sbifikeifn 1 1 Sift efrikat a:tikjuleifn voism sil ' gn dif0nn 1 konektid ud spitk vb] astikj —brnnaind frevel ecksent. falaizeifn prosodi reijn fooniun sa bikwnd ton bisl stop tid Porson konsonant simbl daiokritik raw hias su:prasegmentl noiz frikj{n weiv raul d3 mans pitf hed teil wstarisk okse i fort ign difOon glaid levi gwids rekognifn pasepfn risepf kwolati koran! no: susegmentl metrikl vnset veerieifn k haiettas lengwid3 ju:nivais| akarons kompavnd_freiz ilisn_difMon visla_naelatl sdi Atrons. kriOriginalmente publicado como Cuadernos de la Facultad, coleccién Monografias Tematicas N? 16, Facultad de Historia, Geografia y Letras, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educactén, Santiago de Chile, mayo de 1998. © Héctor Ortiz-Lira 1998 Se prohibe toda reproduccién ‘otal o parcial por cualquier medio escrito 0 electrénico sin autorizactén escrita del autor.FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE THEORY Of PROMINENCE, 3.6 SIN ENGLISH SIMPLE WORDS... CONTENTS Introductio Prominence... Suess and accent Accent and prominence. Degrees of word stress. Word sess notation. Suess shin. Introduction. . Word stress and syllable patterning. Word stress and suffixation. Word stress and grammatical category Word stress in RP and American English Alternative stress patterns Word stress patierns. : Two-syllable words. ‘Three-syliable words. Four-syllable words. Five-syltabie words. Six-syllable words. Seven-syllable words IN ENGLISH COMPOUND WoRD: Introduction. Terminology zi Compound word stress and EFL dictionaries Labels for stress in compounds and coliocations..... Single stress in compounds and coilocations.. RECord player. OXford Street, DEANSgate 5.13 Miscellaneous... “ s ouble stress in compounds and collocations.. 6.1 KiTchen SIN: BOOKshop. 3 RAINdrop... 3 WIRE-tapping, TIME-consuming 3 WALKing stick, LENDing library. 3.5.6 » BLACKboard, RALDhedd.. 3 MOTH-eaten, V-shaped. 3 HOME Sick. 3.5.9 COOKbook, DAYbreak, 3 TAKE-off. 3 BACKground. 3 5. De 3.37 SENTENCE ACCENT. 4.1 Iniroduction. 42 Nuclear accent. 43° Naclearity 44 Nucleus placement theories 4.4.1 The traditional model.. 44.2 The syntactic model. 4.4.3 The semantic model. 44.4 The focal model. 44.4.1. Broad and narrow focus.. 4.4.4.2 Advantages of the focal Appiah 4.4.4.3 Newnes and givenness. 44.4.4 Nucleus placement and givenness... 4.4.4.5 Exceptions 10 LT rule... 44.4.5.1 Event sentence: 44.4.5. Nounstinfinitives. Wh-questions ending with a verb; Final relative clauses. Nouns+adjectives/participics.. ‘Transitive verbstobject+verdal particle. Indirect quesuots.. Subject+passive verb Objects of general referenes.. Final vocallves. pal reporting clauses... nal advcrbials. si 5 Other pattems in broad and narrow foc NOTES ese : REFERENCES PRACTICE MATERIAL... BAby BOY. BUCKingkam PALac: APple PIE so COMpect DISC, SECond-HAND, BRAND-NEW... i OLD-FASHioned.... HAM-FISTed, HOME-MADE. ROLLIng STONE. DARK BLUE... PeRSAbROR 5.6.10 3.6.11 3.6.12 ‘Three-word. compounds... 7 3.7.1 SECond World WAR. 3.7.2 moming AFter pille« 3.7.3 MERRY-go round,Word sess ond sentence cccnt sinracnanscsnecencsN AS Se mmnannmenenneene (7) PRESENTATION The materials contained in this booklet have been designed to meet the needs of the sudents who ave taking the last courses in English phonetics at teacher-training college level. We intend 10 offer the latest theory available in a way which is accessible 10 sudents, together with plenty of practice material for marking ‘und reading This booklet is divided into four main sections. In the first, an analysis is carried out of the basic notions related to prominence: in the second, the problem of stress in simple words is revisited; the third addresses the topic of stress in compounds, and in the fourth, postlexical (or sentence) accentuation is examined in detail. We are aware that the students’ success in matters of prosody is particularly influenced by their mother tongue, and that is why constant comparison with Spanish is made, in an effort to point out differences and similarities. A final appendix contains practice material for users to analyse and mark. This, together with the examples in the chapters, represents the largest collection of data on the subject ever published for EFL purposes. A key to the exercises together with a casseite containing the majority of the examples in the text are also available, PRESENTACION El material de este cuaderno ha sido diseftado con el fin de satisfacer las nécesidades de los alumnos de los tilimos cursos de fonética inglesa a nivel universitario. Es nuestro pro- pésito ofrecer los més recientes contenidos tedricos de una manera que reculie accesible a los alumnes, ademas de abundante material para practicar lectura y ejercitar marcacién. Eltrabojo std dividido en cuatro secciones. En la primera, se analican las nociones bésicas relacionadas con prominencia; en la segunda, se revisa el tema de la acentuacién en palabras simples; la tercera parte desarrolta ta aceniuacién de palabras compuestas, y la quarta examina en detalle le acentuacién contextual. Estamos cons- cientes de que la lengua materna ejerce particular influencia sobre tos resul- tados que logran los alumnos en ‘materia de prosodia y es por eso que, en un esfuerzo por resaltar diferencias ‘ysimilitudes entre las dos lenguas, se Tecurre a constantes comparaciones con el casiellano, El apéndice al final del texto comtiene material de préctica para ser analicado y marcado. Este, junto con los ejemplos de tos captulos, representa el mayor corpus publicado para propésitos de ensenanca. Existe una clave para los ejercicios y wa grabacisn en casete de la mayoria de los ejemplos.Word stress ond sentence occent Ante 1 Fundamental concepis of the theory of prominence Lt Intropucrion In this opening chapter we shall look al various concepts which are coniral to a theory of promincnce. This includes an analysis of notions such as stress, accent and prominence, a discussion of the thorny issue of degrees of stress, notation systems for stress and accent, and finally a re-examination of siress shill, Since we are catering for learners whose mather tongue is Spanish, constant reference to similar problems in that language is included in our discussion. 1.2 PROMINENCE The first task we must embark upon is to clucidate the distinction between the notions responsible for highlighting portions of utterance, We shall begin by analysing the most basic of the concepis, that of prominence.’ When we spoak we give more emphasis to some parts of an ultcranes than to others. We can make a syllable siand out with respect to its neighbouring syllables in a word, and in doing so the word containing that particular syllable will stand out with respect to the rest of the words in the uticrance. The clements which produce prominence at syllable level are: ()) pitch contrast, (ii) loudness, (iii) length and (iv) quality. As with all aspezts of speech, these conretates can be described and defined in articulatory, acoustic and auditory terms, i.c. from the point of view of the person (speaker) who produces prominence, from the physical viewpoint (hat i8, sound wave ochaviour), and from the listencr’s angle (ic. the way he perecives prominence). In the EPL situation acoustic criteria seem to be of limited application and consequently we shall concentratc on the production and, more particularly, on the reception stages, rather than on the transmission phase. E21 prc Differences in pitch are produced al the vocal folds: the tenser the vocal folds, the faster they vibrate, and de higher the now that is produced an articulatory characterisation. Bub ‘we cannot actually feel Our vocal folds vibrating faster or slower. What we hear is a higher or lower note. So articulatorily pitch depends mainly on the wension and consequent raie of vibration of the vocal folds. Auditorily, it is that property of a sound, in terms of which it can be placed ona scale running from high to tow. 1.2.2, Loupness From an articulatory point of view, loudness is caused by greater muscular energy and. breath force. Auditorily, it is defined as that property of a sound which enables us, using only our ears, to place iton a scale going from loud to soft. So the speaker feels this feature in one way extra cnorgy- and th: Hstoner hears it in another way ~cxtra loudness,Héctor Ortiz Lira {ARAN AB NAA NNN 1.2.3, Lunar Itis not necessary for our purposes to define length from the pointof view of the person who produces it. Auditorily, itis that property of a sound which enables us, using only our cars, to place it on a scale that goes from long to short. 1.2.4 Quantry Articulatorily, quality depends on the shape of the cavitios or resonators (mainly the mouth), whose function is to modily -sometimes amplify, sometimes suppress— the almost inauditle note produced at the vocal folds (commonly known as ‘voice’ but more appropriately, vocal fold vibration). Auditorily, quality is defined as that feature in terms of which two sounds, similarly presented and having the same pitch, loudness and length, are still perceived as different; we say that [2] and (az, for instance, differ in terms of quality. In English, syllables containing (0), (i), [u] and syllabie consonants are normally pereaived a5 weak; te vowels, 7] and [ol glay’a dual role, and the est are strong, Another way of referring to these two types of vowels is full and reduced. ‘The following table summarizes the auditory correlates of prominence. c.g. Correlates Syllables pret high 6 low LOUDNES: loud «> soft LENTIL long «short QUALITY strong weak Awe analyse the tie of this chapter from the point of view of prominence, we will most probably conclude that there are four syllables which stand out from the rest. Here we show them in small capitals, c.g. FUNdamental CONcepts of the ‘THEOTY of PROMIncnee. These four syllables are made prominent mainly because they contain strong vowel sounds produced with relatively grater loudness and, more important, with pitch movement or contrast.’ Tn sum, all four elements can play a part in making a syllable stand out over the rest. They co not all play an equally important part, though, nor are all four always present together. In the example above there are also cight non-prominent syllables. ‘These are, from Teftto right, -de-, -ral, of, the, -ry, af, -in-, -ence, all of which consist of weak vowels or, in the case of “tal, absence of vowel. There are two syllablés which are more prominent than the eight weak ones, bul less prominent than the first four we analysed, c.g. -men- und -cepts. These two contain the strong vowel [e], and il is fairly possible that in a normal reading of the utieranco, a native speaker would identify syllable-men- with some kind of a ‘thythmic beat’, i.e. a combination of extra loudness and length. The really prominent syllables arc so identified because they display the most decisive of the elements producing prominence ~pitch contrast. ‘There is a notation system called ‘interlinear tonctic’, which is a type of narrow tcanscriplion for intonation. in which cach syllable is represented by a dot; a large. Got indicates a prominent syllable; a smal! dot, @ non-prominent one. Since the upper Tine corresponds to the speaker's lop pitch range and the otiom line to his bottam pitch range, itWn i id ian oon seccmnncnonennnsitcnnn i eS a maaancemamaacny (7) follows that the pitch of cach individual syllable, prominent ard non-prominent, can be shown. In the following diagram the size and hight of cach syllable indicator represent only relative values, ¢.g.- (1.1) fandomentl konsepts ov 80 Grori av prominans 1.3. STRESS AND ACCENT ‘The labels stress and accent have along tradition in prosodic studies but it is oaly since the beginning of the seventies that the majority of phoncticians have come to agree on the notions they refer to. Whereas prominence is exclusively a phonetic notion ‘uscd to refer to the general distinctivenoss of an utterance of any length’ (Crystal, 1969: 120), stress and accent have phonological status. In this booklet we are also using prominence as blanket term which covers all phenemene related to tho highlighting of sylables in words tind Of words in longer utterances; hence the tile of the chaptor. Important differences can be established between stress and accent, In the first place, stress is a feature of the word, a lexical abstraction or a decontoxtualised form whic becomes concrete realisation only if the word gets an acceat in an uticrance; henes, accent a feature of the utterance, i.c. a concrete, contextualised category. ‘This makes accent an observable phenomenon, as opposed to stress, which is merely analytical, To sum up, stress isa potential for accent and accent is an exponent of stre: Let us explain the above in practical terms. Dictionaries give every word of two or more. syllables a stress mark; each stress pattern represents not only an entry in the dictionary but also an entry in our mental lexicon, i.c. each word is stored in our mind in the form’ of a pattom of sounds (ie. a phonemic pattern) and a pattern of prominences (i.c. a stress pattem); in more technical terms, stress is a phonological propery of words.’ Stcsscs in words, however, cannot guarantee that the word will get an accent in a particular context, since this will depend on tivo main factors —the rhythmic structure of the utterance, as will be explained in §1.7— und pragmatio-discoursel principles, which regulats accenwalion according to (i) word classes content words are much more acceatable than structural words, Gi) the information structure of the utterance (roughly, words representing. information got an accent while those conveying given information tend not to), and language specific rules which, in the case of English, assign more accents to nouns than to verbs in particular constructions. (Sce chapter 4.) Monosyilables are never shown bearing stresses in dictionaries. This docs not mean that they do not have a stress but simply that showing tho stress on the only syllable available would be redundant. This explains why an unstressed dictionary form may very well nood an accent in a given context, as is the case in STRESS and ACcent have been NEAR SYNonyms Jor a LONG Tis, where a normal reading would assign accent to four monosyliabies,Héctor Oris Lira (2) mss HHOANANANANIMANATANISH ARAL ‘The fact that words make use of pitch contrast in ultcranees in order to convey prominence -a festue they do not display al lexical, decontextualised level has made various authors differentiate between siress and accent according to which of the correlaics of prominence is the most dominant feature. Therefore, they define accent as a feature of prominence whose main perceptual component is pitch change; this has originated the tem ‘pilch accent’, widely used in modern descriptions; by way of contrast, they define stress as a feature of prominence in which the dominant perceptual component is loudness. According ‘o this view, in (1.1) the first thee prominent syllables hear stress, and the lasl, accent Followers of this view are. A.C. Gimson (1962). Crystal (1969), Lehisie (1970), O'Connor & Arnold (1973), and Cruttenden (1997) 14 Ac ENT AND PROMINENCE, As was pointed out earlier, tho most casily perceived type of prominence is pitch prominence: signalled by changes in pitch; but since pitch contrast also happens to he the main indicator of accent, the two phenomena, accent and prominence, are often confused in certain contexts, In this Section we shall attempt to point out the danger implied and clear up this confusion, There are three main places in an intonation group* where pitch prominence an be confused with pitch accent. The first occurs just aftcr the lasi (nuclear) accent, particularly if the prominent syliabl is said on a relatively high pitch, e.g. some in example (1.2), or if it performs a rising pitch movement after an accented fall, e.g. does in (1.3). In interlinear notation, prominent syllables are marked as 0, e.g. (1.2) dju wont sam (1.3) bobi daz ° Confusion between accent and prominence in this position is the most troublesome of all, since the major part of the meaning of the whole utterance is conveyed by the portion beginning at the last accent (technically known as ‘nuclear tone’). Wha is crucial in our theory is that neither of these prominent syilables is accented because they do not initiate Bitch contrat, but simply complicit some completes a rise and docs, the sing end of a all-rise. We shall say that a syllable is accented when it begins pitch contrast. As can be seen in the interlinear representation of examples (1.2) and (1.3) (Contextualised below as (1.4) and (1.5), respectively), the last accents -WAWT and