training, This process continued after units deployed and
training continued overseas, especially in concert with
British airborne forces. As initial combat experience was
evaluated and airborne tactics evolved, refinements of the
(CG-4A were introduced ancl new techniques taught, these
being instilled through continuing training and exercises.
At the end of 1944, the Advanced Glider Training Base was
established at Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, where in
30 days students were given intensive taining simulating
‘combat conditions in manoeuvres.
‘Combat operations in Europe showed how vital gliders
were to aizborne operations as part of major offensives.
Consequently, the autumn of 1944 brought a final surge
in glider orders, Most of the combat operations had been
-MaYUNE 2007 SUE 29 HEEperformed without co-pilots because many glider pilots were
held in reserve for other potential short-notice assaults. This
Increased the risk should the pilot be incapacitated, These
factors raised the need for additional glider pilots
To meet this requirement, the Alt Forces returned to the
‘original intent ofthe taining programme; diverting powee
pilot course graduates. By this time the US had a surplus of
newly-minted pilots and so could send many off for quick
slider conversion, Practice had shown that fully-trained
power pilots could fly the CG-4 proficiently after afew hours
instruction whereas many glider pilots did not measure up
this evel, even ater passing through thei entite programme
So, 70 grumbling, non-wolunteer pilots were sent to Lubbock
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fora War Bonds
la soon ater
the US entered
the confit Fara
Dnieper ger
plots were seen
In October 1944 for two weeks training on the CG-4 before
being shippee! to Europe. Hundreds more 8th Air Force pilots
underwent conversion in-theatre. These men took part in
the March 24, 1945 crossing of the Rhine, which was the
last large-scale glider assault in history
Retrospect
The US Army trained approximately 6,500 glider pilots
during the war. Itspent $3,493,181 on 1,147 training gliders,
acquired between February 1942 and July 1943. Ten models
were developed and seven placed into production, all were
declared surplus before the end of hostilities Following the
war the military training gliders were sold to rejuvenate the
American soating sport. However, this undercut the wat:
expanded glider industry Only Schweizer survived
The glider programme was one of the most extraordinary
flight training endeavours ever undertaken by the US
military. It was a massive effort to train thousands of citizen
Soldiets in a short period on a new acraft type only then
being developed for a mission yet to be fully defined,
Executed in a period of unprecedented military expansion,
the programme was turbulent and wasteful. However, it
ultimately met requirements. Glider pilots contributed
immeasurably to the combat successes that won the wa
Then the programme and Flight Officers disappeared
entirely. Some of the few glider pilots that remained in
the service became power pilots and glider flying became
Just another qualification fora rated officer, But this was
rare, as the glider force was immediately and dramatically
reduced, disappearing entirely by the mi-19S0s, However,
the legacy remains ofthe frenetic time when the US Army
went to war in thousands of fabrie-covered gliders flown
largely by enlisted personnel
The Author would like to acknowledge the kind assistance of
‘Charts Day and the personne ofthe Air Force Materiel Comman
History Office, Air Force light Test Center History Office, Jay
Miller Collection, National Archives, National Museum ofthe
United States Ai Force, National Soaring Museu, aad Sar Diego
leroypace Museum. The Editor would ike to apologise to Bill for
lenin hie into anonymity the last issue ~as ever Els would
Tove to blame the ‘Gremlins’ but there are none to hand!
IEEE WH. AAREENTHUSIST COM