Mc

ch mn h
hc
a Computability Theory deals with one of the most

fundamental questions in Computer Science:

L thuyt tnh ton

(Theory of Computation)

What is computing?

What are the limits of what a computer can compute?

a Or, formulated differently:

PGS.TS. Phan Huy Kh

Khnh

What kind of problems can be algorithmically solved?

The notion of Algorithm or Computing
using the Mathematical Model of a Turing Machine

phkhanh@dut.udn.vn,
phkhanh@dut.udn.vn, khanhph29@gmail.com
If the human brain was so simple
that we could understand it,
then we would be so simple that we could not
(L. Watson)

"Given a program P does it halt for any input x?

x?
or "Given two program P and Q, are they equivalent?
equivalent?
cannot be solved by any Turing machine
There exist problems that are impossible to solve with a
computer, the soso-called "undecidable problems"
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Ti li
liu tham kh
kho
a Gi
Gio tr
trnh L thuy
thuyt T
Tnh to
ton PDF
a Web (l
(l kh
kh):
V

V
V
V

Hope you enjoy this course!

http://ebhttp://ebdl.edu.net.vn:8080/resources/iportal/ebook/uploads/Library/
LyThuyetTinhToan.pdf
http://wwwhttp://www-courses.cs.uiuc.edu/~cs375/
www.cs.berkeley.edu/~vandam/CS172/
http://www.ebook.edu.vn/

a Keywords for Google Search:

V

Computation | Computing Theory

Computability | Decidability

Formal Language | Automata Theory

Set | Graph Theory | Modeling (Modelization)

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Ni dung mn h
hc

Chng 1 - C s
s ca mn h
hc

Chng 1 M
u C s
s ca mn h
hc

a u l
l gi
gii h
hn c
ca Tin h
hc ?

Chng 2 M h
hnh c
cc m
my RAM

a Nh
Nhng ch
ch
ch
chnh c
ca Tin h
hc l thuy
thuyt

Chng 3 My Turing

a Mt s
s ki
kin th
thc tin quy
quyt

Chng 4 Cc h
hm
quy

a Nh
Nhc l
li L thuy
thuyt ngn ng
ng hnh th
thc v
v tmat

Chng 5 Cc m h
hnh t
tnh to
ton kh
khc

a Kh
Khi ni
nim m
my tr
tru t
tng
a Kh
Khi ni
nim m h
hnh t
tnh to
ton

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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

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u l
l gi
gii h
hn c
ca Khoa h
hc ?

u l
l gi
gii h
hn c
ca Tin h
hc ?

a Gi
Gii h
hn c
ca Vt l :

a Nghin c
cu v
v bi to
ton (Problem) :
V Lp
V L i

c
cc b
bi to
ton gi
gii
c (Resolvability)

gi
gii, hay thu
thut to
ton, gi
gii b
bi to
ton

V Lp

c
cc b
bi to
ton khng gi
gii
c

(v
(v s khng bao gi
gi gi
gii
c,
d vi s
s ti
tin b
b ca cng ngh
ngh thng tin trong tng lai)
lai)

a Nghin c
cu l thuy
thuyt c
cch gi
gii c
cc b
bi to
ton

Chuy
Chuyn
ng v
vnh c
cu (Perpetual Motion) :
Chuy
Chuyn
ng khng ng
ngng m
m khng c
cn tiu t
tn nng l
lng

V M

h
hnh t
tnh to
ton ?

ph
phc t
tp t
tnh to
ton ?

V B i

to
ton quy
quyt
nh (Decision Problem) :

A problem with a "yes" or "no" answer

Khng t
tn t
ti v
v :
mu thu
thun v
vi c
cc
nh lu
lut v
v nhi
nhit
ng l
lc h
hc

Equivalently, a function whose range is two values, such as {0, 1}

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Mt s
s ki
kin th
thc tin quy
quyt

Nh
Nhng ch
ch
ch
chnh c
ca Tin h
hc l thuy
thuyt
a Nghin c
cu c
cc m h
hnh t
tnh to
ton :
V C c

ngn ng
ng hnh th
thc (Formal Languages)

V C c

tmat h
hu h
hn (Finite Automaton)

V My

RAM (Random Access Memory Machine)

V My

Turing (Turing Machine)

V C c

h
hm
quy (Recursive Functions)

ph
phc t
tp t
tnh to
ton (Computational Complexity)

V Mt
V V

a Ki
Kin th
thc to
ton h
hc c s
s

m h
hc (Cryptology)

cc h
hng nghin c
cu m
mi trong l thuy
thuyt t
tnh to
ton

Lg
Lgch h
hc

Tp h
hp, quan h
h

nh x
x

Tnh
m
c c
ca c
cc t
tp h
hp v h
hn

th
th v cy

Ph
Php ch
chng minh quy n
np

Cc c
cu tr
trc r
ri r
rc

a Mi quan h
h gi
gia cc m h
hnh t
tnh to
ton kh
khc nhau

a Mn h
hc L thuy
thuyt Ngn ng
ng Hnh th
thc v
v tmat

a C s
s
thi
thit k
k MTT (ph
(phn c
cng) v
v

a Ki
Kin th
thc CNTT n
ni chung

thu
thut to
ton (ph
(phn m
mm) hi
hin t
ti v tng lai
lai

a Ki
Kin th
thc th
thc ti
tin v
v ng d
dng
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Tnh
m
c c
ca c
cc t
tp h
hp v h
hn

Ph
Php ch
chng minh t
tnh
m
c
a ch
chng minh A l tp h
hp v h
hn
m
c,
cn xy d
dng m
mt ph
php song nh gi
gia A v
v (s t nhin)

a Cho A l
l mt t
tp h
hp :
V

Nu A c
c hu h
hn ph
phn t
t th
th A
c g
gi l
l m
c
hay li
lit k
c (Enumerable)

S ph
phn t
t ca A gl bn s
s (l
(lc l
lng) c
ca A,
k hi
hiu card(A)

a V d :
V

Khi
, card(A) = card(B)
v tn t
ti nh x
x 1-1 gi
gia A v
v B

a Cho A, B l
l hai t
tp h
hp
m
c, khi
c th
th :
V

Tp h
hp c
cc s
s ch
chn l
l
m
c :