BOB-— are actually beginning pit movement: the former, a movement ‘up-from’ and the latter, @ movement. ‘down- from Spanish learners often mistake prominent syllables lor accented ones at the end of utterances, Particularly when a rising tone is involved, which resulls in an unmistakable sign of foreign accent, cf. (1.4) ‘These grapes are deLicious. D'you WANT some? (*D' you went SOME?) (15) At Nobody ever WRITES to her. B: BOBby does. (*Bobby DOES.) Ambiguity between accent and prominence can also take place before the first accent inWord stress and sentence accent AEAULA Lea the intonation-group, in the stretch of utterance technically known as ‘pre-head’, and it involves. words which are of the unaccentable type and usually take weak-form pronunciations, e.g. pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, ctc., as in (1.6) tt dgast didnt oka: Here the syllables it just are prominent but unaccented. The first pilch accent is ‘step-down’ on did and the nuclear accent -cur, as a movement ‘down-from’. In normal circumstances, the first two syllables would be very near the ‘baseline’ ic. slightly above the boltom pitch. (This high, though unaccented, stretch of utterance conveys an emphatic clfect.) Examples such as There are NO possiatlities! [Sara nau posabilatizi and You'dl've THOUGHT it was FEAsible! [jud av Oo:t it waz fizzabl/ can be said with a pitch pattern very similar to that in (1.6), particularly if a protesting overtone was to be attachod; both can begin with two high (therefore prominent), unaccented syllables. Finally, ambiguity between prominence, and accent can occur when the first pitch accent, which indicates the beginning of the * head” *, and the last pitch accent, which is the nucleus, form a sequence of level tones, either high or low. The accentual status of any other prominent syllables occurring between these two accenls will be obscured by the absence of pitch contrast, as is the case of the syllahles ask- and who's in It's NO good ASKing WHO'S fo BLAME, Some authors refer to these syllables as ‘tertiary stresses’, since stresses do not involve pitch prominence. In the present analysis we shall leave the question unsolved and rofer to these syllables as either accented or prominent, Fortunately, in this position in the intonation-group, the neutralisation of the contrast does not have any practical clfect o.g. realised as a (1.7) its nev gud askin hu:z ta blerm The pitch accents in a head such as that in example (1.1), sometimes refered to as, ‘stepping head’, form a series of steps-down in which they do in fact iniGete a movement and will be considered accents In summary, (i) rotall prominent syllables are accented, and (ii) the majority of accented syllables are prominent, though given the phonological status of accent— il is periecily possibic to find accented syllables which are perceived as non-prominent and, in oxime cases, accented syllables which are hardly perceived at all, c.g. the gesture which realises the first accented syllable in Jones” much quoted utterance Thank you pronounced [kKkju] (1956: 245). The formulaic overtone implied by syllable thant siarling rising movement from a rather low pitch makes the listener perceive only the second, prominent syllable, you. (Gones said there was a subjective stress on the first double consonant.) This solution posesdct Ort ira another problem for the identification of accent, that of the ‘subjective effort” hypothesi: ‘The view is disputed by phoncticians who deny the possibility of considering syllable which are not perceived by the listener. We can think Of similar patterns in Spanish, c.g. jClarof as an answer implying the obvious, with a very low, voiccless first syllable. Th interlinear notation of the English utterance shows a prominent syllable only, c.g, (8) k kju ° The native speaker and listener do not always depend on the same clues as the foreign student for the perception of accent. When two native speakers communicate, they ant sharing the same linguistic code, and consequently will make judgements based no on what Uhy actually hear, but on what they know they should hear: From this point of view, the native lisiener’s perception of accent is subjective as it is influenced by his previous Knowledge of the language. He normally knows where accent is and will scidom confuse it with promincnce. This type of confusion may lead to ambiguity. 1.5 DEGREES OF WORD STRESS The question of how many levels of stress can be distinguished in English words is not without problems. The same ean be said of Spanish, for that matter. Spanish speakers are normally aware of the existence of one syllable in every word (of more than one syllable) which they identify as accented: this is the syllable carrying primary stress. The oxistence of other (secondary) stresses in relatively longer words is an aspect of Spanish phonology native speakers tend not to be aware of, and one on which linguists do not fully agree. ‘The existence of at least two degrees of stress in certain English words of «wo or more syllables is an issue more firmly settled. The traditional American school of prosody accounts for four degrees primary, secondary, tertiary and weak (e.g. Trager & Smith, 1951: 37). Chomsky & Halle (1968: 16) speak of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary or zero. In the British school, Kingdon (1958b) recognises the existence of three. Ucgrecs ~primary. secondary and weak or unstressed, The lates. version (1989) of the IPA (international Phonetic Association) alphabot provides marks for two degrees only, primary and secondary. OF the two pronouncing dictionaries published in Britain in the 90's, LPD (Wells, 1990: 683) recognizes three main degrees of siress (primary, secondary and trary) plus two further degrees, which are typical of syllables carrying no stress marks but which, have a strong vowel (fourth degree) and a weak vowel (Lifth degrec). Although EPD (Jones, Roach & Hartman, 1997: xii) recognizes three levels, it finally sticks 10 only two in order 6 avoid unnecessary complexity. Roach (1991) operates with three primary and secondary stress and prominent syllables. Lastly, GPE (Gimson & Cruttenden, 1994) distinguishes four degrees primary, secondary, full vowel and reduced vowel-, but al citation level, however, it operates with only two marks, one lor primary and one for secondary. ‘The following table shows the various levels of word stress according t9 GPE (1994), LPD (1990) and the present author:Word stress and sentence accent ALA GPE LPD This_work L primary stress, primary stress primary stress 2 secondary stress secondary stress Sccondary stress 3 fall vowel tertiary stress prominent syllable 4° reduced vowel strong vowel on-prominent syllable 5 weak vowel ‘Only two degrees of stress will be accounted for and conscquently marked in the present analysis, ‘These two stresses have phonological status, i.e. their distribution in the word, togolher with the phonemic pattern that is, each word taken asa sequence of phonemes and stresscs~ specify the phonological information with which the lexical item is recorded in the mental lexicon. The other two types of syllable, prominent and non-promineat, ar: mere i |. A syllable is prominent when it contains a sirong, vowel or displays (but does not initiate) some kind of pitch movement or performs a thythmie beat If we want to establish a correlation between degrees of stress, as a purely lexical feature, and accent, 2s a contextual feature, we can conclude that primary stresses ar the most logical candidates for nuciear accents and that secondary stresses can become nuclear accents only in utterances implying some kind of contrast. (Problems related to accentuation in contexts will be analysed in chapter 4.) This type of difference between primary and secondary stresses is, then, of a functional nature; another view would be to differentiate between them in sirictly phonetic terms and say that one is stronger (or weaker) than the other. A characterisation in perceptual terms is, however, subjective and liable to lead us into difficulty. The following diagram shows the possible correlations, starting from the least marked (i.c. ‘normal’) contexts; -> means ‘can he realised as’. c.g. Lexical level Contextual level primary stress > nuclear accent, prenuclear accent, unaecented sylluble in pre-head and tail; secondary stress > prenuclesr accent, unaecented syllable in pre-head and tail, nuclear accent in contrastive contexts; prominent syllable, ~> —unaccented syllable in pre-heaé and tail, nuclear accent in very contrastive contexts; non-prominent syllable _-> _unaccented syllable in pro-head and tail. 1.6 Worn stRess NOTATION Phoncticians have. used different notation systems to represent word stress. Some of them show primary stresses only, while others show primary and sccondary stress nolations ae of a more phonological nature, whereas others, more phorctically indicate tho pitch movement which normally accompanies siressed syllables usually a falling tone on the last, primary stress. The following are the most common types:Héctor Ort ire 1.6.1. The syllable carying primary stress is capitalised; tho secondary stress is loft unmarked, eg. PronunciAtion, BAby sitter, plum PUDding 1.6.2 The stressed syllable is underlined; cither the primary only or both, primary und ‘ondary siresses, can be shown, e.g * pronunciation, pronundation, baby sitter, plum pudding, plum pudding 1.6.3. The stressed syllables are assigned numbers, 1 for prima etc.; other numbers can be used to indicate further degrees of stress, €. 2 for secondary, baby sitter, plam pudding, brand-new car, elevator operator 1.6.4 Stress marks are placed cither before or on top of cach syllable bearing the Stress; several sub-systems can be identified, among which the system that uses " for Primary stress and , for secondary is the most widespread in BFL dictionaries and other reference books produced in the UK; these marks have been recommended hy the IPA far over 70 years. The tonetic-stress marking system invented by Kingdon (1939) continues to be the most widely used in intonation courses produced in Britain, c.g. 1.6.4.1 (‘=primary, , =secondary,. =tertiary) sdecon, tamination, ‘baby sitter, 'baby sitter, 'baby , siticr 1.6.4.2 (~ =primary, ' =secondary) 'decon'tam? nation, “baby sitter, plum pudding, ‘plum ‘pudding 1.6.4.3 (> =primary,' =secondary,, =tertiary) ‘decon, tamination, “ele, vator ‘ope.rator, “black, board ‘rubber 1.6.4.4 (“ =primary, * = secondary, * = tertiary) décontimindtion, White House, white héuse (=not a brown onc), élevAlor SperMlor 1.6.5 All syllables are accounted for in ‘inteelincar notation’ -a sort of pictorial, narrow transcription indicating steesses/accents and pitches. The conventions are as fellows! alarge tailed dot = primary stress; a large filled dol = secondary stress; a large mply dot = prominent syllable; a small dol = non-prominent syllable. ‘This transcription was originally invented o show intonation, but at this point we shall use it to indicate word siress. In (1.9), lwo words are transcribed with their citation pronunciation, which normally implies falling intonation ~first with tonetic-stress marks and then in interlinear notation, e.g. (1.9) ‘di:part'mentl ‘di:kon'tamimeit e0%) o-% 1.6.6 (@ =primary, @ = secondary, o = prominent, « = non-prominen). This notation,Wor a it tana mee SC tr eT icone (TB) sometimes referred to as ‘tadpole’, is a simplification of the inteslinear notation; it accounts for all four types of syllable with no indication of pitch movement, c.g. brand-new car © 0 ® differentiate © +6 +0 In this work we shall normally ui the tonetic stress marking system, a sort of broad transcription which fulfills two roles: it displays accenwation by prescnee and pitch movement according to the shape of the mark; as explained before, prominence is left anmarked. The pictorial nature of the notation, which makes it relatively casy 10 interpret, together with the economy represented by the small number of marks it Consists of, explain why the system has been successfully adopted in various intonation courses. ‘The use of * for primary stress shows the normal association of this stress with a falling nuclear tone, typical of citation forms. For instance, the citation pronunciation of the word departmental Pein t°mentl/ contains all four levels of prominence/stress. If we number the syllables from 1 (left) to 4 (right) we find that syllable | bears sceondary stress; syllable 2 is prominent; syllable 3 has primary stress, and syllable 4 is non-prominent. Notice, however, that in the cilation pattern of the phrase departmental meeting /'di:pa:tment! “mistig/ the syllable starting pitch contrast is no longer the third syllable, but the first. This phenomenon is explained in the next scction. 17 STR SHIFT By definition, a syllable bearing primary stress is the one. which normally initiates pitch contrast; a secondary stress is less likely to be pitch contrast initiator, but it can certainly play that role. when the. rhythmic pressure of the context (ic. the neighbouring prominences) causes the redistribution of stresses called ‘stress shift’. This change of roles is the result of the tendeney in English to separate strong, primary stresses by weak, unstressed syllables. AA similar tendency is not unknown in Spanish. The problem is that there is still fairly amount of research to be done in order to identify the accentual behaviour of double-siresscd items which reverse their stress patterns in a way similar to English when used in connected speech. This would explain why a word such as 'veinti “cuatro, wilh two potential stresses, becomes ‘veiniicuatro “mil, and why the question ¢Estds de ‘acuerdo? can cither got the answer Abso ‘luta* mente or Abso ‘lutamente de acuerdo. This tendency towards stress shilt scemis more noticeable in English than in Spanist. The pressure exerted by adjacent stresses jn Spanish, for instanco, would make an English speaker say the names “Ivan, “Torres and ‘Fidel ° Castro, rather than the normal Spanish pattems [ ‘van “Torres and Fi ‘del “Castro. Other patiems, of the BBC type "bi: bi: ‘si, "be be “se/—are the same in both languages, eg. JVC, KLM, FBI, etc. Stress shift in English affects both simple and compound words whose citation pattem consists of a secondary siress followed by a primary stress in the same word. This double- stress pattern, however, accommodates {0 the pattem of stresses which procede and follow in the text, in such a way thal stresses on consecutive (or almost consecutive) syllables art avoided. For instance, tne accentuation of the phrase preconceived ideas comes from the citation patterns ‘precon’ceived +i deas. The resulting pattem is, however, ‘preconceived ideas, in which syllable pre-, originally carrying secondary stress, becomes the only pitch movement initiator in the word, and the original primary Stwess, -ceived, becomes a mere rhythmic beat for which there is no mark available in’ our system, 7 (In other notation systems a mark is provided for these. prominent syllables.) This stress pattern reflects theHéctor Onis Lig attributive function of the adjective, ic. the adjective premodilics the head of the NP. In Your i 'deas are precon*ceived the adjective is predicative, ic. itis part of the predicate, and consequently it is the secondary stress on pre- which is lost. Othor examples’ with double~ stressed simple words aro, 0.g. (1.10) citation forms: ‘atmos “pheric, ‘audio “visual, ‘auto°matic awibutiveuse: ‘Let's di 'scuss ‘atmospheric “pressure ‘Why not ‘use ‘audiovisual “aids We 'made the ‘rip on ‘automatic > Predicative use: The ‘music was ‘highly atmos “pheric The ‘system we use is audio ‘visual The ‘process is ‘fully auto‘ matic Double-stressod compounds can also be subject to stress shift when used as adjectives or advorbs, cither atributively or predicatively, c.g. (111) citation form: ‘double “decker attributive use: 'Double-decker ‘buses are ‘typically ~British predicative uso: 1 love double-“deckers (1.12) citation form: 'second-"hand attributive use: I'm ‘talking about ‘second-hand ‘furniture predicative use: The ‘books were ‘bought second-hand (113) citation form: —yetl-"formed aunbutive use: This is an e 'xample of a ‘well-formed ~sentence predicativeuse: Sentences ‘must be well-formed Similarly, proper names and names represented by initials can also undergo stress shift in the same conditions, e.g, (1.14) citation form: ‘Pica “dilly auributive use: Let's ‘go to ‘Piccadilly Circus predicative use: She ‘lives near Piccadilly (1.15) citation form: 'C SD aliributive use: The ‘new ‘version's on 'CD “Rom predicative use: I ‘have iton C*D Stress shift also affects