Cc s
s hu t
t dng b v
vi b
b0 l
m
c :
0
1
1
2
1
3
{ ( , 0), ( , 1), ( , 2), ( , 3), ( , 4), ( , 5), ... }
1
1
2
1
3
1

A v
v B c
c cng b
bn s
s nu song nh :
card(A) = card(B)

A = { i | i ch
chn }, B =

Nu A B th
th
card(A) < card(B) K < , K (Natural Number Set)

{ (0, 0), (2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), . . . }

a

a Tham kh
kho Uncountable Set Of Languages
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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

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N. Chomsky: The Language Hierarchy

L thuy
thuyt ngn ng
ng hnh th
thc v
v tmat

Free Languages
Languages accepted by
Turing Machines
Context-Sensitive
anbncn ?
ww ?

a L thuy
thuyt ngn ng
ng :
V
V
V

Ngn ng
ng : phng ti
tin/cng c
c giao ti
tip
Cch xy d
dng/t
ng/to m
mi ngn ng
ng
Cch bi
biu di
din (th
(th hi
hin) ngn ng
ng

a Cng c
c o
on nh
nhn ngn ng
ng : tmat
V
V
V

tmat h
hu h
hn
tmat
y xu
xung
My Turing

a Cng c
c sn sinh ngn ng
ng : Vn ph
phm
V

Context-Free Languages
a n b n wwR

PDA

Phn c
cp vn ph
phm c
ca N. Chomsky :

Regular Languages

Vn ph
phm ch
chnh quy
Vn ph
phm phi ng
ng cnh
Vn ph
phm c
cm ng
ng cnh
Vn ph
phm t
t do

a * a *b*

DFA

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Cu trn b
bng ch
ch

Bng ch
ch v cu
a Bng ch
ch (Alphabet, Set of Letters), k hi
hiu :
V l tp h
hp h
hu h
hn c
cc ch
ch (letters),
V hay l
l cc k t
t (symbols, hay characters)
a Bn s
s (Cardinality) hay lc l
lng :
V L s l
lng c
cc k t
t ca , k hi
hiu ||
||||

a Cu (Sentence), hay t (Word), xu (String) trn cho :

V

l dy h
hu h
hn c
cc k t
t ca ,
c vi
vit lin ti
tip nhau

a di (length) c
ca cu :
V

a V d bng ch
ch :

l s cc k t
t c mt trong cu

a Cu r
rng (empty word) :

{#}
|| = 1
Unary Alphabet
{ 0, 1 } ho
|| = 2
Binary Alphabet
hoc { a, b }
{ , , , }
|| = 4

{0, 1, 2, ... , 9}
Ch s thp phn, || = 10
{I, V, X, L, C, D, M}
Ch s La M
{aA, bB, cC, ... , zZ}
Ch ci La tinh
{, , , ... , } ch ci Hi Lp
Bng m ASCII, bng cc nt ch Hn :

l cu c
c
di 0 (khng ch
cha k t
t no)

k hi
hiu

a Gh
Ghp (concatenation) cu :
V

l t k
k ti
tip cc cu cho
(trn c
cng dng)
nh
nhn
c m
mt cu m
mi

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* : t
tp h
hp m
mi cu trn

Th t phn cp trong *
a V d : = {a, b, c}, v
vi gi
gi thi
thit a < b < c :

a Cho tr
trc :
V

To sinh tu
tu c
cc cu b
bng c
cch gh
ghp lin t
tc, tu
tu

Ta nh
nhn
c m
mt t
tp h
hp ch
cha mi cu c
c th
th trn

K hi
hiu *

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* l
l
m
c v
v ta c
c th
th
nh s
s (li
(lit k) t
tt c
c cc cu
ca * (k
(k c c r
rng ) b
bt
u t
t 1 tr
tr i :

a * gl m
mt cu tr
trc
ng
ng (Coequality)
V

Ph
Phn t
t trung ha (Neutral Element) l
l cu r
rng

a Quan h
h th
th t to
ton ph
phn (Total Order) trn * l
l :
V

th
th t phn c
cp (Hierechical
(Hierechical Order) theo
di cu

th
th t t vng (Lexicography), hay ABC, c
cc k t
t

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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

B
i t
p : Vi
t o
n tr
nh C sinh ra {
ttp
Vi
o
tr
,,
,,
,, }** ?
Bi
Vit
on
trnh

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18/76

Formal languages

More about Languages

a Given an alphabet , we can make a word or string

a The empty string is the unique string with zero length

by concatenating the letters of

a Concatenation of two langauges:

langauges:
a Concatenation of x and y is xy
xy

AB = { xy | x
xA and y
yB }

a Typical example: ={0,1},

={0,1},

a Typical examples:

the possible words over are the finite bit strings

L = { x | x is a bit string with two zeros }

L = { anbn | n }
L = {1n | n is prime}

a A Formal Language is a set of words

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A Word of Warning

Recognizing Languages
a Let L be a language

Do not confuse the concatenation of languages

with the Cartesian Product of sets

a A machine M recognizes L If

For example
Let A = {0,00} then

accept if and only if wL

AA = { 00, 000, 0000 } with |AA|=3,

M
if and only if wL

reject

AA = { (0,0), (0,00), (00,0), (00,00) }

with |AA|=4

a M is a DFA (Deterministic Finite Automata)

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X l c
cc
i t
tng trong Tin h
hc

Kh
Khi ni
nim my tr
tru t
tng (Machine)

ai t
tng (Objects) :
ph
phn t
t (tr
(tru t
tng) thu
thuc nh
nhng t
tp h
hp v h
hn
m
c

D liu vo

aBi
Biu di
din i t
tng (Representation)
V S

dng dy h
hu h
hn c
cc k hi
hiu n
no


t tng ng

a M h
hnh IPO :

nh
nhn d li
liu v
vo (data) v
v cho kt qu
qu ra (result)

c bi
biu di
din
i t
tng b
bi cu (word)
trong m
ch (alphabet) h
hu h
hn n
no

mt bng ch

V Quy

a Hai c
cch nh
nhn :

aV d :

V C c

s
s nguyn trong h
h
m c s
s 10
Ph
Php c
cng hai s
s 1999 + 1 = 2000

Cch nh
nhn ch
chc nng (functional look)