phrasal verbs, the citation pattems of which consist of two stresses, ¢.g. (1.16) citation form: "come ‘out altributive use: The ‘pictures ‘came out “wellMord sens and sntence accent momannnrnnsnnnacn Ett tt enamtnanencncanne (17) predicalive use: The ‘pictures ‘didn't come “out A small group of single-, latc-suressed adjectives, exhibit a similar wndency. Their predicative pattem is the same as their citation pattem *, c.g. (1.17) citation forms: excess, compact, di “rect alributiveus: We ‘had to ‘pay ‘excess “baggage I'd ‘like to ‘buy her a ‘compact “disc A ‘transitive ‘verb takes a ‘direct “object (1.18) predicative use: I'ma 'fraid he ‘smokes to ex°cess The ‘new ‘flat is 'very compact We ‘went 10 the ‘beach direct The above ulso ozcurs in a number of single-siressed place names, c.g (1.19) citation forms: Ber “in, Bel fast atitutive use: ‘When was the ‘Berlin “Wall knocked down? He ‘ives on ‘Belfast “Avenue predicative use: We ‘went through ‘East Ber” lin The ‘capital of ‘Northern ‘Ireland's Belfast Finally, short phrases containing two stresses and which combine with further stressed material can also be affected by stress shifi, c.g. (1.20) ‘very “warm + "welcome = a ‘very warm “welcome (21) Mairly “new + ere*ation = a \jairlynew ere “ation (1.22) 'good “night + kiss = a 'goodnight ~kiss (1.23) a 'hard “day + night = = a ‘hard day's (1.24) a "lot “more + rain = a ‘iotmore “rain (1.25) a ‘lot “less + *money = a lot less “money (1.26) 'not “very + much = ‘not very “much (1.27) ‘much “more + at™ention = ‘much more at*tention (1.28) Yor “less +ex°citing ‘far less exciting (1.29) ‘quire a ~bit + “older = ‘quite a bit “older (1.30) ‘very “little + time ‘very little “timeHéctor Ort Lice ‘suman ee goes dll nn ANNES 2 Stress in English simple words 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The first thing that necds to be clarified is to state what we understand by simple word. Strictly speaking, a simple word is onc which is made up of a single grammatical unit called scm, ¢.g, photograph, judge. Derivatives such as photography, photographic and pre- Judgement are not, technically speaking, simple words, but complex, becituse they contain alfixes (cithor prefixes andior suffixes). For EFL purposes, howover, it will be better 0 consider all three cxamples as simple words. Stress in compounds will be dealt with in chapter 3 The second aspe (© the way in which Spanish speakers can Icam English stress patiems. The two main views on the subject are that () ke rules that govern English stress placement in words are so complicated, that students had beuer lear the patiern of cach word as they learn the word itself; (ii) the Icamor should keop in mind the most common nukes that predict stress placement in words and apply thom whenever necessary: these are phonological rules, which establish relationships between phonemic palteming and stress (in §2.2 stress is related to English vowols), and morphological rules, which indicate the relationship between suffixes and stress (sec §2.3) end also between grammatical class and stress, ¢.8. “progress (noun)~ pro “gress (verb; sce §2.4). A further rule, which has to do with etymology, predicts stress placement according to whether the word is, for instance, of Germanic, Greck or Latin origin. However, given that our students of English arc, on the whole. not familiar with dizchronic studies, we shall not take up this analysis. Finally, a special difficulty is met with stress variation —the stress patiem of a few words depends on British vs. American preference and, furthermore, RP speakers sometimes vary in the strss pattern they use. the result being that a few words have altemative patterns (sc §2.5 and §2.6, respoctively.) Spanish speakers are recommended to make use of as many different types of information as possible in order to predict stress placement in simple words. They should also beaware of the large number of exceptions to the rules. Rules and main exceptions are analysed in the next scetions.” 2.2 WORN STRESS AND SYILAQLI: PATTERNING The English phonological yowel system may be said to consist of two separate subsysicms, ‘strong and weak, cach one corelating with syllable siress. ‘Thus, whercas stressed syllables can only have sirong vowels, unstressed syllables can be made up of either Suong or weak vowels. In the table below, the column ‘stressed’ indicates what vowel Phonemes can gei a siress in English syllables; the last two columns indicate what vowels make syllables either ‘prominent’ or ‘non-promineat’. The following conclusions may be drawn from the table: (| Any vowel apart from /2, i, w/—the so-called ‘unstressable vowels’ may occur with either a primary or sccondary stress, /i, u/ are not to be confused with fiz, ud, c.g. bikini for kivnil. The rest of the vowels may be siresscd or unstressed.Word suees ond sentence accent onmcrcennecmsmnaa te mance (ii) All long vowels and certain short vowels always make syllables prominent; this means that thoy arc inherently prominent. (iil) A, v/ belong to both subsystems. For instance, in the word minimum /'minimam/, Jv plays the part of a strong vowel in syllable 1 and a weak vowel in the next syllable. Syllables containing /i, u/ arc prominent if they are stressed; this is because thesc vowels do not have inherent prominence. The last four types of syllables are always considered non- prominent. prominent _non-prominent Strong vowels (long): is . . a: : : o . . ur . . 3 . . all diphthongs . . Strong vowels (short): 1 ° . ‘ « : . ¢ * . v ® o 5 ‘ Z Weak vowels: i a j . o 2 a . 5 . syllabic consonants : Other rules help predict stress in words depending on the phonological structure of the. syllable involved. For instance, in the verbs supply, prefer, explain, vtc., the stress coincides with a long vowel, whereas in vary, differ, ctc., the final short vowels. are unstressed. Something similar occurs with the’ nouns control, desire, debate, on the onc hand, and with story, metre, apricot, on the other. Still other rules are based on the number of syllables and final consonants a word has. This type of information is probably the mostHéctor Ore Lire complicated to remember, but experience has shown that the meaningful element is brought into the discussion. For instar Kk is made if a more 2 comparison of long Spanish cognate words with the corresponding English forms may help learners fix stress patterns in their minds, e.g. English vorb forms ending in -ate(d), and Spanish forms in -ar, -ado, ctc. bring out marked differences, as in (2.1) “complicate, “complicated compli car, compli” cado decorate, “decorated deco rar, deco” rado “modify, ‘modified modifi car, modifi cado “satisfy, “satisfied satisfa” cer, satis “fecho | “organize, organized organi” zar, organi *zado i realise, realised realizar, reali” zuclo ify (ified), ‘ise(d), cw. In general, English three-syllable words have a strong tendency to bear stress on the =antepenultimate syllable. '° In the next section, the influenee of suffixes on word stress is Jooked at in greater depth 2.3. WORD STRESS AND SUFFIXATION Word siress is partly predicted from morphology. This means that the addition of suffixes will determine stress placement according to whether the suffix leaves the stem pattern unaliered, or whether it attracts stress towards itself, or shilts it to the preceding syllable. The following are among the most productive examples: 2.3.1 SUBFIXES NOT AFI ECTING STEM STRESS -able,-ible _re“ly, reliable; “notice, ‘noticeable; di” vide, divisible ful “plenty, “plentiful; for “get, forgetful less colour, “colourless; re*gard, re “gardless -by ‘passionate, ‘passionately; “separate, “separately -ment “manage, “management; develop, de “velopment -ness de“ cisive, decisiveness; “arbitrary, “arbitrariness Exceptions: admire, “admirable; Elect, eligible; neglect, “negligible. Also in ielligible 2.3.2 SUMMIXES ATTRACTING STRESS “ee address, caldress" ee; “interview, ‘interviewee ~ese journal, journal “ese; Japan, Japan ese ete disc, di~skeite; “laundry, ‘launder ette 2.3.3 SUPPIXES REJECTING STRESS ‘The following suffixes reject “ic artist, aF tistic; economy, ‘eco? nomic: -ion © blige, ‘obli*gation; inspire, ‘om pare, “comparable; prefer, “preferable ress to the immediately preceding syllable, cg.Word stress ond sentence accent sececnnacnncsicnsunn SE et et Set cmaamnmacnenanecae (2) sity “curious, ‘curiosity; “solemn, solemnity Exceptions: - “Arab, “Arabic. Also arithmetic, “catholic, “lunatic, politic, “rhetoric: Leamers are well-advised to pay attention to the rules governing the so-called ‘stress alternations” resulting from the addition of affixes to stems so as to form relatsel words. ‘Tho application of phonological rules may cause changes in both the pattern of phonemes and stress placoment. An examination of the correspondence between phoneme and spelling reveals that vowels vary with stress. ‘These rules may provide students with futher clues to predict stress patterns. In the following cxamples. the tadpole notalions da not indicate prominent, unstzessed vowels, as in diplomat /*diplamaet/, c.g. 22) (+) Ger) © @ms diplomat diplomacy diplomatic photograph —__photogrophy photographic benefit beneficence beneficial democrat democracy democratic polities political politician competence competitor competition. (2.3) (w) * ©: explain explanation compete competition incline inclination derive derivation repeat repetition invite invitation 2.4 WORD STRESS AND GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY Stress placement may distinguish between certain nouns and adjectives, on the one hand. and verbs, on the other, most of which are two-syllablo words with identical spellings and identical or similar phonemic patiers. This is one of the easiest rules for the prediction of stress placement which learners can put into practice. All they have to remember is: that nouns and adjectives take stress on the first syllable and verbs on the second. Notice that @ similar rule operates in the Spanish noun “rérmino and we adjective “wiliime and the corresponding verbs ter mino, termi°né, ul Yimo, ulti ~mé. In this Section we shall examine 40 of the most common pairs. In the majority of cases, the unstressed syllable of the verb contains a weak vowel (¢.g. suspect /Sa°spekU/, contest /kan test, bul this tendency is not So strong with nouns and adjectives, since the unstressed syllables of these words ary prominent, c.g. /kontest/, /sAspekt/, as can be soon it (24) accent annex attribute conduct conflict contest —_comtruct contrast convert convict decrease defect. — desert —estort exploit export extract frequent object perfect permit pervert present produce ‘progress project protesi_—_ rebel record subject survey suspectHéctor Ortiz Lira Ina few cases it is only the stress pattern which distinguishes bewween noun and ver, as in the pair /impoit/ (n.) ~ fim post (¥.). Similarly: (2.5) dictate digest discount — increase — insult torment " transport 2.5 WORD STRESS IN RP AND AMERICAN ENGLISH ‘There is noticeable variation in stress placement between British and Ami particularly in words of French origin. In general, the tendency here place the primary stess on the last syllable, following a more ‘French’ pronunciation, $0 to speak, whereas the British prefer an carly stress. The following is a list containing the most, common examples of two-, three-, and four-syllable words. They are mostly nouns, with a few adjectives, e.g. 2.5.1 TWOSYLLABLE WORDS RP ~ AmE wo ce) hallet, beret, brochure, café, cliché, collage, coupé, crochet, debris, detail, gateau, glacé, paté, plaiea, précis, premiere, sacket, vaccine; (®) (o>) Verbs in -aie: dictaie, donate, locate, migrate, vibrate, cte.; moustache, stewardess, trachea; 2.5.2 TUREE-SYLLABLI worDs fw) (@+@) attaché. fiancée): ee) (e+e) cabaret emigré, matings, protégé, resumé: (@re) (H+) cigarette, magazine, margarine, souvenir 2.5.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS. (665+) (eer) advertisement (Fee) (wees) laboratory enw Gee) aluminium A further difference hetween British and American English involves. Presence or absence of vowel reduction in the suffix of a few words ending in -ary, -ery, -ory, -ony, -berry with primary stress cither on the antepenultimate or earlier syllable. Whereas the British version favours clision of schwa, the American version prefers a strong vowel, which some views identify with socondary or tertiary stress, We shall say the difference does not imply siress but merely prominence. e.g 2.6) RP - AmE secretary, library Psekeatei,“latbri Psekroteri, “larbreri/ monastery, cemetery fmonastri,"sematri/ _ /'monasteri, “semateri/ord sve ond sentence ecco saunrnaninananananinna Se mmnannunanomnnnnn (3) territory, category teratsi, “keetagrif Pterata:ri, “kactagaxri/ testimony, matrimony [testimani, “maetrimani/ /testimouni, “metrimouni/ strawberry, blackberry Pstratbri, blaekbri! ——_Pstra:beri, “blekberi/ 2.6 ALTERNATIVE STRESS PATTERNS There are a number of words with optional stress patterns, the most common of which students should be aware of, in order not to discard the options they have not adopted as correct. In most cases preference is due to generation differences among RP speakers. ‘The list below contains some of the most representative examples, with the mcommended option firsi, following the information given in the current pronunciation dictionaries. The following notations do not account for prominent syllables, e.g. 2.6.1 TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS (@) ~ Ge) adult, brochure, bureau, contact (v.), decade, defect (n.), detail, finance, meanwhile, mishap: Gm) - @) bouquet, elsewhere, ice cream, regime, research, terrain, weekend; 2.6.2, THIREE-SYLLABLE WORDS: (we) - wey dispurant, exquisite, uprising; (@ +9) = (9) sonorous, uprising: (ere) ~ (+9) registrar, souvenir, submarine; (w+) ~ (ese) caravan, discothéque, kerosene: 2.6.3 FOUR-SYLLABLEWORDS (ery) ~ wm Gee) - @ controversy, exigency, formidable, kilometre: applicable, contribute, demonstrable, despicable, disputable, explicable, hospitable, metallurgy nomenclature; +e) television @: 2.0.4 FIVE-SYILABLE WORDS, (ere 24) ~ ees) momentarily, necessarily 2.7 WORD STRESS PATTERNS ‘The main stress pattems in their citation forms are illustrated in the next section, The following principles are worth mentioning, c.g. (i) Every word has one, and only one, primary stress. (ii) Secondary siresses (normally one, less frequently two) always precede, and neverHéctor Ortiz Lira 4) wm srrsn nnn Sieh fansanaMNNRNmRGAMANENANHARES Follow. primary stresses in words. (Soe §1.6 and §3.3 for other views). Ther is a strong terdency in English for secondary and primary siresses 10 be separdicd by. unstreeeed syllables. Therefore, consecutive siresses ~secondary and primary— are relatively unusual. They derive mostly from prefixation, eg. redo rif du, unlike [an laik/ cle, (i) hance syllable word with a primary stress on the lust syllable has a secondary stress on the antepenultimate syllable, ¢ p. magazine /'maego'zitn; in u few cases where Ike Pera, Suess Hs on the penultimate syllable, the secondary may occur on the previous syllable, c.g. remarry 'ri:*merif. A four-syllable word with 4 primary stress on the penultimate syllable has a secondary stress on the first syllable, v.g. conversation /'konva “Seif: if iLhas the primary stress on the last syllable, then the sceondary strcos nal ‘normally bbe on the first syllable, e.g. misunderstand 'misands'stzend/ (iv) Five. and six-syllable words with the primary stress on the fourth syllable from the left take the secondary siress cither on the first syllable. ¢.g. organisation /'o.ganarzeifn/, or on the second, e.g. consideration /kan'stda'reift/. Similarly, irritability Prita-balat, responsibility /1'sponsabilati/. (©), English derivatives do not always follow the stress patter of the roois they come Ca i Person | psisnl, personification Jpo'soniti “Keifnl; compare: kat “peal, comparable Pkomprabl, (vi) Primary stresses usually separate vowels occurring Produced, rather than the conesponding i phonology would prefer), c.g. variation /'veati et), Wes tjeifn, grav dgweifn, We shall use the so-called "tadpole" notation to acount for syllables (see § 1.6.6). ce. 2.7.1 TWOSYLLABLE WoRDS 2.7.1.1 Primary siress-tunstressed syllable (w +) Senate, mountain, chocolate, preface, island, cireus, colour 2.7.1.2 Primary stress+prominent syllable (@ 0) contrast, access, contact, empire, expert, aspect, climat Unstressed syllabic¢primary stress (+ # ) again, fatigue, career, caress, patrol, offence. remark 2.7.1.4 Promi 1 syllable+primary stress (ow ) canteen, cartoon, champagne, augment, shampoo, technique 2.7.1.5 Secondary stress+primary stress (@ w ) unknown, Chinese, farewell, eighteen, mayonnaise, rebuild, defrost 2.7.2. THREE-SYLLABLE WoRDS 2.7.21 os Jortunate, lunatic, catholic, literature, necessary, comfortable2.7.2.2 27.2.3 2724 2.7.2.6 2.7.2.7 AGRA. 2.7.2.9 Word stress ond sentence accent ® actuate (+0) corridor, absolute, catalogue, caravan, handicap, paragraph (oy subtitle, pullover, cucumber, triangle, rectangle, corpuscle Ges) advantage. determine, develop, consider, horizon, abandon (ows) ambition, fantastic, authentic, optician, transmission, partition Geo distribute, tomato, recipient, attaché, coniribute, flancée, tobacco ws) substandard, non-fiction, scientific, subconscious, prejudgement (erm) guarantee, seventeen, cigarette, magazine, refugee, recommend 2.7.