Nh
n ngo
i
Nh
ngo
Nhn
ngoi

Cch nh
nhn cu tr
trc (structural look)

Nh
n trong
Nh
Nhn
trong
a Phn bi
bit c
cc ki
kiu m
my tr
tru t
tng (machine type)
V

V C c

chu
chui k t
t ASCII
Ph
Php gh
ghp hai chu
chui ni
ni + na
na = ni na
na

theo b
bn ch
cht c
ca k
kt qu
qu tnh to
ton
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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

D liu ra

My

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Ch
Chc nng o
on nh
nhn cu

Ch
Chc nng tnh to
ton
My t
tnh to
ton (Computation Machine)
V Gi
Gi s d li
liu v
vo w*,
kt qu
mt b
bng ch
ch no

qu ra l mt cu r trn m
V Khi
, m
my th
thc hi
hin t
tnh h
hm f t * v
vo * :
f : * *
Ngh
Ngha l
l w *, f(w) *
V Hm f
c g
gi l
l hm to
ton ph
phn (Total Function)
nu v
vi m
mi cu v
vo w*, m
my
u cho k
kt qu
qu f(w)*

My o
on nh
nhn cu :
V

Gi
Gi s d li
liu v
vo w*,
kt qu
qu ra r{0, 1}, hay {False, True }

Tp h
hp cu v
vo w gl ngn ng
ng (language)

C ba kh
kh nng cho k
kt qu
qu :
1. True ho
hoc False
2. Mt k
kt qu
qu kh
khc
3. Khng cho k
kt qu
qu no

Hai t
tp h
hp cu v
vo ng v
vi hai kh
kh nng
u l
l b nhau
nu m
my cho k
kt qu
qu cho m
mi d
d li
liu v
vo

Ng
Ngi ta c
cng n
ni ki
kiu m
my o
on nh
nhn
ch
ch l tr
trng h
hp
c bi
bit c
ca ki
kiu m
my t
tnh

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Cch nh
nhn c
cu tr
trc (Structural Look)

M h
hnh t
tnh to
ton

a My
c x
xc
nh b
bi :
V

Mt t
tp h
hu h
hn c
cc ph
php to
ton

Mi ph
php to
ton m t
t mt ph
phn c
cu tr
trc c
ca m
my

My th
thc hi
hin (execution) m
mi ph
php to
ton
trong m
mt kho
khong th
thi gian h
hu h
hn v
v xc
nh

a nh ngh
ngha c
cc l
lp m
my c
c cng nguyn l ho
hot
ng
a Thay
i chng tr
trnh
gi
gii b
bi to
ton trn c
cng m
mt m
my

m khng thay
i m
my gi
gii

a M h
hnh t
tnh to
ton (Computation Model),

k hi
hiu T l
l s m t
t :

a Ph
Php to
ton s c
cp (Elementary Operation)
V

l ph
php to
ton nh
nh nh
nht (khng chia c
ct nh
nh hn)
hn)

a Chng tr
trnh (Pprogram) :
V

L tp h
hp c
cc ph
php to
ton s c
cp
gi
gii m
mt b
bi to
ton n
no

a Mt tnh to
ton (Computation) :
V

Tt c
c cc ph
php to
ton s c
cp

Nh
Nhng
i t
tng n
no c
c th
th tc
ng ph
php to
ton

Cch th
thc hi
hin chng tr
trnh trn m
my

a Mt tr
trng h
hp ring (instance) c
ca m h
hnh l
l my c
c th
th
M h
hnh + Chng tr
trnh = M
My

L vi
vic th
thc hi
hin l
ln l
lt c
cc ph
php to
ton s c
cp
theo m
mt th
th t xc
nh tr
trc

a M h
hnh t
tnh to
ton T
c g
gi l
l mt T
Tmy
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Kh
Khi ni
nim b
bi to
ton (Problem)

Mt s
s v d bi to
ton (1)

a Mt bi to
ton

Bi to
ton 1 :
V D li
liu : Mt s
s nguyn vi
vit trong h
h 10
V Cu h
hi : S nguyn cho c
c l s nguyn t
t hay khng ?
Bi to
ton 2 :
V D li
liu : Mt s
s nguyn vi
vit trong h
h 10
V Cu h
hi : S nguyn n
ny
c vi
vit d
di d
dng

Cn gl bi to
ton quy
quyt
nh (Decision Problem) :
V

M t
t cch bi
biu di
din (h
(hu h
hn) c
cc ph
phn t
t
ca m
mt t
tp h
hp h
hu h
hn hay v h
hn
m
c

Mt ph
pht bi
biu lin quan
n c
cc ph
phn t
t ca t
tp h
hp n
ny

Ph
Pht bi
biu c kt qu
qu c th
th ng, ho
hoc sai

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28/76

a Bi to
ton trong Tin h
hc l thuy
thuyt :

tng c
ca 4 s
s bnh phng ?

Kh
Khc v
vi kh
khi ni
nim b
bi to
ton thng th
thng trong To
Ton h
hc

Kh
Khc v
vi b
bi to
ton hi
hiu theo ngh
ngha thng d
dng

a Ch
Ch c
cch x
xc
nh b
bi to
ton trong c
cc llnh v
vc Tin h
hc :
V

Phn t
tch v
v thi
thit k
k h th
thng

Tr
Tr tu
tu nhn t
to
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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

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Mt s
s v d bi to
ton (2)

Mt s
s v d bi to
ton (3)

Bi to
ton 3 :
V D li
liu : Mt s
s nguyn vi
vit d
di d
dng

Bi to
ton 5 :
V D li
liu : Mt bi
biu th
thc ch
chnh quy (Regular
(Regular Expression)

tch c
ca c
cc s
s hng trong h
h 10

V Cu

Bi to
ton 4 :
V D li
liu : Mt
th
th hu h
hn G
c bi
biu di
din

V Cu

bi m
mt danh s
sch c
cc
nh v
v cc cung,
mi
nh l
l mt s
s nguyn trong h
h 10

V Cu

c xy d
dng trn m
mt b
bng ch
ch
(l mt bi
biu th
thc nh
nhn
c t
t cc cu w*
bi c
cc ph
php ho
hoc, ph
php gh
ghp ti
tip, ph
php *
v ly b
b)

h
hi : S nguyn cho c
c l s nguyn t
t hay khng ?

h
hi : C ph
phi bi
biu th
thc cho
ch
ch
nh ngn ng
ng tr
trng (Empty Language) ?

h
hi : C tn t
ti
ng i Hamilton

(i qua h
ht t
tt c
c cc
nh c
ca
th
th,
mi
nh i qua
ng m
mt l
ln)
trong
th
th G cho khng ?

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Mt s
s v d bi to
ton (4)

Bi to
ton tng ng Post
(Post
(Posts correspondence problem)

Bi to
ton 3n+1 (b
(bi to
ton d
dng) :
cha c
c cu tr
tr li v
v tnh d
dng !

a D li
liu : Mt dy h
hu h
hn c
cc c
cp cu (u1, v1), (u2, v2)..., (uk, vk)
a Cu h
hi : Tn t
ti hay khng m
mt dy ch
ch s i1 , i2 ,...in sao cho

function threen(n: integer):

integer): integer;
integer;
{ recursive }
begin
if (n = 1) then 1
elsif odd(n)
odd(n) then threen(3*n+1)
else
threen(n div 2);
end;
end;

tho
tho mn ui1 ui2... uin = vi1 vi2... vin ?

V d : cho * = {a, b, c }
V dy c
cc c
cp cu :
{(ab, aba), (ab, ba), (bab, ba), (ab, bab) }
Cho cu : babababab

Tn t
ti dy ch
ch s {3 , 2, 2, 4} sao cho tho
tho mn :

bab.ab.ab.ab = ba.ba.ba.bab
3

2 2

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Mt s
s kh
khi ni
nim kh
khc

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34/76

Phn l
lp b
bi to
ton theo ph
phc t
tp (Complexity)
Dng O

a Cho b
bi to
ton P,

ngn ng
ng
c trng (Characteristic Language) c
ca P l
l

Tn phn lo
loi

a Bi to
ton l
l tm th
thng (Trivial)

nu LP = ho
hoc n
nu LCP =

LP = { w * | li gi
gii f(w) = true }
a Bi to
ton ng
ngc CP nh
nhn
c t
t P b
bng c
cch :
V gi
gi

nguyn c
cch bi
biu di
din c
cc d
d li
liu

V t

ng
ngc l
li cu h
hi

*
*

LLPP

Ngn ng
ng LCP = { w * | Khng li gi
gii, hay f(w) = false }

a My gi
gii (solve) b
bi to
ton P n
nu v
v ch
ch nu :

Chi ph
ph a th
thc

w *, m
my x
xc
nh, trong m
mt kho
khong th
thi gian h
hu h
hn,
nu w LP hay w LCP

35/76
35/76

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

Chi ph
ph lu
lu th
tha (c
(cc l
ln)
HHt
t chng
chng11

36/76
36/76

Ni dung chng 2
a My RAM

CHNG 2

M HNH C
CC M
MY RAM

nh ngh
ngha

Cc l
lnh s c
cp c
ca m
my RAM

a M ph
phng RAM b
bi m
my RAM kh
khc
a My RAM v
vn nng

I like the dreams of the future better than

the history of the past
Jefferson

38/76
38/76

My RAM

S
mt RAM

a My RAM (Random Access Machines) :

V

Mt m h
hnh t
tnh to
ton

Gn g
gi v
vi m
my t
tnh i
in t
t v hp ng
ng (Assembly)

a Gm c
cc th
thnh ph
phn
c trng :
V

Mt bng v
vo (Input Tape)

Mt bng ra (Output Tape)

Cc thanh ghi (Registers)

Mt chng tr
trnh RAM g
gm m
mt dy l
lnh s c
cp

Mt thanh
m l
lnh (OC Ordinal Counter)

39/76
39/76

40/76
40/76

M t
t cc th
thnh ph
phn c
ca RAM (1)

M t
t cc th
thnh ph
phn c
ca RAM (2)

a Bng v
vo :
V

a Thanh ghi :

Chia th
thnh (square) lin ti
tip,
mi ch
cha m
mt s
s nguyn, ho
hoc m
mt k t
t a

Mt u
c (read
(read head)
c l
ln l
lt n
ni dung t
tng

u
c ti
tin t
t tr
tri qua ph
phi

S l
lng c
cc thanh ghi c
c th
th ln tu
tu

Mi thanh ghi c
c th
th lu gi
gi mt s
s nguyn

a ch
ch thanh ghi (tn) : R0, R1, R2, ... , Rn...

a B nh
nh ch
cha chng tr
trnh RAM :

Cng chia th
thnh lin ti
tip
Mt u ghi (write head) ghi m
mi l
ln ln m
mt m
mt k
t b, hay c th
th =
u ghi c
cng ti
tin t
t tr
tri qua ph
phi
41/76
41/76

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

Ph
Phn t
t nh
nh
c
nh s
s th
th t

a Ring R0 : thanh tng hay thanh t

tch lu
lu (ACC
(ACCAccumulator)

a Bng ra
V

Dy n v
v nh
nh c
a ch
ch l s th
th t hay nhn c
ca l
lnh

Mi n v
v nh
nh ch
cha m
mt l
lnh s c
cp (primary instructions) khng b
b thay
i khi ch
chy chng tr
trnh

a Thanh
m l
lnh (OC
(OCOrdinal Counter) :
V

n v
v nh
nh ch
cha s
s th
th t ca l
lnh ang
c th
thc hi
hin

Ni dung l
lc
u l
l ca OC l
l 1
42/76
42/76

Lnh s c
cp ca m
my RAM
M
M lnh
lnh

aPh
Phn m l
lnh ch
ch ph
php to
ton
Ton
Ton hng
hng
@
@

Nhm lnh gn :

Nhm lnh s hc :

LOAD

INCR
DECR
ADD
SUB
MULT

Operand
Operand
Operand
Operand
Operand

DIV

Operand

Operand

STORE Operand
Nhm lnh vo ra :
READ Operand
WRITE Operand

Nguyn t
tc
a ch
ch
M
M lnh
lnh

Ton
Ton hng
hng @
@

aPh
Phn to
ton h
hng tham gia ph
php to
ton @ l a ch
ch (address)
aTo
Ton h
hng @ c th
th l mt trong ba ki
kiu sau :
Nhm lnh nhy
(hay lnh ngt,
chuyn iu khin) :
JUMP
JGTZ