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS: 2.7.3.1 2.73.2 2735 2.7.3.6 273.7 2.73.8 (mre) category, accuracy, arbitrary, delicacy, eligible, ceremony, irritable (m +0) commentator, calculator, architecture, operator, centimetre, interlanguage (+0) characterize, systematize, automobile, capitalize, regulurize, counterattack (s@ es) obligatory, demonstrative, laboratory, certificate, advertisement —< Gero) appreciate, enthusiast, preoccupied, apologize, similitude, economize (oa-s) ‘authority, morality, diamerer, orthography, antiquity, bicarbonate (erm) — variation, circulation, elemental ; conversation, idiotic, interference (ows «acceptation, departmental, importation, conurbation, retardationHéctor Ortiz Lira 2.7.3.9 (orm) superimpose, underemployed, hypercorrect, interconnect, interrelate 2.7.3.10 (© w+) 2.7.4 FIVE-SYLLABL 27.4.1 2.74.2 2.743 2.7.44 2.7.4.5 2.7.4.6 2.7.4.7 2748 uncountable, subcontinent, mismanagement, posigraduate, couuhoring WORDS way ‘figuratively, capitalism, qualitatively, cannibalism, speculatively Garey) inevitable, inadequacy, communicative, vocabulary, catholicism (@-0% acceleraior, sophisticated, refrigerator, embusiasm, collaborator (erm) curiosity, university, pedagogical, capability, possibility, inexplicable (e+e +0) differentiate, underestimate, rehabilitate, decontaminate, counterespionage (orem) classification, characteristic, Mediterranean, qualification, organization Gaem) continuation, consideration, appreciation, pronunciation, association (ee-m:) predisposition, devaluation, prefabrication, revaluation, miscalculation 2.7.5. SIX-SYLLABIE WORDS 2.7.5.1 2.7.5.2 2.7.5.3 2.7.5.4 (eres) unexceptionable, indistinguishable, unimaginative, individualism istically, discontinuity, unsystemaiically, irritability (eeemes) familiarity, availability, inferiority, responsibility, impossibility Gere electrification, experimentation, personification, exemplificationWord ses and sentence accent sennnmnnn nemmcnmmanenanunnsr 215.5 (0 «) differentiation, mispronunciation, recapitulation, individualistic 2.1.6 SEVEN-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.6.1 (corewes) intelligibility, inevitability, invulnerability, impracticability 27.6.2 (@ wes) irresponsibility, unconventionality, superficiality, unrealiabilityHéctor Onis Lie 3. Stress in English compound words 3.1 INTRODUCTION Stress in English compounds, with its varying position, is a real stumbling-block for Spanish-speaking leamers due mainly to the rather fixed occurrence word stress has in Spanish. Two types of phenomena are meant by variation: first, the primary stress of English compounds may go on either the first or the second clement in the citation patiern and, secondly, this may also vary according to context. On the other hand, all citation patterns of Spanish compounds have the primary stress on the second clement, irrespective of internal structure and meaning. e.g. saca’corchos, cuatro-cientos, canta’ tor, mercado negro, radio ré'loj, ct. This section offers the learner a simplified taxonomy of the main classes of compounds and collocations, illustrated with a fairly modern corpus. Rather than commit each particular item to memory -an impossible task students are recommended to memorize the strc assignment rules and put them into practice every time they come across a new compound. ‘Associations between patterns and meanings as well as constant comparison between similar structures producing contrasting pairs of the type “walking stick —'rolling “stone, cc. will help identity ‘normal’ examples and exceptions. Students are also advised to check word stress in dictionaries whenever they are in doubt and say the words out loud a number of times so as to help fix them in their memory. 3.2 TERMINOLOGY Quirk ctal. (1985: 1567) define compound as ‘a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and scmantically as a single word." No account for stress is present in this definition, but later on, at pp. 1592-1593, they characterize compound nouns as generally taking the primary stress on the first clement, and although they acknowledge the existeace of a smaller number of compounds with the primary stress on the second clement, they also admit that ‘in some cases we may be in doubt as to whether we should regard sequences with this stress paticm as compounds or as free syntactic phrases’. Now, if we leave aside stress placemont as the basic criterion of analysis and take Ute semantic aspect as the decisive factor to identify compounds (i.e. the degree of cohesion between the clements), we will also come across certain word combinations whose compound status might be in doubt. For instance, how should we consider relatively common two-clement constructions which frequently co-oceur, such as slim chance and feeble hope, none of which arc given as individaal or even subordinate cntsics in dictionaries? Furthermore, should we rely on dictionary status for a two-clement lexical unit to be considered a compound? Notice that a third criterion, that of spelling, has not been brought into tho discussion, due to the fact that a fairly degree of variation ean be found in the way compounds are written ~as ono single word, or as (wo words, cither separaud by a space or a hyphen. We shall bypass the difficalty posed by compounds by.acknowledging the existence of other word combinations which the learner would also do well to incorporate into his mental lexicon, irrespective of the fact that they may not conform fully to the category of compound.aaseniruanosanon Word stress and sentence accent ®) Following Carey (1991: 1) we shall take into consideration the notion of collocation, which he conveniently defines in phonological terms: “Any frequently curring two-clement Structure [_] for which a stress pattern may be predicted.” “This category includes Sallecations which can be found in EFL dictionaries of a gencral kind ~not necessarily Specialist pronunciation ¢ictionaries-, c.g. viral reality. naional curriculum, ete. plus & fow others which have not gol (and probably will never get) dictionary status, &.g- insufficient evidence, A random examination of the two standard pronunciation dictionaries, LPD (Wells, 1990) and EPD (ones, Roach & Hartman, 1997) reveals interesting differences in the corpus offered, as the following sample of two-clement collocations shows, eg. artificial insemination artificial intelligence * artificial kidney . catificial respiration . tus bar us boy bus conductor busnan “ bus shelter : bus station ‘ bus stop : ‘good afiernoon . good book . goodbye : good day : good evening . Good Friday . ood grief! ‘ Good Heavens! . good looker : good looks . goodman : good morning good night good office good Samaritan goodwife goodwill ‘good-hearted good-humoured ‘good-looking good-natured sgoord-remperedHéctor Ortiz Lira "AMIAAANAAAANAAAAINUNANANN MNO 4.3 COMPOUND WORD STRESS ANDETL DICTIONARIS All EFL dictionaries can be of help in matters of information about stress. The main differences between them lic in the notation system they usc to show primary and secondary stresses, in the corpus they include and, occasionally, in the patterns they show, ¢.8. OALD comer'shop uscr-lriendly Third ‘World "Home Office CIDE corner Ishop Guscr-Ifricndly Third World IHome Office CCED cosner shop user-ftiendly Third World Home Office LDCE ynser-lfriendly* Third 'World+ ‘Home Office LPD —_comer'shop user-friendly ‘corner shop ‘hird World 'Home, Office EPD — comer'shop juserliriondly {Third ‘World ‘Home Office ‘home page (stress shift) (Notes to the abbreviations: ALD : Oxford Advanced Leamer’s Dictionary, 1995. CIDE : Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1995. CCED : Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, 1995. LDCE:: Longman Dictionary of Conremporary English, 1995. LPD : Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 1990. EPD : English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1997.) ‘These examples show that: ( CCED is the only dictionary which does not use the stress marks ' and , to indicate primary and secondary stresses, respectively. CIDE uses two systems, stross marks in the main dictionary and black and white rectangles in the Phrase Index. Gi) LPD records altemative sires paticras whenever they are in common educated use, as shown by.corner shop. EPD does 80 less {requently. Gii) Only LDCE and LPD indicate the possibility of stress shift (by means of the wedge sign +) all the time; EPD does so only oocasionally, with the phrase ‘sires shift! (iv) Whereas the majority of dictionaries indicate the existence of an extra stress aller the primary (0.g, socondary for SPD and tertiary for LPD), a few ignore that possibility. {y) EPD probably contains the most up-dated corpus, as shown by the inclusion of a term such as home page. ‘As with simple words, we shall use the tonetic-stress marking system, of generalized use in the British school of prosody, which indicates stressed syllables by means of * (Secondary stress) and ~ (primary stress), following Kingdon (19586), Windsor Lewis (1969), Finch & Oniz (1982) and Gimson & Cratenden (1994). These are distributed in words in such a way that only onc primary stess may occur in a compound word, and theWord stress and sentence accent Smee primary stress is always the last stress; the secondary stress always precedes the primary and never the other way round. Thus, some of the examples above would be marked as fellows: ‘user-friendly ‘Third ‘World “Hume Office ‘Tertiary and further degrees of stress will be ignored. The following patiems show the distribution of stresses in polysyllabic compounds, c.g. LPD EPD This work com,muni'cations, satellite communi'cations satellite conti nental ‘breakfast continental ‘breakfast communi cations satellite ‘continental “breakfast 3.4 LABELS FOR STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS ‘The stross patiems of English compounds and collocations have beon given different labels in the literature. Most of them describe the placement of the main, primary stress; these are shown in (a). There is a set of labels wich refers to the member of stresses and is given in (b), eg. “woman doctor gineediogo) “English teacher (=profesor(a) de inglés) (@) carly stress initial stress. compound stress E2 stoong-weak "woman “doctor (=doetora) 'Bnglish teacher (=profesor(a) inglés(a)) late stress. final stress phrasal stress, El weak-strong (b)__ single stross__double stress @ The labels ‘early’ and ‘late’, which refer t the fact that it is the first clement that has ‘more steess* than the second, arc found in Wells (1990: 150). Gi) ‘Initial’ and ‘final’ stress are the names used by Fudge (1984: 134-137). (iii) The labels ‘compound’ ys. ‘phrasal’ (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) are misleading because the pattern consisting of « primary stress on the second clement (which is typical of noun phrases such as en incredible blonde) can also be found in many compounds, as will be shown in the word-lists that follow; a characterization of compounds in terms of stress placement is, then, unsatisfactory. (iv) Tn the labels E-2 and B-1 (Poldauf, 1984: 106), E stands for ‘element’, or participating word, and the numbers denote position, starting from the right; therefore, E-1 stands for the word on the right, and F-2, for the word on the leftHéctor Ortiz Liro AAALAC (wi The categories strong-weak (sw) and weak-strong (ws), of rhythmic nature, mécax: the relative prominence of the two ‘sequences ~a basic notion in metrical theory, as expressed, for instance, by Ladd (1996) and, in general, by all supporters of the metrical- amicsegmental theory. {vi) The reasons for the labels ‘single’ vs. ‘double’ ones, 1956; Kingdon, 1958b; Finch & Ortiz, 1982) arc that (a) by virtue of a generally agreed principic, a primary stress is also considered the last siress in an uulcrance; (b) a late primary stress “i.e. main stress on the second lexical item can be (and normally is) preceded by a secondary siress on the first element. In this work we shall use the tcrms ‘single’ and ‘double’ in order to emphasize the role of secondary stresses in processes such as stress shift. For EFL purposes, compounds can be organised according to the type of stress pattern =eg._ single (arly) vs. double (late), i.e. a phonological classification— or according to the function of the resulting collocation c.g, nouns vs. adjectives, ic. a syntactic-functional taxonomy. Hore we will take the former criterion as the basis for the organisation of the corpus, and will indicate the Function of the resulting patiern. The patterns exemplified here are all citation forms, i.e. the patterns of compounds and coliocations said in isolation. 3.5. SINGLE STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.5.1 ‘record player (Noun L+noun 2 (NIHN2), where NI (record) is the direct object of the action of the agent N2 (player). The resulting collocation functions as noun, i) The agent usually ends in -er, -or , and can be either human or non-human. Gili) Sometimes the direct object relationship between NI and N2 is less obvious, as can be seen in (b), eg. (a) ballet dancer bandleader blood donor bookkeeper bricklayer bullfighter cabinet-maker cash dispenser cement mixer cassette recorder dishwasher dressmaker eggbeater {food processor forture-teller glue-sniffer goakeeper hairdresser hairdryer hholidaymaker housekeeper landowner lavi-breaker lawnmower lie detector mine detector moneylender newsreader newsvendor painkiller paperhanger park kee proofreader purse-snatcher screwdriver shareholder shock absorber shopkeeper skyscraper slide projector songwriter stallholder tape recorder taxpayer taxi driver tin opener tongue mister video recorder windscreen wiper word processor (b) babysitter chain-smoker churchgoer ‘coat hanger cradle-snatcher drug dealer fishmonger Geiger coumer grasshopper housebreaker hunger striker pressure cooker scaremonger schoolteacher screenwriter slum dweller stockbroker theatregoer vacuum cleaner (© Exceptions: stage manoger, school governorWord stress and sentence accent Me ccc 3.5.2 “bookshop (Noun I4noun 2 (NI+N2), where NI (book) dclimits the meaning of N2 (shop), by stating ‘what type of thing’ itis. The resulting compound usually functions as noun, Gi) Single stress is the commonest patter in N1+N2 collocations. In many other examples, an N1 with more specific reference favours double stross, as in ‘kitchen “sink (Sve §2.6.1). Similarly, whereas ‘school “secretary has specific reference, “schoolboy has not. In other pairs this criterion does not seem t6 operate very clearly. og. uni ‘versity “lecturer vs.'schoo! teacher. (Gli) Single vs. double stress can be responsible for changes in moaning, as in (b) (a) access road address book advice column aircraft airhostess airletter airline airmail airport air terminal amusement arcade animal kingdom apron strings aptitude test backache ballot box bank account bar code bedbug bedelothes bedroom bedspread bedrime bicth certificate birth control birthday cared birthday party birthplace birthrave blockhead blood bank bloed group bloed presure blood relation bled transfusion loved vessel bloodhound book club book token bookcase. bookmark bookstail bookworm boyfriend bread box buffet car cal box cash card child abuse Christmas card. clothes brush clothesbasket clothesline clothespeg coffee bur coffee break coffee cup coffee table credit card crime rate cupboard love daylight daytime death penalty death rate death squad deposit accoumt disabled access dish towel drug abuse drug addict earphones football footnote {footpath footstep girliriend ‘guidebook hairpin hairstyle handbag headache headlamp headline headphone heart attack heart failure heat wave hunchback hunger strike identity card key ring keyboard ladybird laptop library card license plate life insurance love affair ‘money order motorbike motorcar motorcycle ‘mountain bike mountain range nail scissors nail varnish newsagent newsletter newspaper newsstand