Label
Label

JZERO
HALT

Label

Ki
Kiu
a ch
ch

ngh
ngha
Ni dung c
ca thanh ghi Rn, n>0

Ki
Kiu l
lnh tr
trc ti
tip (Absolute)

A:n

@ l ch
chnh s
s nguyn n

Ki
Kiu l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip (Indirection)

I:n

@ l ni dung c
ca Rk vi
k l ni dung c
ca Rn
Rn

Rk

43/76
43/76

44/76
44/76

S dng l
lnh m
my RAM

Quy
c gi
gii th
thch c
cch th
thc hi
hin l
lnh

a Th
Th t th
thc hi
hin c
cc l
lnh c
ca chng tr
trnh P :
V

Th
Thc hi
hin tu
tun t
t (on sequence)

Bt
u t
t lnh
u tin (c
(c nhn 1)

Ngo
Ngoi l
l : khi g
gp l
lnh nh
nhy JUMP Label
th
th lnh c
c nhn Label
c th
thc hi
hin ti
tip theo

a Nguyn t
tc th
thc hi
hin :
V

OC lun ch
cha nhn c
ca l
lnh s
s th
thc hi
hin, l
lc
u l
l 1

Sau khi th
thc hi
hin l
lnh C :
Nu C khng l
l lnh nh
nhy ni dung OC
c t
t
ng
tng thm 1 (increment)

Ph
Php g
gn quy
c :
- i nm bn tr
tri d
du ch
ch Ri
- i nm bn ph
phi d
du ch
ch gi
gi tr
tr ch
chnh l
l i

<i>
<<i>>

Ch
Ch ni dung c
ca thanh ghi Ri
Ki
Kiu l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip :
Ch
Ch ni dung c
ca Rk, v
vi k ch
cha trong Ri

ACC

Ch
Ch thanh ghi R0

OC

Ch
Ch thanh
m l
lnh

<OC>

Ni dung c
ca OC

Nu C l lnh nh
nhy th
th ni dung c
ca OC l
l
a ch
ch ca C
45/76
45/76

Bng l
lnh RAM v
v ngh
ngha s
s dng
Lnh
LOAD n
LOAD A:n
LOAD I:n
STORE n
STORE I:n
INCR n
DECR n
ADD n
SUB n
MULT n
DIV n
JUMP k
JGTZ k
JZERO k

ACC s nguyn n
ACC <<n>>

ngh
ngha

HALT

Dng m
my

READ n

n s nguyn trong d
di
u
c,

WRITE n

Ni dung Rn
c ghi v
vo d
di
u ghi,
u ghi d
dch qua ph
phi m
mt

u
c d
dch m
mt qua ph
phi

<ACC>

<n> <ACC>
n
<n> + 1
n

Lnh HALT v
v cc l
lnh v
vo-ra
Lnh

ngh
ngha
ACC <n>

46/76
46/76

<n> - 1

ACC <ACC> + <n>

ACC <ACC> <n>
ACC <ACC> <n>

OP n (ACC <ACC> OP<n>)

ACC <ACC> / <n>

OC

OC

k n
nu <ACC> 0, n
nu khng, OC
OC<OC>+1

OC

k n
nu <ACC> = 0, n
nu khng, OC
OC<OC>+1

k l nhn (Label) c
ca l
lnh

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

47/76
47/76

48/76
48/76

33

Chng tr
trnh RAM t
tnh gi
gi tr
tr n!
c m
mt gi
gi nguyn n v
vo ACC
nu n = 0, nh
nhy
n nhn 10,
nu khng, th
thc hi
hin l
lnh ti
tip theo
R1 <ACC>
Ch

t nhn
Ch
t
Ch
nhn10
10!!
R2 <ACC>
R1 < R1> 1
ACC <R1>
nu <ACC> = 0 nh
nhy
n 12
22
ACC <ACC> * <R2>
OC 4
read (ACC) ;; ACC cha s n
if ACC = 0 then
ACC 1
R2:=ACC:=1; write (R2)
R2 <ACC> Else
R1:= ACC
ghi ra <R2>
while R1 > 0 do
Dng m
my
R2:= ACC ;R1:= R11;

READ 0
JZERO 10

STORE 1
4: STORE 2
DECR 1
LOAD 1
JZERO 12
MULT 2
JUMP 4
10: LOAD A: 1
STORE 2
12: WRITE 2
HALT
TT
ch
c d
li
u ::
ch
d
li
chc
d
liu
R1
a nn
ch
R1 ch
cha
R2
a n!
t qu
)
ch
(k
qu
R2 ch
cha
n! (k
(kt
qu)

Chng tr
trnh RAM t
tnh gi
gi tr
tr nn

ACC:=R1;ACC:=ACC*R2
od
write (R2)
od
49/76
76

11

6 :

11 :

14:

21:
22:

READ 1
LOAD 1
JGTZ 6
WRITE A:0
JUMP 22
LOAD 1
STORE 2
LOAD 1
DECR 0
STORE 3
LOAD 3
JGTZ 14
JUMP 21
LOAD 2
MULT 1
STORE 2
LOAD 3
DECR 0
STORE 3
JUMP 11
WRITE 2
HALT

R1 s nguyn trn c
ca bng v
vo
ACC <R1>
TT
ch
c d
li
u ::
ch
d
li
nu <ACC> 0, nh
chc
d
liu
nhy
u 6
in ra 0
R1
a nn (lu
lu gi
)
ch
((lu
gi
R1 ch
cha
gi)
v lnh d
dng
t qu
)
R2
a nnnn (k
(k
qu
ch
(kt
qu)
R2 ch
cha
ACC <R1>
R3
a n--- (decriment)
ch
nn-R3 ch
cha
(decriment)
R2 <ACC>
ACC <R1>
read (R1)
ACC <ACC> 1
if R1 < 0 then write (R0)
R3 <ACC>
else
ACC <R3>
R2:= R1 ; R3:= R1 1 ;
nu <ACC> 0, nh
nhy
n 14
while R3 > 0 do
nh

n
21
n

u
<
ACC
>
<
0
nh
n
R2:= R2*R1 ; R3:= R31
ACC <R2>
od
;
ACC <ACC> * <R1>
write (R2)
R2 <ACC>
od
ACC <>
ACC <ACC> 1
R3 <ACC>
nh
nhy
n 11
in ra n
ni dung <R2>
dng
50/76
50/76