night shift nightclub nighttime ozone layer panda car paper clip paperback paperwork penalty area phone book phone box phonecard iooto album pocket money pocketbook police force police officer police station post office postcard press conference price ag problem child ‘punctuation mark puppy dog question mark question tag raincoat rainstorm recordlibrary roadblock road tax road works room service rulebook rush hour safety belt safety pin saludbar sandwich course saviigs account schoolgirl schoolmaster schoolmate SchoolmistressHéctor Ortiz Lira schoolwork seafood sea level seagull seaman ‘seaport seashell seashore sexappeal shock treament shoelace shoeshop shop assistant slot machine ‘sound effects soup plate Soup spoon space-age spacecraft spacelab space suit sports car sports jacket stamp collection store detective sunglasses sunroof supply teacher surface mail systems analyst table manners tablecloth table tennis tea bag teabreak tea party tea towel teamwork teapot tear gas teaspoon teatime + time bomb time limit time signal timetable toilet roll toothache toy shop video arcade watercolour watermelon watermal! waterpower waterproof wheelchair wind insirument window seat windstorm word order wristwatch (b). “family name (=surname) fumily “name (=family reputation) “toy factory (=whore toysare made) "toy “factory (Lor a child to play with) “party line’ (shared phone line) ‘party *line'(=political view) 3.5.3 “raindrop Noun J4noun 2 (NI+N2), whero NI (rain) is usually a mass noun indicating the material N2 (drop) is made of. Scmantically, the collocation exprosses an ‘unintentional accumulation’ rather than an ‘in tended construction’, c.g. breadcrumb dunghill dustheap sand dune sawdust snowflake soap bubble soap flake waterfall 3.5.4 “wire-tapping, “time-consuming (. Nounsverb |-ing] (N4Vling]), where N is the object of V, ic. ‘X taps wire’, as in (a); in other examples, the role of the noun as object is loss obvious, as in (bh). Gy Some resulting collocations can function mainly as nouns, .g."wire-tapping, or mainly as adjectives, eg, “time-consuming. (a) bookbinding bookkeeping beekeeping breathiaking childbearing dressmaking {fee-paying fire fighting hairdressing hair-raising hair-splitting heartbreaking horseracing housekeeping labour-saving language teaching mind reading money laundring——_-moneylending painstaking proofreading role playing shareholding sidesplitting sightseeing surfriding thought-provoking time-consuming timesaving troublemaking troubleshooting typawriting weightlifiing wind surfing window dressing ward processing wrongdoingWard etrece and sentence accent ‘cc (b) air-conditioning brainstorming handwriting hang-gliding housewarming kerb crawling food poisening law-abiding ail painting pony-trekking shoplifting Ski jumping. ap dancing window-shopping (© Exceptions: family planning zebra crossing 3.5.5 ‘walking stick, “lending library @_ Vorb [-ing}4+noun (V[ing]+N), where N is not in subject relation to V. Thus, in “walking stick, the noun does not do the walking itself: the meaning is rather ‘a stick for walking’. The noun sometimes represents the place or time for the action of the verb, as in * shopping centre and” freezing point ; these examples arc listed in ( Gi) In lending library the noun does perform the action indi library lends books’, but the action is nar in (0). Gii) Contrasting examples due to single vs. double stress can be found ia (¢). ted by the verb, ic. “the progress; other examples of this Lype are those (@ baking powder balancing act bathing costume —__boardinghouse boarding school bowling alley breathing space building block building society carving knife changing room climbing frame closing time cooking apple chewing gum dancing lesson dialling ione dining car dining room drinking water driving licence driving seat driving test eating apple filing cabinet {filling station finishing school fishing rad “rying pan housing estate hearing aid icing sugar insulating tape ironing board knitting needle launching pad living room meeting point melting point parking light parking lot parking meter playing field polling station purchasing power reading matter reading room recording studio rowing boat selling point shaving cream shopping bag shopping list shopping mall singing lesson sitting room skipping-rope sleeping bag sleeping car sleeping pill spending money stepping-stone stumbling block swimming pool swimming trunks teaching hospital teething troubles. tracing paper juning fork waiting list waiting room washing powder whopping cough — writing paper (b) answering machine cleaning woman humming bird mincing machine nursing home operating system —_ printing press publishing house rocking chair rolling pin sealing wax sewing machine soldering iron sparking plug spinning wheel steering wheel sticking plaster teaching practice training college training course travelling expenses vending machine washing machine watering can ©) “moving van (=a removal van) ‘moving ~van (=a van actually maving) “sleeping parmer (=concubine) ‘sleeping “parmer (inactive business partner)Hctoe Ort tie 3.5.6 “blackboard, “baldhead @) _Adjectivesnoun (A+N) collocations are 4 very common type of construction in English. They usually take double stress by default, as if they were phrases. (Cf. NI+N2 compounds in §3.5.2, which ar considered to take single stress by default) There is, however, another group of A+N collocations with a more specialised’ meaning whieh take Single stress; some of these can be considered 10 be long-established compounds. The number of adjectives participating in these constructions is relatively small; they are generally one- or two-syllable long and are of low scmantic specialisation, c.g. black, free, hard, high, cic. On the whole, A+N compounds with single stress are much more restricted than N14N3. compounds with single siress (i.e. those in §3.5.2), i) In some eases there is a potential contrast between the specialised meaning of the Compound (with single stress, as in “biackboard) and the phrase consisting of the same two elements (with double stress, us in "black “board), as shown in (C). (ii) In summary, the main points regarding A+N collocations are: (AHN collocations functioning as nouns normally have double stress, €.g. a "omic “energy: (2) Some A+N coltocations functioning as nouns have a specialised meaning and take single stress, c.g. “blackberry and the rest of the examples in (a); (3)Some A+N collocations functioning as nouns and taking single stress arc called “bahuveihi’ /"bahur vrishi / compounds. They are used io designate a person by specifying a physical or mental characteristic, e.g. a man who has a grcy beard is a “grevbeard. Others designate objects, c.g. a book with a hard cover is a “hardback, etc.; sce examples in (b): @) after effects anybody anyone anyplace anything blackberry blackboard blacklist Black people blacksmith black spot bluebell bluebird Christian name coldcream comic strip commonplace current account darkroom deadline deadlock dry dock everybody evervone everything sist name freehand freehold freelance reephone freeway funny bone given name igranclchild ‘grancelaughter ‘grandes grandmother grandpa grandson grandstand green belt greengrocer greyhound grey matter: hardboard hardware highbrow high jump highlight high-rise high schoo! high season high street highway hothouse hotline Aotplate lastname lowbrow lowland 7 low season madhouse ‘middle man middle name middle school old boy old girt open day quicksand real estate right angle shoribread shortcake shorthand short list sickbay sick leave sick pay smallpox small talk soft spot sofware special school strongbox stronghold strong point sweetcorn sweetheart sweetshop whiteboard whitewash wholesale wildeat wild flower wildlife wise guyWord stress and sentence accent MR (b) Bad-mouth big-mouth ‘greenback hardback Iazybones Joudmouth redhead redskin smartarse thickhead (©) “blackbird (=Sp. mirlo) “blackboard (=writing surface) bluebell (=Sp. jacinto) common room (=college staft room) erassword (=type of word puzzle) ‘funny man (=a comedian) darkroom (=for processing films) English teacher (teacher of English) greenhouse (=glass building for plants) “Greenland (=8p. Groeniandia) > grey matter (=brains) heavyweight (=hcaviest type boxer) “howplate (=part of @ cooker) special school (=for cisabled children) “White House (=US President's residence) 3.5.7 ‘moth-eaten, V-shaped busybody fathead hardop heavyweight paleface redbrick sleepyhead slowcoach "black “bird (=any bird which is black) "black “board (=any board whieh is black) ‘blue “hel! (=any bell which is blue) ‘common “roam (=one used jointly) ross “word (=an angry word) ‘funny “man (=a strange man) ‘dark “room (=a room which is dark) ‘English teacher (=twachet who is English) "green “house (any house which is green) ‘green “land (=any land which is green) ‘grey “matter (anything grey) ‘heavy “weight (=a weight whieh is heavy) ‘hot “plate (=a plate which is hot) ‘special “school (=out of the common) ‘white “house (=any house which is white) () Noun¢participle (N+P) in which N is usually the subject of P, ic. moths have eaten X; more oxamples are those in (a). Gi) The relationship between N and P is more complex in (b): in “corpus based we understand “based on a corpus’, in “foilet-trained, “trained to use a toilet’, and in “egg- shaped, ‘shaped like an ogg.” Gii) The function of the resulting collocation is adjectival and the carly-stress pattern of the citation form does not vary when the compound is used cither attributively or ively, og, citation form: attributive use: predicative use: “moth-eaten (a) action-packed ——_ coin-operated hearfelt hen-pecked ‘moonlit snowbound sunburnt sunlit weather-beaten weather-bound (b) air-conditioned heartbroken star-spangled blue-coloured oval-shaped a 'moth-eaten “sweater "Those ideas can be de ‘scribed as “moth-eaten. flee-bitten horror-stricken snow-capped terror-stricken frostbitien Tandlocked star-crossed time-honoured. windswept bederidden cigar-shaped pear-shaped red-coloured white-washedHct Or te 3.5.8 “homesick A very short inventory of noun-agjeetive (N+A) compounds have single stress. The Paticrn remains unaltered in postmodilying positions, e.g. J Yelt very “homesick, e.g accident-prone —colour-blind poverty-stricken _sireetwise 3.5.9 “cookbook, daybreak (9 Verb+noun (V-+N) result in compounds functioning mainly as nouns and Sometimes as adjectives; they are illustrated in (a). Main exception: 'stop ‘press. Gi), Noun-+verb (N+-V) collocations function as nouns; sec (b). (@) breakneck call girl carryeot catchword cease-fire chat show cutthroat oda Aninvear dnow-all pickpocket playboy pushchair vatilesnake spendibrift stopgap swearword talk show relliale (b) corkscrew fire escape ——_fireft landslide rolleall sunrise sunset sunshine 3.5.10 “take-off Verb-tparticle (V+Pe), originating double-siress phrasal and prepositional verbs, take single stress when functioning as nouns, e.g. to ake “offis nominalised as a “take-off, soe examples in (a), V+Pe can also function as adjective, as in a “breakaway faction. backup blackout breakdown breakthrough breakup brush-up ckeckin checkout comeback countdown cutback cutout fallout flashback go-ahead handout hangover hideaway kickoff knockdown knockout letdown letup lookout playback play-off press-up pullover push-up rip-off roll-on runaway see-through shoot-out sit-down sitin spin-off standby stopover tailback takeaway turnover” write-off write-up 3.5.11 “background Adverb-+noun (Adv+N) originale compounds whieh fun ion, mainly as nouns, 6. aftereffect Antichrist crossroads forearm foreground foreman foresight (foretaste in-patient infrasirucrure ‘outlaw overcoat overdose overheads overtime pestscripti a ence te iia a a ci (a) subsection supermarket anderclothes underground 3.5.12 “Oxford Street, Deansgate ‘The nouns sireer and gate do not tke stress in s the paticrns singlo-stres ssed (s00 §3.6.3), cg. eet name collevations, which makes |. On the contrary, all other words denoting thoroughfares: are Bond Street Downing Street Fleet Street Princess Street Regent Street Bishopsgate Deansgate Fishergate Southgate Westgate 3.5.13 Miscellaneous 3.5.13.1 Verbtadverh originate nouns, «.g, get-together know-how standstill Verb+verb originate verbs, nouns and adjectives, c.g. touch-type (v.) make-believe (n.) slapdash (adj) 3.5.13.3 Abbreviation+noun originate nouns, ¢.g. A-level Olevel L-driver T-bone T-junction U-turn V-neck 3.6 DOUBLIZS TRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.6.1 ‘kitchen “sink Noun I+noun 2 (NI-+N2), where N1 has specific reference, as in ‘kitchen ~sink sink of the kitchen). In some cases, NI may represcntan organisation, a location, or a time, as in (a). NI can also be a value, as in (b). Noun-genitive cases are included in (c). In all .ses the resulting compound functions as noun, c.g. (@) academy award bank holiday bay window bedroom slippers bedroom window block letters bottam drawer camp bed city centre daylight robbery diningroom table district nurse family allowance family doctor family planning family tree fellow citizen fellow creature (girl Friday girl guide ground floor group therapy hall porter headmaster Tawn tennis life expectancy life imprisonment lump sum . ‘mass production morning paper mother tongue night watchman office party pedestrian precinct platinum blonde Saturday night school hall school uniform ‘school year shop window town hall trade union twin beds zebra crossing (b)doliar bill peso coin pound note(©) devil's advocate women’s lib gentleman's agreement students’ union 3.6.2 ‘baby “boy Héctor Ortiz Lira _umNNMATENHAANTANNNAAUNAANANUN NNN teacher's pet Noun I+noun 2 (NI+N2), where the referent is both NI and N2, e.g. in ‘baby ~boy the referent is both a bab; acid rain guardian angel ‘mother hen radio telescope twin sister y and 4 boy, eg. baby girt infant prodigy poison gas Strip cartoon woman driver 3.6.3. ‘Buckingham “Palace clock radio Junk food ‘queen bee student teacher woman writer garden city learner driver queen mother iwin brother Noun L+noun 2 (NI+N2), whore NI (and sometimes also N2) is a proper name; the majority are place names, as in (@). Examples of strcct names arc those in (h). Group (c) includes propor noun-genitive cxamples. For exceptions consisting in single sess pattems, see (d) and §3.5.12, (a) Achilles heel Chicago Tribune Gaza Sirip Hyde Park Jodrell Bank Magellan Strait Molotov cocktail North Sea Sherlock Holmes Union Jack (b) Fifth Avenue Stainburn Drive Penny Lane (c) Adam's apple (d) Exceptions: 3.6.4 ‘apple “pie Atacama Desert Chrisimas Day Greater London Iron Curtain Loch Ness Manchester City Morse code Padlingion Station Sherwood Forest World Bank Oxjord Circus Hammersmith Flyover Oxford Road Aladdin’s cave Home Office Cambridge University Channel Tunnel Davis Cup Hollywood stars James Bond London Airport Mexican wave Mother Nature Panama Canal Shetland Islands World Cup Milton Close Spring Gardens Leicester Square Hobson's choice Lake District Father Christmas Hudson River Jane Eyre London Bridge Mexico City Niagara Falls River Thames Tom Collins Yorkshire pudding Bedford Crescent Plymouth Grove Mancunian Way Noah's ark Labour Party G)_Noun 14noun 2 (N1+N2), where NI (apple) is frequently a mass noun N2 (pie) is made of. The difference with the “raindrop type of compound (see §! implies intentionality; see (a). 3) is that this Gi) Exceptions to the aboye rule are single-stressed collocations mainly with juice and cake, as in (b).ord srr end sentence ecco: ennencnecoreanncaa lst et Ste ecnmennsnnnennmanae (BB) ii) Double vs. single stress may produce different meanings, as illustrated in (c). (@) bacon sandwich — banana split brick walt bronze medat camomile tea carbon dioxide chocolate biscuit cotton wool cream cracker crystal ball ‘custard apple {fish finger fruit salad glass fibre gold medal iron gate ivory tower lemon curd Temon squash log cabin mince pie mud pie plum pudding pork pie rag doll rice pudding rope ladder rubber band rubber stamp sausage roll semolina pudding silver medal stone wall suede shoes (b) Exceptions: lemon juice orange juice chocolate cake Christmas cake fruitcake sponge cake cornflakes coconut milk (©) 'paper “bag ( ‘cheese “biscuit made of paper) “paper bag (=bag for newspapers) ne made of cheese) “cheese biscuit (one for cating with cheese) 3.6.5 ‘compact “disc, ‘second-hand (i Adjective+noun (A+N) collocations which function as nouns usually take double stress by defaull. Most adjectives occurring in this type of compound are unlikely to occur in single-stressed compounds dc to their scmantie specificity, as illustrated in (a). This type of collocation is very productive. Some adjectives take the form of ‘-ed” adjectivals; other, le specialised, adjectives participating in compounds are shown in (b); most of the items in this section function as nouns; a fow, mainly 2s adjectives. Section (e) includes collocations involving proper names, and section (4), the main single-stress exceptions. Gi). AN collocations can also function as adjectives, some of them as cither pre- or postmodifiess (.e. attributively and predicatively), such as double-stress 'second-"hand, and others mainly or only as premodifiers (.c. attributively), such as single-siress “redbrick (see §3.5.6). The second-hand type of compound is illusirated in section (b). (ii) EPL learners must bear in mind the changes in the stress paltems that some of those compounds undergo when they function as adjectives and are. either followed or preceded by another stress in connected specch. This type of change, called ‘stress shift in the literature, is a clear indication of the tendency in English to avoid the occurence of adjacent stresses, as explained in §1.7. This can already be scen in some of the collocations, in (a), ef. ‘conti ‘nental ~ ‘continental “breakfast; ‘undivided ~'undivided at tention, ©. (@ abominable snowman absolute majority accilental death acid rain ancient monument animated cartoon artificial respiration atmospheric pressure atomic energy audiovisual aids automatic pilot barbed wire cardinal point citric acid civil war classified ad common sense continental breakfast current affairs deadly sin definite article diplomatic immunity direci object ddirty trick domestic animal domestic appliance floppy disk poreign affairs further education ‘general knowledge& (b) Héctor Ortiz Lira TI TIATAAMIAANATTAMEANRITERTENRRTA STAM NNMNNANR A NNNNNANN genetic engineering guided missile indefinite article inflationary spiral literary criticism minimum wage rational anther. raturai science personal computer Plastic surgery postal order preconceived ideas printed circuit professional advice public opinion ‘public transport secret service sexual harassment siant panda honourable mention inckustial action intellectual property live performance mobile library native speaker nervous breakdown personal stereo political prisoner practical joke premarital sex private detective proper noun public relations sacred cow seventh heaven semua intercourse skiramed milk special delivery square root stringed-instrament undivided attention vicious circle back garden bad news best man black currant black eye black market broad beans brown rice brown sugar cold feet dark glasses dark horse double bed doubie-decker easy chair firstaid first-class first-rate “front door Frontpage full house ‘free port ‘full-lengrh {full stop ‘good cause ‘green fingers hhappy event hard cash hard currency hard disk hhard labour red corpet hhard luck high-class high fidelity high tea last straw long-distance long-term lost property loudspeaker low tide middle finger old man open-air plain-clothes red tape rough diamond round trip safe sex second best second-hand second helping second thoughts short story slaw metion small change Soft furnishings strong language sweet nothings wer blanket white elephant Arctic Circle Big Brother. Black Sea Deep South European Community Good Friday Greater London Hely Ghost Holy Scripture Middle East National Trust New Delhi Old Testament Open University Pacific Ocean Red Cross Red Sea glottal stop identical win industrial revolution intensive care magnetic tape modal auxiliary natural history nuclear reactor plain clothes possessive pronoun precicus stone prime minister private school public library public school secret admirer sexual discrimination single bed squeare brackets syllabic consonant wishful thinking besweller black pudding close shave dead end false alarm ‘flat feet “full moon full-time happy medium hard drugs hard shoulder last night lost cause middle class parttime Found figures second clas short circuit small print tall story Common Market Grand Canyon Midtlle Ages New York Promised Land Received Pronunciation Roman alphabet Round Table Royal Highness Russian rouleteWord sree ond sntenceoccent omeenaranseccenin ee anannctansn () Scottish Gaelic Supreme Court Wild West Yellow Pages @)_ Exceptions: Black Count Holy Week Long Beach Pl ry West Country White House 3.6.6 'brand- “new Noun+adjective (N+A) callocations give rise mainly to adjectives. The double-stress pattern corresponds to the citation patiorn; as premodificr it takes carly-stss and as Postmodificr, late stress, cf.a 'navy-blue “sweater ~I pre 'fer navy- “blue; sce (a). A small group of N+A collocations with double-stress functions as nouns; these arc listed in (b), c.g. ()bone-dry bone lazy botile green Brick-red class-conscious dirt cheap duty-free knee-deep navy-blue pzone-friendly piteh-black pitch-dark post-free rent-free sky-blue sky-high snow-white stone-blind stone-cold stone-dead stone deaf stone sober tax-free user-friendly worldwide (b) Amnesty International attorney general crystal clear director general God almighty notary public poet laureate president elect prince consort proof positive secretary-general surgeon general Sunday best 3.6.7 ‘old: ‘fashioned Adjective+noun+adjectival [-ed] (A+N[-ed]) combinations give rise to a group of very common adjectives with double stress in their citation paiterns. Stress shifi moditics this default pattern in a way similar to that in §3.6.5 and §3.6.6, e.g. ‘torally absent- “minded ~an ‘absent-minded professor: absent-minded bad-tempered broad-minded blue-eyed close-fisted cold-blooded dark-haired double-breasted empty-handed empty-headed fat-bottomed four-legged high-pitched high-priced high-spirited il-humoured long-winded middle-aged. narrow-minded one-sided open-minded quick-tempered quick-witted round-shouldered. stiffnecked ——_strong-minded sweet-tempered _three-storeyed tightfisted 3.6.8 ‘ham- fisted, ‘home-made (@_Noun Ltnoun 2+adjectival [-ed] (N14N2[-cd]) collocutio with double stress by default; his pattem is modified by the strc fashion, i.c. predicatively: She is ‘very self-con “tained and at “flat. result_in adjectives hift rule in the regular atively: a self-containedHéctor Oni Lrg (0 ANNE RAE naAMANAGHINHANRNNASNHAN a similar way to the previous group, ¢.§. ear-conditioned —bell-bottomed handkniticd §—hanchnade mem madle middle-aged selfemployed self-made sailor-made 3.6.9 ‘rolling “stone ¢. §3.5.5) is much more productive, e.g. falling star ‘floating voter leading actor finishing touch Freezing cold Teading author living memory living wage moving picture moving staircase running commentary running total sitting target Spitting image underlying form working week sitting tenant standing order 18 professor 3.6.10 ‘dark ~blue filter-tipped handwritten self-centered Verb [-ing]-+noun (V[-ing}+N) originate nouns in which N is usually the subj yerbal action in V, i.c. “the stone rolls’. The corresponding collocation with single st flying colours ‘helping hand leading question loving kindness paying guest rurning water sleeping policeman standing ovation weeping willow i) Noanspariiciple (N+P) compounds, which also function as adjectives, behave in ham fisted ‘machine-made self-contained selfaught of the ing saucer revolving door shooting star sliding door supporting role working-class Adjective L+adjeetive 2 (A1+A2) produes double-stress adjcetives by defaull, which are readily subject to stress-shifl, c.g, ‘Anglo-A ‘merican ~An ‘Anglo-American agreement: Angio-American — Anglo-Chilean British-American dark green Latin American light blue royal blue 3.6.1 ‘good “Looking Adjectivetverb [-ing} (A+V[-ing]) give rise to adiectiv lexical pattern as well as stress shifted versions He's ‘very easy going (prodicatively). easygoing hard-working long-suffering ever-changing heavy-going outgoing e.g: An ‘easygoing everlasting long-lasting Anglo-Saxon deaf-mute light green far-reaching long-playing bitter-sweet double-quick red-hot with double stress in the “teacher (attributively) ~ forthcoming TongstandingWord me pd muconce exes craters AEDS mcmnmannnnnennnn (3) 3.6.12 Miscellaneous 3.6.12.1 Self+verb |-ing] originae adjectives, c.g selfoatering self-defeating self-raising self-supporting 3.6.12.2 Noun (agent)+adverb originate nouns, e.g. hangeron— lookeron runmerup passer-by 3.6.12.3 Adverb+ participle give origin to adjectives, e.g. farfetched Jar flung far-gone 3.7 THREE-WORD COMPOUNDS ‘The following lists contain some of the most common three-word collocations classified according to their stress pattorns. The entries appear in alphabetical order and no account is given of the rules which have yielded the final pattems. The paltem in §3.7.1, the most frequent, contains mainly stress-shilled modifiers attached to 2 final stressed noun. The great majority of examples function as nouns. 3.7.1 ‘Second World ‘War apple pie bed audiovisual adds back-alley abortion blackboard jungle broken-hearted lover closed circuit television commonsense decision first degree murder firsthand account Jfive-pound charge five-star hotel happy-go-lucky long-range missiles ‘middle-age spread nationwide broadcast nexidoor neighbour nuclear-free zone ‘old age pension one-track mind one-way traffic ‘open-heart surgery rearview mirror roll-top desk self-confessed liar self made man soft-boiled eggs stamped addressed envelope ten-pound fee three-ring circus twenty-pound fine test-tube baby top-class madel mwo-piece suit 3.7.2. morning “after pill April Fool's Day lefiluggage office no-win situation poison-pen letier 3.7.3 coffee-table book inkjet printer “merry-go-round autonomic nervous system love-hate relationship non-stick frying-pan red blood cell fire-insurance policy imature-age student three-day week bwenty-p stamp well-balanced diet sxo0d luck charm no-go area parent-teacher association school-leaving age greenhouse effect windscreen wiperHéctor Ortiz Lira CITATIONS NARA NANA 4 Sentence accent 4.1 INTRODUCTION Sentcnce accentis an aspect of posticxical phonology which some authors ascribe to the area of accentuation and others to the area of intonation. For Halliday (1967), who analyses the problem under the name of ‘tonicity’, this is one of the three components intonation basically consists of.'* His view is widely shared by other phoneticians in Britain, The close interaction between intonation and accentuation made Kingdon (1938) devise his ‘tonetic stress’ marking system (§1.6.4), in order to account for both prosodies simultancously — aceentuation by the presence of the marks and intonation by the shape thercof. In the USA, writers, with the exception of Bolinger, havo analysed stress and pitch as separate {valares. Bolinger (1958) argued that syllables are made prominent mainly by means of pitch movement (see fooinowe 4), while admitting that olher pitch movements contibute wo inionation exclusively. In the present work, sentence accentuation (ic. the prominence ppattor of utterances) and intonation (i.e. the pitch pattem of utterances) will be analysed as wo independent aspocts (or as “tie two sides of the intonational coin’, according to Ladd, 1996). Whichever position we take, this is an aspect of prosody where some of the most important body of theoretical discussion has developed in the last two decades or So. The main objectives of chaptor 4 are, in the first place, to discuss the terminology related to the subject; secondly, to examine long-standing notions such as normal, conirastive and emphatic accent and, finally, to analysc the principles which govern nuclear accent placoment; those were mentioned in $1.3. 4.2 NUCLEAR ACCENT Following the British tradition of prosody, tho present analysis of sentenc: avcentuation is based on the notion of nuclear accent, which in §1.4 was phonetically identified as the syllable starting the last pitch movement (contrast, obtrusion) in an intonation-group and, functionally, a8 the syllable that marks the beginning of the most meaningful portion of uutierance. In this respect, Cruttenden (1997: 42) explains that ‘thers scoms to be some general psycholinguistic principle at work whereby the processing of intonational meaning, takes place at the end of cach Jintonation-} group and the most reesnt signal curios the most meaning’ Linguisis writing as far back as the 17th century took an interest in problems related to emphasis on one word rather than another in an utterance as part of their concern for Clocution, and this became more noticeable towards the end of the 18th century. Although the concept of nucleus can be seen in linguisis’ writings towards the turn of ihe century, nobody seomed to fecl the need to define it. Sweet (1913), the most influential phonetician Of the 19th contury, called it ‘predominant stress’. The heginning of the 20th century is the period where intonation took off, and clear schools of thought began to develop. Palmer (1922), the founder of the nuclear approzch to intonation, defined nuclous as “the stressed syllable of the most prominent word” in an utterance. After Kingdon (1938). alrendy mentioned as the inventor of the ‘tonctic-strss” marking system, came Crystal (1969) and O'Connor & Arnold (1973). All of them coincide in establishing the interdependenceWord stress and sentence accent LALLA between prominence and pitch and in general agree on the internal structure of intona ion- groups. (See foomote 5.) One further point in common is thal none of them claborated a theory of nucleus placement. Ore of the main differences between the British and the American schools of prosody is the theoretical status attached to the last accent of the utterance. Americans in gencral, including Bolinger and, more recently, Piemchumbert (the main representative of Unc auto- scgmental thcory), ignore the notion, as did the Spanish school of prosody. To sum up, according to the British school of prosody, nucleus is 2 feature of intonation which coincides with a stress; in the American school, nucleus is mainly a feature of stress which may or may not co-occur with pitch movement. ‘That is, both approaches agree in terms of onc basic, notion, viz. the existence of a degree of accent which overpowers all other acconts in the intonation-group. Independent of theoretical affiliation, the notion of nuclear accent, whether formally acknowledged or otherwise, has roceived a multiplicity of names in the literature. “Tonic syllable” is the term uscd by Halliday (1967), Crystal (1969) and Brayil (1994). Bolinger acknowledges the exisience of what he variously calls “terminal accent’, “last main accent’ and ‘major accent’. Other names have boon used —‘primary accent/suress’, ‘terminal accent/stress’, ‘final accent/stress’, ‘focal accentisuess’, clc.; the term ‘scnwence stess” can also be found, but studcnis had better be warned about it, duc to Uc occasional overlapping, of the terms stress and accent. Onc final word about the term ‘sontenes accent’: we have adopted this label mainly because of its wide acceptance in the prosodic literature. It may, however, not be the most accurate, due to the implications of the word ‘sentence’. Mor precise terms would be, for instance, ‘ultcrance-level accentuation’ or ‘posilexical acceatuation’. Since a key factor to convey meaning involves the last accont in th intonation-group and because there arc important differcnees in the way English and Spanish assign the location of this accent, we shall dovote an extensive portion of this chapter to matters related to nucleus placement, 4.3. NUCLEARITY Nucleus has been defined according to formal and functional criteria. In general, definitions can be classified into three main groups: () phonetic, (i) distributional, and (ii) functional. Some definitions can be allotted to two groups simultaneously: (@ Phonetic definitions concentrate on the type of prominence displayed by the nuclear syllable. Here we find definitions which refer to. ‘the siressed syllable of the most prominent word’, ‘major pitch movement’, ‘the syllable carrying maximal prominence’, “the syllable at which a significant pitch movement begins’, etc. (i) Distributional definitions refer to position in the intonation-group, usually the word Nast’, c.g. ‘the last promincnt syllable’, ‘the last fully stressed syllable’, “the last main accent’, ‘the Final accented syllabic’, “the rightmost of a number of assigned aceents’, otc. ii) Functional definitions, of a more phonological nature, say what the nucleus docs, e.g, the centre of an intonation contour with which “the comment of the utcrance would be associated” (Danes, 1967: 226), ‘the primary cue t what the speaker considers the most important part of his utterance’ (Cutler, 1984: 87), the ‘chief means of signalling the focus marking’, ‘a phonological reality thatis relovant outside the area of pitch contours proper” (Gussenhoven, 1984: 22, 326-327), and the location which dotermines whether ‘a broad focus interpretation is possible’ (Ladd, 1997: 203).Hécior Onis Lg As became clear in footnotes 4 and 5, we have prefered @ distibutional definition of nucleus over a phonetic one, since it is perfectly posible io find a nuclear acvent whose pilch ‘movement is less prominent than a prenuclear pitch accent." 