49/

Cch ti
tin h
hnh vi
vit tr
trnh RAM

Bi tp
a Vit trnh RAM tnh
V Gi
Gii phng trnh bc nht : ax+b = 0 ?
V np
V Gii h phng trinh tuyn tnh :

a Phn t
tch b
bi to
ton, t
tm
gi
gii quy
quyt
a T ch
chc d
d li
liu :

s dng thanh t
tng ACC v
v cc thanh ghi Ri, i > 0

a Vi
Vit tr
trnh RAM b
bng c
cch l
lp b
bng :
Label
1

Command

Meaning

ax + by = c
dx + ey = f
V
V

a Ch
Ch :
V
V

Khi g
gp c
cc l
lnh chuy
chuyn i
iu khi
khin,
nn c
c x l ch
ch ghi v
v tr
tr nhn l
lnh h
hp l

Ch
Ch i
in nhn l
lnh sau khi hp lu
lu cc lu
lung i
iu khi
khin

USCLN ca p, q
Tng cc s l t mt dy {xn} cho trn bng vo ?
Gi s quy c bng vo cha ln lt cc s nguyn dng
n, x1, x2, , xn
Kim tra xu w trn bng vo l i xng w=wR (Reversion)
c dng lw#, vi l=length(w), hoc w#, kt qu l y, hoc n
trn bng ra ?

51/76
51/76

52/76
52/76

My RAM th
tha nh
nhn ngn ng
ng L

Bn ch
cht c
ca m
mt tr
trnh RAM
a Tr
Trnh RAM x
xc
nh nh x
x t tp bng v
vo ln t
tp bng ra

Vi ngn ng
ng L cho :

a C hai d
dng nh x
x :
V Dng h
hm f : * *

a RAM th
tha nh
nhn L nu th
tha nh
nhn wL
a RAM khng th
tha nh
nhn L, wL

nu x
xy ra hai kh
kh nng :

Tr
c t
t bng v
vo n s nguyn x1, x2, ..., xn
Trnh P
v ghi ln bng ra m
mt s
s nguyn y
u tin v
v dng
Ng
hm f (x1, x2, ..., xn ) = y
Ngi ta n
ni P tnh h
V

Dng ngn ng
ng L *

RAM khng
c h
ht w
ghi k t
t kt th
thc ln bng ra

ho
hoc :

Gi
th i1..n
Gi s bng v
vo c
c cu w = a1a2 ... an vi ai th

th
th n+1 ch
cha # k t
t kt th
thc dy

RAM b
b hc (crash),
ho
hoc khng bao gi
gi dng : qu
qun (go round)

Ta n
ni w
c th
tha nh
nhn nu RAM
c h
ht w, k
k c #
RAM vi
vit ln
u tin c
ca bng ra k t
t kt qu
qu v dng

53/76
53/76

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

54/76
54/76

Bng phn bi
bit

Phn bi
bit m
my RAM v
vi MTT hi
hin nay
a Gi
Gi thi
thit c
cc m
my RAM :
V

C ty c
cc thanh ghi, x
x l c
cc s
s nguyn l
ln t
ty

Chng tr
trnh trong b
b nh
nh RAM khng b
b thay
i khi th
thc hi
hin

My RAM

Tuy nhin c
cc MTT hi
hin nay khng ph
phi nh v
vy
a My RAM kh
khc MTT nh sau :
V

MTT hi
hin nay

C ty c
cc thanh ghi

Hn ch
ch

X l c
cc s
s nguyn l
ln t
ty

Hn ch
ch

Chng tr
trnh khng b
b thay
i Chng tr
trnh c
c th
th b
khi th
thay
thc hi
hin
i khi th
thc hi
hin

Tp l
lnh s c
cp h
hn ch
ch

Phong ph
ph

D li
liu v
vo c
c dng chu
chui

Bi
Biu di
din phn bi
bit
(s
(s nguyn, s
s thc)
thc)

Tp l
lnh s c
cp
c ch
chn h
hn ch
ch hn so v
vi c
cc h
hp ng
ng th
thc t
t
Tuy nhin, v
vn khng l
lm m
mt t
tnh t
tng qu
qut
nu ti
ng k
k tp h
hp c
cc l
lnh s c
cp
tip t
tc gi
gim

D li
liu v
vo c
c dng m
mt dy k t
t (m
(mt dy c
cc ch
ch s)

My RAM
c l
ln l
lt t
tng trn bng v
vo
tnh to
ton,
v vi
vit l
ln l
lt t
tng k
kt qu
qu trn bng ra

55/76
55/76

56/76
56/76

M ph
phng RAM b
bi m
my RAM kh
khc

V d m ph
phng m
my RAM

aCho m
my RAM M c
c tr
trnh P s
s dng R0 v R1Rp

Dch chuy
chuyn c
cc
a ch
ch thanh ghi

aMy RAM M
M c tr
trnh P
P

a Cho m
my RAM c
c tr
trnh P s dng R0 v R1Rp

aMy RAM M
M m ph
phng m
my RAM M n
nu :
V Tn t
ti nh x
x I : , sao cho I(0) = 0
V Vi m
mi l
lnh c
ca P
c th
thc hi
hin,
th
th mt l
lnh c
ca P
P cng
c th
thc hi
hin
V Cc thanh ghi R c
ca M ch
cha k
kt qu
qu ca P
V Cc thanh ghi I(r) c
ca M
M ch
cha k
kt qu
qu ca P
P
a t
tng :
V T m h
hnh (MH) t
tnh to
ton chu
chun (ch
(chng h
hn RAM
RAM) XD
V Tm c
cc bi
bin t
tu, hay m ph
phng MH chu
chun cho
V Tm c
cch ch
chng minh r
rng MH m
mi tng ng MH chu
chun
V Sau
xy d
dng MH (m
(my) vn nng bt ch
chc m
mi MH kh
khc

a Xy d
dng m
my RAM kh
khc c
c tr
trnh Pm m ph
phng tr
trnh P

nh x
x I xc
nh b
bi :
V I (0) = 0
V I (r) = r + m
vi r > 0
a X l c
cc l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip :
V