4.4 NUCLEUS PLACEMENT THEORIES Approaches to nucleus placement belong mainly w four schools of thought: the traditional, the syntactic, the semantic, and the focal. It should be pointed out thal some Nios are not totally independent of cach other, and thai there is a divecsity of inlormediaie positions 4.4.1 THE TRADITIONAL MODEL One of the most traditional analyses bases its argumentation on a cla according to the semantic burden they carry and consoquent capacity of accentabihty when sed in Connected speech. The division into lexical lems (also called content words) and Sguctural items (or function, or grammatical words) — corresponding roughly to “open” and Closed’ classes (Lyors. 1977) ~ has been adopicd mainly (but not exclusively) by EPL Pirers duc to the simplicity implied by the approach: the formor category has bas? found 16 be far more accontable than the latter. (A similar assumption can he found in the Avmotieay School, ¢-g. Trager and Smith, 1951, and Chomsky ard Halle, 1968). ‘The Following tabs RTonssins® the information given by authors of three different theoretical persuasions “Quilis (1985) for Spanish, and Pike (1945) and Kingdon (1958a) for English- on the subject of Accented and deaccented word categories, for camparison’s sake: sification of words WORD-CLASSES TYPICALLY ACCENTED, _____QUILIS (1985) PIKE (1945) KINGDON (1958) nouns, ‘pouns nearly ll nouns adjetives aujectives adjectives (proper, pasticpials) Pronouns (subjective, Pronouns (indefinit Pronoans (demonstrative objective, indefinite, demonstrative, possessive, omohatie, possessive, demonsuative, interogative) interogative) interrogative) determiners (emonstatie, doteeminers (lemonstrative, numerical, cardinal, hhumerical, cieeénal, ordinal, indefinite, nterrogalive, indefinite negative) articles) verbs (min, ausiliary) verbs (main) verbs (main, negative * auiliaries) adverbs adverbs (time, place, manner) adverts (dime, place, manner, frequeacy) ‘nterjections interjotions preposition (cegun) longer prepositions conjunctions (compound) conjunctions (eimphatie)Word stress ond sentence accent sucnccccrncc WORD CLASSES TYPICALLY UNACCENTED __QUILIS (1985) PIKE (1945) KINGDON (1s589 nours of wide denotation Pronouns (complement, pronouns (reflexive, personal) pronouns (reflexive, relative, reflexive) person, reciprocal) determiners (postestive determiners (postessive, ofinite articles) elaiive, indefinite, ticles) verbs (auxiliary) vorts (affirmative auxiliary in statements) axtverbe (lative) adverbs (degree) adverbs (degree, rekaive) prepositions propositions ‘prepositions (monosyllabic) ‘mos: conjunctions conjuntions (co-ordinating, subordinating, comparative) forms of address ‘Analyses of data confirm the assumption: Crystal (1969: 267) reports that ‘tonicity was almost entirely sestricte¢ to the four “lexical” classes, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (93%)" and compares his results with the 95% oblained by Quirk et al. (1964). Interestingly, Crystal is puzzled at the marked predominance of nouns over verbs. ‘The above description of word classes has been incorporated into another traditional rule of nucleus placement, viz. that generally known as nuclear accent on the “Last Lexical lwem? rule (LLI for short). The first formal characterisation is in Halliday (1967: 22-23): ‘the toni in neutral tonicity, falls on the last lexical item in the tone group’. ‘This means that in utterances which do not express contrast or emphasis, i.c. those which aw neutral (or normal), the nuclear accent occurs on the last noun, verb, cic. On the other hand, there are wo conditions under which ‘marked tonicity’ can’ occur. when a non-final cloment (either structural or lexical) is ‘contrastive’, and when a final clement is ‘given’, i.c. ‘has boon mentioned before or is present in the situation’. Two examples adapted from Halliday can iMlustrate the difference: (4.1) A: Sorry. I’ve just broken an cgzeup B: 'Don't worry. There's alnother onc in the “cupboard. (Neutral tonicity; nuclear accent on the last lexical item.) (4.2) A: Here's the cggcup you wanted. But we need an extra one, I’m afraid . B: Thore’s nother one in the cupboard, (Marked tonicity; B takes cupboard as given and so the nuclear accent falls on the last new lexical item.) In an analysis of a corpus of about 1,200 intonation-groups, Altenberg (1987) found that @ there is a strong tendency for the last lexicel item to carry the nucleus (78%); Gi) English nouns have the greatest potential for prosodic prominence-and particularly nuclear accent (73%); (ii) the nuclear accent falls on the last word of the intonation-group in 88% ofHéctor Orde Lire GF) onion HsKAHNANNRNNMNN SE ANA NNN the casos; this suggests replacing a rule based on the lexical-structural distinction, such as the LLU mule, by a purely positional rule for predictive purposes, i.c. a kind of ‘Last fier’ rule of accent which could be worded: “There's a strong tendency for intonation-groups to have the nuclear accent on the last item." This, by the way, is the rule which appears 10 govern nuclear aoveat placementin Spanish (Ortiz-Lira, 1994), 4.4.2. THE SYNTACTIC MODEL ‘The traditional representative of the syntactic approach is Chomsky & Hille (1968), Their main tenct is stated by the authors at p. 25: “Once the speaker has sciccicd a seatenaa with a particular syntactic structure and certain lexical items [...] the choice of stress contour is not matter subject to further independent decision.” And the following footnote: “We assume that the position of emphatic stress is marked in the surface structure, and we neglect matters that we have assigned to the theory of performance.’ ‘The syntactic approach 10 nucleus placement can be summarised in three main points: (i) Accent placoment is determined exclusively by syntactic structure and predicuct by mile, without any reference to cither semantic or pragmatic [actors; since syntactically driven rules can assign only one accontual pattern to cach syntactic structure, it follows that (i) Bach uuerance has a normal or neutral accent placement, and consequently (iil) Any other options for nucleus placement are considered special, i.e. either contrastive or emphatic. ‘This deterministic approach was soon found inadequate to deal not only with a number of utterances of anormal type, i.e. those ending in an accented final Iexical item, but also with a variety of other patterns which take an carly acoent but would still be considered uunemph atic and non-contrastive, as in (4.3), where both final Icaical items, open and made are unaccented, e.g. (4.3) A: What are you doing “here? B: You left the door open A: Or perhaps you got a"key made Important ammendments to the original generative approach through the introduction of information elements into the discussion were introduced, among others, by Bresnan (1971) and Schmeriing (1976). In spite of the correlations which can be found between accentability and symtax, the exclusively syntactic view to nucleus placement is generally considered untenable in the current literawre, 4.4.3 THE SEMANTIC MODEL, . The main (and probably orly) represcntative of the semantic (also known as the highlighting’) model is Bolinger (1972, 1978, 1986). He argues that speakers assign aceents by some kind of a mental mechanism which directly reflects their intcni, total ignoring syntactic factors. Bolinger opposes this ‘free will? approach to the dotrministic View in most of his writings on the subject, and concludes thal it is the speaker, not the grammar, which ‘does the choosing’. He explicitly criticises Chomsky (1971: 205) for automatically claiming the need for contrastive accent in cases of syntactic parallel in (4.4), (with adapted notation): mm, asWord stress and sentence accent MMe (4.4) John is neither EAger to please, nor. y to please, not CiiRtain to please Bolinger argues that the above pattern is also used in constructions which are not syntactically parallel, but are made parallel by means of accent. While explicitly stating that “the syntax in no way determines the accent placement’, Ladd (1980: 79-80), an cxponont of the focal approach, would arguc that parallel is a semantic notion signalled by focus, as shown in (4.5), where thrce different accent pattems render three different meanings: (4.5) A: When was the last time you saw any of your relatives? By: My MoTer called me yesterday--does that count! (=would my mother count as arrclative?) By: My mother CALLED me yesterday--does that count? some kind of seeing?) By: My MOTHer called Mi yesterday--does that count? (=would my mother getting in touch with me count the same as my getting in touch with her?) (=would calling count as In Bolinger’s view, words will get an accent according to their relative. or absolu semantic weight expressed in terms of unexpoctedness; thus, highly prodictable words are unlikely to be accented (0.g. make and things), whereas highly unprediclahle words are likely to carry accent (c.g. emphasise and insects), asin (46) Thavea “point to make (4.7) Thave a pointto “emphasise Similarly, absolute semantic weight is at play in examples such as: (4.8) ‘Those are “crawling things (49) Those are crawling “insects Lexical information load and speakers” intention are pivotal factors in Bolinger’s theory. His theoretical position that the location of nuclear accents is determined by ‘semantic and emotional highlighting’ is put into practice by two interacting accentusl notions, ‘accents of interest’ (4.10 and 4.11) and ‘sccents of power’ (4.12 and 4.13), neither of which is formally defined anywhere. The former allow the speaker to highlight individual words (i.c. they ‘inform’), and the latter allow the arrangement of the accents, so that they can occur near the beginning and/or the end of the intonation-group (ie. they ‘impress"). All examples are from Bolinger (1986), c.g. (4.10) A: Why don’t you like fluorescent lamps? B: The “hum annoys me. (Annoyance is expected; accent of interest on the noun.) (4.11) A: You look worried B: I°am worried. My “mother's going in for an operation. (Dellaied end creates. a” particular effect because it goes against expectations.) (4.12) Tcouldn’t begin to tell you all the trouble I’ve boen through. (One single ‘exclamatory early accent’ of power.) (4.13) Good morning. Hlow are“ you? (As an opener, not as a response; an exclamatory late accent of power.) ‘The semantic view to accent placement, however, also runs into difficulty with ccctainHéctor Ortiz Lira paticrns, such as the different degree of avcentability of English arguments and predicates. As will be seen in the next section, nouns normally take prevalence over verbs in matters of accentuation. Bolingcr’s only explanation is his notion of ‘downplaying’, but downplaying is also cvoked to account for problems as dissimilar as the deacoonting of repeated material, as in (4.11), oF of the so-called “empty words*, as in (4.8). ‘Tho two last approaches, the syntactic and the scmantic, caused extensive arguments and counter-argumonts at the beginning of the 70's; the ccnizal point of the discussion was 0 explain controversial accentual patterns. 4.4.4 THE FOCAL MODEL A general idea of focus is one which we do not seem to find much difficulty in understanding, in spite of the fact that it remains an ill-defined notion in the literature; it appears as if authors generally avoid defining it, In gencral terms, and inespective of theoretical affiliation, we intuitively assume thal “focusing is a central’ part of what we do when we accent” (Ladd, 1979: 98). We will restrict the discussion to focus in connection with (and realised by) nuclear accont assignment, Onc of the first mentions of the term focus along these lincs is introduced by Halliday (1967) when he talks about ‘points of information focus’ , as part of the theory that explains the way in which intonation relates to information structure in spoken language. He also examines the distinction between marked and unmarked focus. Focus has also been variously charectoriscd. Culicover & Rochemont (1983) have suggested that focus is determined by context; for Gussenhoven (1984) and Maidment (1990), focus marks semantic constituents; for Ladd (1979), focus is a syntactic phonom- enon; according to Selkirk (1984), focus applies to syntactic constituents, and Allerton (1978) does not think it possible to define it in phonological or syntactic or even somantic terms. What we do know is that focus represents an intermediate level of analysis, i.c. it provides a convenient device to explain the (quite often) elusive correlation between a Phonological notion such as nuclear accent and prominent material of different lengihs (from one syllable to whole constituents and sentences), and particularly the word which authors have variously characierised as the most deserving of the label ‘new’, the most important, informative, newsworthy. unpredictable, etc. Focus, then, is not to be defined according to nucleus placement; the relationship is rather the other way round: the accentual patiern of an uterance (including the nuclear accent) is the physical manifestation of the focus of the utterance, Summing up, there is gencral agreement that (j) acceats signal focus (ii) not all focused constituents necd take an accent, and (iii) unfocused constituonts do not take an accent. Our main task will be to identify the focus of an utterance and within the focused portion, the syllable bearing the nuclear accent. Since, by definition, the nuclear accent Consists of a single syllable, the difficulty arises when there is a large portion of ulerance in focus ~ sometimes even the whole of the intonation-group. 4.4.4.1 BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS Two further concepts will be adopted here, which are closely connected with the information structure of the utterance: broad and narrow focus; the [omer was coined by Ladd (1980) and refers to the fact that the information conveyed by the intonation-group is completely new (“all-new”) and therefore ‘in focus’. On the other hand, an uticrance is inWord stress and sentence accent eincarcnenonanentannannnntinsianncinonanannraonemanncmnmnnnnnnanam (53 narrow focus when only a portion of it is in focus, i.e. when it contains new and given information." This is illustrated in the next examples: (4.14) to (4.17) are in broad focus. ‘They can be thought of as, B's responses to questions such as What's the matter?, What's new?, Waat happened?, ett.; we can also say that the answers provided by B are unexpected and therefore come ‘out of the bluc'; B’s exchanges in (4.18) to (4.20) are in narrow focus i.e. they contain given information, ic, information already present in the discourse, c. (4.14) [Lfor'got to ‘bring my “library card)yocus (4.15) [My *ear broke downlrocus (4.16) [The'president’s de'cided to sub'mit his 'tesig nationhgcus (4.17) ['Too many ‘cooks ‘spoil the “brothleocus (4.18) A: Did you sleep well? B: [Incredibly crs well (4.19) A: You say you need iwenty-five B: [Thiny-]pocus five A (4.20) ‘What do you think of the new measures taken? Were they effective? Br [think they were [ inlpocuys effective ‘The above examples appear to indicate that scope of focus is a matter of degree, going from the broadest (broad focus) to the narrowest, as shown in (4.20), where a single morpheme is brought into focus. More specifically, in utterances in broad focus, the general tendency is for the nuclear accent to go on the last lexical item; the only exception is (4.15) which, together with other similar patterns, will be explained in §4.4.4.5; in (4.14), the accent falls on the lexically stressed syllable of the single-stressed iexical item (compound) library card. In utterances in narrow focus the nuclear accent gocs on the focused constituent, ‘Three general conclusions emerge fram the examples: (i) the narrower the focus, the more obvious nucleus placement is (ce. the more direct its relation to accent); (il) the nuclear accent falls within the focused material; (i) the focused material involves new information. (For focused constituents involving given information, which are consequently accented, soe $44.44) 4.4.4.2 ADVANTAGES OP THE FOCAL. APPROACIT ‘We shall now analyse the reasons why the focal analysis is a clear advantage over the semantic and syntactic