S dng ADD A:m trong c

cc l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip ki
kiu I:n
I:n

Rn

I:I(n) RI(n)

Rk

k+m

Rk+m

57/76
57/76

My RASP

58/76
58/76

S
my RASP

a RASP (Random Access with Stored Program)

a My RASP kh
khc m
my RAM :
V RASP c
c th
th thay
i n
ni dung thanh ghi ch
cha chng tr
trnh,
v do v
vy, c
c th
th thay
i chng tr
trnh
V R0 v R1 ca RASP d
dng l
lm thanh t
tng ACC
(lu gi
gi trung gian n
ni dung c
ca R0 trong m
my RAM)
V R2 Rp (p s nguyn l
l) ch
cha chng tr
trnh c
ca m
my RASP
V T Rp+1 tr
tr i l
l cc thanh ghi tr
trng

a Dng m
my RASP
bt ch
chc (Mimic)

mi l
lnh c
ca m
my RAM

59/76
59/76

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

60/76
60/76

10

RASP m ph
phng ki
kiu l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip

V d m ph
phng l
lnh MULT I: n

a Tr
Trnh P ca RASP :

c lu gi
gi t R2
n Rp

31 I:n

Khi P ch
chy s
s dng Rp+1
n Rq

50 STORE

a Xy d
dng tr
trnh P mi m ph
phng P :
V

c lu gi
gi t R2
n Rp

Khi P ch
chy s
s dng Rp+1
n Rq+p
q+pp

Trnh
TrnhPP
RASP
RASPm
mphng
phng

30 MULT

R1 <ACC>

51 1
52 LOAD
53 n + p
p- p
54 ADD A:

a Thay th
th mi l
lnh ki
kiu gi
gin ti
tip bi 6 l
lnh tr
trc ti
tip

55 p- p

Gi
Gi tr
tr pp l 2(6
(61)
1)s = 10s
vi s l tng s
s lnh ki
kiu gi
gin ti
tip c
ca chng tr
trnh

56 STORE
57 61
58 LOAD
59 1
60 MULT

Trnh
P
TrnhP
sau
saukhi
khim
mphng
phng

Lc bt u, x l gi tr no

ACC Rn + (p p)
ACC <ACC> + (p p)

Mi ln thc hin :
Nu Rn ca P cha k, thanh ghi Rk
cha s nguyn cn nhn,
Th x s c gi tr l n+p-p, ti R61

R61 <ACC>

Nh vy, P b thay i khi thc

hin m phng trnh P

ACC <R1>

P m phng mt lnh gin tip ca

P thnh cc lnh trc tip

ACC <ACC> * <Rx>

61 x
61/76
61/76

62/76
62/76

V d : d
dch chuy
chuyn tr
trnh RASP c
c mt l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip (2)

V d : d
dch chuy
chuyn tr
trnh RASP c
c mt l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip (1)
Tnh v
v in gi
gi tr
tr : (1+a) if ab, (1+b) else
sau khi d
dch chuy
chuyn th
thnh P
P :

Tr
Trnh RASP xu
xut ph
pht P :

Cc
lnh
trc
tip

Trnh P b thay i khi thc hin

63/76
63/76

M h
hnh m
my RAM th s

M ph
phng c
cc ph
php to
ton

(Rudimentary RAM model)

a M ph
phng ph
php to
ton trn chu
chui b
bi ph
php to
ton trn c
cc s
s nguyn

a Thu g
gn t
ti a t
tp h
hp l
lnh s c
cp c
ca m
my RAM

a Kh
Kh nng m
my RAM x
x l k t
t v x l s
s nguyn

a Tm c
cch bi
biu di
din c
cc s
s nguyn

Bi
Biu di
din nh
nh phn {0, 1}

Bi
Biu di
din th
thp phn {0, 1, ..., 9}
Bi
Biu di
din s
s nguyn l
ln i h
hi ph
phi c
c nhi
nhiu thanh ghi

S l
lng h
hn ch
ch cc thanh ghi trong MTT hi
hin nay

Ph
Php nhn s
s nguyn bi
biu di
din chu
chui 200 v
vi 28
Ph
Php c
cng t
tch s
s kt qu
qu vi s
s nguyn bi
biu di
din chu
chui 5
200

200

28 +

a Ng
Ngc l
li, c
c th
th m ph
phng c
cc ph
php to
ton s
s hc trn c
cc s
s

nguyn b
bi ph
php to
ton s c
cp trn c
cc chu
chui k t
t

65/76
65/76

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

Mi k t
t (ch
(ch s)
c m h
ha b
bi m
mt dy bit {0, 1},
ch
chng h
hn 8 ch
ch s cho m
mt k t
t (~ ASCII)
Mt s
s nguyn (dy ch
ch s 0..9)
0..9)
c bi
biu di
din nh
nh chu
chui bit
Dng ph
php to
ton trn c
cc s
s nguyn
nh
nhn
c c
cc chu
chui bit

V d 200
200 + 5 :

a Hn ch
ch :
V

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11

V d chuy
chuyn
i l
lnh ng
ngt JUMP n

Thu g
gn t
tp h
hp c
cc l
lnh RAM (1)
a Chuy
Chuyn
i l
lnh ng
ngt JUMP n v hai ki
kiu l
lnh :
V Nh
Nhy
V Lnh

Cho a v
v b trn bng v
vo.
In ra max = a, if a>b, else in ra max = b

n
nu g
gp 0 (zero) JZER
d
dng m
my HALT

READ 2
READ 3
LOAD 3
SUB 2
JGTZ 8

a Phng ph
php :
V S

dng R1 lm trung gian

lu gi
gi ni dung c
ca ACC
v
vo tr
trc m
mi l
lnh g
gn nhn c
cc l
lnh sau :

V Thm

STORE 1

R1 <ACC>

LOAD 1

<ACC> R1

sau thay th lnh nhy bi :

STORE 1

R1 <ACC>

LOAD A:0

<ACC> 0

JZERO n

goto n
n, if <ACC> = 0

8:
9:

Vi n l nhn ca lnh LOAD 1 t trc ngay lnh c nhn n

trong my xut pht

WRITE 2
JUMP 9
WRITE 3
HALT

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V d chuy
chuyn
i l
lnh ng
ngt JUMP n

Thu g
gn t
tp h
hp c
cc l
lnh RAM (2)

Cho a v
v b trn bng v
vo. In ra max = a, if a>b, else in ra max = b

WRITE 2
STORE 1

c a v
vo R2
c b v
vo R3
ACC <R3> (ACC ch
cha b)
ACC <ACC> - <R2> (ACC ch
cha bb-a)
nu bb-a 0, nh
nhy
n nhn 10,
nu khng, th
thc hi
hin l
lnh ti
tip theo (a>b)
In ra max = a
R1 <ACC>

LOAD A:0

<ACC> 0

READ 2
READ 3
LOAD 2
SUB 2
JGTZ 10

JZERO 12
10: WRITE 3
STORE 1

goto 12, if <ACC> = 0

In ra max = b
R1 <ACC>

12: LOAD 1
13: HALT

<ACC> R1
Dng m
my

c a v
vo R2
c b v
vo R3
ACC <R3> (ACC ch
cha b)
ACC <ACC> - <R2> (ACC ch
cha bb-a)
nu bb-a 0, nh
nhy
n nhn 8,
nu khng, th
thc hi
hin l
lnh ti
tip theo (a>b)
In ra max = a
nh
nhy
n l
lnh 9
dng m
my
In ra max = b
Dng m
my

a Thu g
gn t
tp h
hp c
cc l
lnh s
s hc

Chuy
Chuyn
i c
cc l
lnh s
s hc (+, -, *, /) v
v hai ki
kiu l
lnh :
V

INCR (tng
(tng 1)

DECR (gi
(gim 1)

a Chuy
Chuyn
i l
lnh nhn MULT n bng c
cch :
V

Thm <n> ln n
ni dung c
ca thanh t
tng R0

a Chuy
Chuyn
i l
lnh c
cng ADD n bng c
cch :
V

Tng thm 1 (INCR

(INCR)) ng <n> ln n
ni dung c
ca R0

S dng c
cc l
lnh STORE,
STORE, LOAD,
LOAD, JGTZ,
JGTZ, DECR

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V d chuy
chuyn
i l
lnh nhn MULT n

return:

lab:

STORE
LOAD
STORE
LOAD
STORE
LOAD
JZERO
DECR
LOAD
ADD
STORE
JUMP
LOAD

1
n
2
A:0
3
2
lab
2
1
1
3
return
3

M h
hnh RAM th s
a Tp h
hp c
cc l
lnh t
ti thi
thiu

R1 <ACC>
ACC <Rn>
R2 <ACC>
ACC 0
R3 <ACC>
ACC <R2>
goto lab, if <ACC>=0
R2 < R2> 1
ACC <R1>

a Chng tr
trnh l
l dy l
lnh mang nhn
a Ph
Phn m l
lnh @ :
<n>
ch
ch
nh n
ni dung c
ca Rn
<<n>>
ch
ch
nh n
ni dung Rk vi k l ni dung c
ca Rn
Lnh

ngha

I <n>
D <n>
Z <n>
S <n, m>
J <n> (i, j)

Tng thm 1 ni dung ca thanh ghi n

Gim bt 1 ni dung ca thanh ghi n
t ni dung ca thanh ghi n v 0
Hon i ni dung cc thanh ghi n v m
Nu ni dung ca thanh ghi n l 0,
nhy n lnh c nhn i,
nu khng nhy n lnh c nhn j
Dng my

HALT
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LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

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12

My RAM m ph
phng m
my RASP

V d mt trnh RAM th s
a Cho tr
trc c
cc s
s nguyn n v
v p, c
cn t
tnh n + p ?
V T

V M y

Nhn

2
3
4
5

a Ta th
thy m
my RASP c
c th
th m ph
phng m
my RAM

ch
chc DL : R1 ch
cha n v
v R2 ch
cha p

a Ng
Ngc l
li, my RAM c
cng c
c th
th m ph
phng m
my RASP.

Nguyn l m ph
phng nh sau :

d
dng khi R1 ch
cha n + p v
v R2 ch
cha 0
Lnh

ngha

J <2> (5, 2)

I <1>
D <2>
J <3> (1, 1)
HALT

Nu ni dung ca R2 l 0,
nhy n lnh c nhn 5,
nu khng nhy n lnh c nhn 2
Tng thm 1 ni dung R1
Gim bt 1 ni dung R2
Nhy n lnh c nhn 1 (vi mi R3)

a Cu h
hi : Cho bi
bit
thu
thut to
ton trn ?

Khng s
s dng l
lnh gi
gin ti
tip

Chng tr
trnh RASP
c lu gi
gi t R4
n Rp ca RAM

R1 dng l
lm
a ch
ch gi
gin ti
tip

R2 dng m ph
phng OC c
ca RASP

R3 dng m ph
phng ACC c
ca RASP

My RAM m ph
phng l
ln l
lt t
tng l
lnh c
ca RASP

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My RAM v
vn nng

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Gi
Gii PT ax+b = 0 ?

a Ta xy d
dng c
cc m
my RAM v
v my RASP
a Hai lo
loi m
my n
ny c
c th
th m ph
phng (b
(bt ch
chc) nhau
a Cc m
my m ph
phng, hay bi
bin t
tu,
u tng ng nhau

theo ngh
ngha cng th
thc hi
hin ch
chc nng cho :
V
V

Ho
Hoc t
tnh h
hm
Ho
Hoc o
on nh
nhn cu

a Mt c
cch tng t
t, ta ho
hon to
ton c
c th
th :
V Xy d
dng m
mt m
my RAM
m ph
phng ho
hot
ng c
ca t
tt c
c my RAM kh
khc
theo ngh
ngha tng ng trn
V Mt m
my RAM nh v
vy
gl m
mt my RAM v
vn nng (Universal RAM)

HHt
t chng
chng 22

LTTnhTon_Ch1.M u Ch2.RAM

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13