views. In the first place, it takes contextual and pragmatic aspects into account, without necessarily disregarding syntactic considerations, One clear example of the superiority of the focal analysis is that it can satisfactorily explain similar surface pattems which are ambiguous between different readings, For instance, (4.21) Isaw “John this moming can be interproted either as in (4.22), iwc. a ‘normal’, broad-focus reading, or as in (4.23), ie. a contrastive, narrow-focus reading, c.g. (4.22) A: Why are you so happy? B: (Isaw “John this moming])Héctor Ortiz Lira HRONAHNEAHANONNENHANNANAAN ERATE (4.23) A: Did you see “Pete this morning? B: Isaw [John] ,g¢ys this morning The last two examples also show that nucicus placement alone (John, in this ease) cannot indicate the scope of the focus; this can only be done by taking contextual and situational considerations into account. ‘The focal approach can also offer a satisfactory explanation for the accentual patterns traditionally called ‘neutral’ and ‘contrastive/emphatic’. We shall say that normal nucleus placement is the pattern of an utterance in broad focus; contrastive and emphatic accentuation correspond to utterances in narrow focus. But, as we shall see now, normal nucleus placement does not only leave the focus broad, but also unspecified. For instanco, the ccentval pattem in (4.24) We atended an international “conference lust week can derive from different types of focus, ftom broad (as in 4.25) to narrow, in different degrees of narrowness, e.g. (4.25) A: What's the news? B: [We attended an international “conference last week}pocus ‘What did you do? We [attended an international “conference last week yous Where did you go? ‘We attended {an international “conference last week ocus ‘Where did you go last week? ‘We attended [an international “conference]pocys last week (4.26) (4.27) (4.28) Clearly, it is not possible to characterise a given accentual pattem as being in cither broad or narrow focus without considering contextual factors. Another advantage of the focal approach is that it can offer more satisfactory answers to pattems of interference across languages. For instance, if a native speaker of English has to explain why he has arrived late, he might say (4.29) [My “car didn’t workliocus ‘A native speaker of Spanish, on the other hand, will normally say: (4.30) [El auto no me funcie n6lpocus A semantic view of nucleus placement can only claim that the English speaker is mofc. interesied in the car and the Spanish speaker in the working -a very weak argument, Instead, we shall say that focus is a language universal concept, and the ways in which Tanguages realise focus through accent are language specific, ie. the rules governing the relationship depend on cach language in particular. Ladd’s contibution to a theory of nucleus placoment ficant. His notions of ‘deaccenting’ and ‘default accent’ are contral issues in his theory and of very practicalWord stress and sentence accent AM Nnneemcenencrnmnnccccmmcny (FB value from an EFL point of view. He defines deaccenting as ‘absence of the [accent that an item would normally have’ (1979: 167). But deaccenting also implies moving the nuclear accent onto an item Which is thus accented by dofaull. In sum, a nuclear accent can result from applying focus on a particular constituent (focus accent), or as a result of default uecent through deaccenting. Examples of dofault accent are those in (4.32) and (4.34). I is worth noticing thal in the majority of cases the nuclear accent is shifted to the left (as shown in 4.32), and sometimes io the right of the broad-focus versions (as in 4.34); the hroad-focus versions are (4.31) and (4.33), og. (4.31) A: What's the mauer? B: T'mafraid Ihave some very distressing “news. (COCUS ACCENT) (4.32) At Any news? B: I'mafraid Ihave some very distressing, news. (DEFAULT ACCENT) (4.33) Ar What's the matter? B: A ‘This is not 2 subject we could reach a “compromise about. HOCUS ACCINT, Couldnt we reach « compromisa? B: This is not a subject we could reach a compromise about (DEAULE ACCENT) (4.34) Default accent and narrow focus accent are the two types of non-noutral ascent place- ment Ladd recognises. As for the concept of contrastive accent, we shall understand. both default accent ‘that may result from the deaccenting of an item thal would otherwise be accented’ (Ladd, 1979: 129), and narrow focus accent arising from a desire to contras! 4.4.4.3 NEWNESS ANDGIVENNESS Attempts to formalise a theory of information structure, including the concepts of given vs. new information, are due to work begun by the Prague linguists at the beginning of tk: century. However, it was Halliday's concern to explain the process that link information with intonation which led him in 1967 to claboratc an explicit theory of information Structure. For Halliday, (i) given information is optional and not marked by pitch; (ii) the unmarked position of given information is al the beginning of the intonalion-group, and (ii) the condition of givenness is determined by the speaker. We shall say that Statement ({) i only a general tendency. (Soe §4.4.4.4.) Halliday defines now information as ‘that part of the information unit [...] which tho speaker has decided to prescnt as not being already available to the hearer” and given information as “that which the spcaker decides (0 twat av already known or assumed" (Halliday, 1970: 40). For Kuno (1978: 282-283), pivenness is information "recoverable {from proced ing context’. For Brown & Yule ([983) itis information ‘physically present in the context’ or ‘mentioned in the discourse’. Various charactcrisalions speak about infor. ‘mation “in the air’ or ‘on stagc’”, ‘shared knowledge’, ‘common ground’, ‘background’, “assumed familiarity’, etc. Finally, given information can bc eslablished both linguistically (when it is physically present in the discourse) and situationally (when itis related to a particular situation or non linguistic context). Apart from the examples given in (4.18) to (4.20), which involve repetitions of the type well vs. incredibly well, linguistically given material may be established through various types of sense relations: (i) synonymy (4.35), {ii) hyponym/ Superordinate (4.16), (it) converse (4.37), and (iv) partwhole (4.38); situalionally given is illustrated in (4.39), c.g.Hester Ore tg (4.35) A: Shall we take a detour to avoid the town centre? B: I “hate diversions. (4.36) A: Would you like acoke? B: “Sorry. I don’t “fancy soft drinks (4.37) Ac Lent itto Joba. B: ‘Why did he borrow it, may I ask? A: Tyesprained my ankle, B: You'll have to rest your leg cont pletely. A (watching B, who is ready to bite into a nice apple) Whata “nice apple! (4.38) (4.39) 4.4.4.4 NUCLEUS PLACE ‘T AND GIVENNESS We have stated that in gencral terms deaccenting is related o givenness and uecenting, to newnoss. In this section we shall examine some of the main instances of given information which, in spite of its condition, is brought into Focus and then reaccented. Identical material can be roused, focalised and ‘accented’ as a process of recapitulation on th: part of the addressee, to make it clear to the speaker that he ages with him (4.40), or that he has understood the message (4.41); as a means to reiterate information for clarification purposes (4.42); with the purpose of marking the beginning of a new aspect of the same topic (4.43); When there arc no new items in the discourse context (4.44); when the same form conveys. two different meanings (in 4.45, the form Liverpool has two referents — the foothall tcam and the city), and because of intonation idiomaticity (4.46), e.g (4.40) A: Would you like a coffee? B: ~Yes. A “coffee would be , nice (4.41) A: Two ok six double thros double one B: “Two oh six double 'three double “one. “Right (4.42) A Who discovered America? B: A ‘Christopher Co'lumbus Columbus. “Y« (4.43) (Because we're so far away, I can never get fresh milk and yoghurt.) “Yoghurt may ‘not beas ‘crucial as “milk, but. (4.44) A: . And you decided to come hack B: I de'cided to come “back. “Yes (4.45) We ‘hope to 'show the 'rcal “Liverpool at “Liverpool (4.46) It's 'not what you"suid, i's the ‘way you “said it “Excellent Crattendon (1997: 82-86) cxamines three {urther types of reaccentuation: contrasts, as in (4.47), where girls are part of class; echoes, as in (4,48), and insists, as in (4.49), c.g (4.47) The 'whole ~class took part. But only the “girls gota prize (4.48) A: Buy me six pairs, will you? B: 'Six ‘pairs? (4.49) A: What kind of rock do you like? B: [don’t “like rockWord stress and sentence accent Ucn 4.4.4.5 EXCEPTIONS TOLLE RULE. In §4.4.4.1 we stated that in utterances in broad Focus, the nuclear accent will yery likely go on the last Icxival item, a reworded version of Halliday's LLI principle. This traditional rule implies that if the accent falls on a previous lexical item, or on a grammati item, then the utterance is in narrow focus. As we also advanced in the same scetion, however, there are a number of constructions in broad focus in which the nuclear accsn! goes on a lexical item preceding the last (c.g. (4.15). These cxecptians to the last lexical item mule of accentuation arc examined now. The first group involves uucrances made up of arguments (j.c. noun phrascs acting as subjects) and predicates (ic. verbs and predicate nouns or adjectives), which show a marked prevalence of arguments in mutters ol accentuation; the second group relates to final items with ow scmanuic weight. 4.4.4.5.1 ‘Event! sentences ‘Typically, this relatively short type of utterance consisis of a non-pronominal subject followed by an intransitive predicate. Crutienden (1997: 75) identifies the verh as one which denotes appearance or disappearance (particularly with human subjects) or misfortune (very often with non-human subjects). Examples of ‘event’ sentences can be found in various ELT practice materials, but a satisfactory explanation for their accentual behaviour is seldom attempted in them. Thompson (1981: 48-49) was one of the first to clearly state that ‘both the noun ard the verb are new information, but the noun is stressed”. Gussenhoven (1984 42) identifies ‘event’ sentences as thase referring to historical events, ie. those in which ‘something was (is, will be, might have been, was not, ete.) an cvent’, ic. a past, present, future or presumed event. Schmerling (1976: 81-98) calls these uticrances ‘news sentences’, in which the whole of thom is news and ‘predicates receive lower stress than theit arguments’, as the following examples indicate:* (4.50) The *water’s running (4.51) The “baby’s crying (4.52) The *keule’s boiling (4.53) There’s a “bus coming! (4.54) My “head aches (4.55) The “car broke down © (4:56) An “accident happened (4.57) The “children will wale in ‘There are various kinds of exceptions to the above rule. Ladd (1980: 91) warms about the different accentual bchaviour of proper nouns, since ‘names sem to be much less accentable than other NPs in identical contexts’, as in (4.58), and Faber (1987: 344) and Cruttenden (1990: 13) claim that in sentences containing human subjects and agcative verbs both have to take an accent, as shown in (4.59a); (4.59b), on the other hand, contains @ non- human subject, e.g. (4.58) Tesus “wept (4.59) (@) It's just my “daughter | “shivering ~ (b) Its just the “door slamming Gussenhoven (1984) describes exceptions such as utterances whose subjects are quantifiers and pronouns (4.60); definitional sentences (4.61); contigency sentences (4.62,Héctor One tia the meaning here being ‘if there are thieves, they will be prosecuted’); sontonces with generic arguments (i.¢. those referring to whole classes of entities, 4.63), and scntences in which the predicate is complemented (4.64). These exceptions -marked (a)- are accented on the predicate; regular ‘event’ sentences ~shown as (b)—bring out the contrasi, c.g. (4.60) (a) ‘Everybody has e'scaped! ~ (b) The “prisoners have escaped! (4.61) @) 'Milk is “animal ~ (b) The “milk’s in the sun (4.62) (a) "Thieves will be “prosecuted ~ (b) “Thieves have been around (4.63) (@) "Ice “melts ~(b) If you're ‘not “careful, | “ice will form (4.64) (@) Our ‘dog's my'steriously disap’ peared ~ (b) Our “dog’s disappeared ‘The Spanish versions of these utterances typically have predicato+argument word order, with the nuclear accent in final position, Cg. (4.65) Se su'bié la “Ieche (466) Se cor'6 Ia “lux, (4.67) Empe'x6 el semi’ nario (4.68) Me falllaron los “frenos 4.4.4.5.2 Nouns + infinitives __ Newman's (1946: 179) much quoted pair of examples (4.69) and (4.70) is probably the first formal account of sentences with a NP followed by an infinitive sequence in terms of syntactic relations, e.g. (4.69) Ihave in'structions to leave (=I have to leave instructions) (4.70) Thave instructions to “leave (=I have been instructed to Icave) In (4.69), the noun is the object of the verb, and in (4.70), the verb is the complement of the noun. Similarly, as an answer to en invitation like Are you coming with us tonight? wo may get any of the following (4.71) I've gota ‘couple of “leticrs to write (4.72) P've gota ‘couple of “books to read (4.73) I've got ‘all these shrimp to clean In this type of construction, however, there are cases which prosont a vertain degree of variability between accent on the noun and accent on the verb. For instance, Bolinger (1986: 125-126) notices, neither of tho following examples in (4.74) and (4.75) could bo unmistakably signalied as the broad-focus version, because the noun and the verb havo similar semantic weight ow in (4.74) and high in (4.75), eg. : (4.74) (@) John has ‘things to “do ~(b) John has “things to do (4.75) (@) John has a life to “live ~ (6) John has a “life to live ‘The following pairs reveal clear differences between English and Spanish, e.g. (4.76) Idon’t ‘know which “bus to take ~ No ‘sé cual 'bus tomar (4.77) "Put the “plates to warm ~ 'Pon los 'platos a calen*tar/ ‘Pon a calen'tar los “platosWord sro and sentence xcent ‘nerassnennannransntnntt ese nemmnmntewemensnennan (3) 4.4.4.5.3 Wh-questions ending with a verb Inthis type of utterance, the nuclear accent normally goes on tho noun representing the abject of the verb, rather than on the verh, These constructions, consisting of questions introduced by a noun-headed wh-complement, made generative grammarians reformulate the original rules assigning accent, by considering contextual factors and claiming that accent placement can be determined from surface structure, all of which originated a considerable body of discussion in the early 70's. Gussenhoven (1984) underlines the speaker's interest in the quericd argument signalled hy the wh-word, which will typically be a [+focus| clement, and will consequently get an accent. These are a few examples (4.78) 'How’s the “homework going? (4.79) ‘Where does 'most of our “fruit go to? (4.80) ‘Whose un brella have Itaken? (4.81) ‘What “brand do you buy? (4.82) ‘How mach “sugar do you add? (4.83) ‘Whose ad'viec did you follow? Crittenden (1997) notices that if the verb has further complementation, the nuclear accent will not go on the object, c.g (4.84) Whose ad'vice did you ‘find’most ~uscful’? (4.85) Which ‘programme do you ‘use to make “drawings with? ‘The Spanish broad-focus versions take the nuclear accent on the last lexieal item, be ita noun or a verb, c.g. (4.86) ¢!C6mo van las teas? (4.87) }Qué marca “compras? 4.4.4.5.4 Final relative clauses It is doubtful whether Halliday’s (197(1; 119) explanation for the accenwation of defining relative clauses can be illuminating cnough to understand the rationale behind the pattern. In (4.88) (here with adapted notation): (4.88) "Have you gota spare “tape recorder I could borrow for an hour or two! hho explains that the speaker has decided to pat the relalive clause alter the nuclear aasent because it is obvious that have you got a spare...? can only introduce a desire to horow something, which, in a way, makes it an utterance in narrow focus. In fact, we can safely state that in English relative clauses, the nuclear accent normally gocs on the arguricnt (noun), irrespective of the condition of new or given of the information in the clause, and the length of it. For instance. both (4.89) and (4.90) ean be considered to he in broad focus, and the rest in narrow focus; (4.91) and (4.92) are questions containing restrictive relative clauses in definite NPs. The last cxamples are relatively long clauses, e.g, (4.89) A: (Showing B a jewellory catalogue) 'Can you sce a “necklace here you'd like? (4.90) “Pam, | ‘have you got any ‘old mags’vines you wouldn't mind giving away?Héctor Ort Lire (4.91) 'Where’s that “book you borrowed? (4.92) ‘What about that “story you were telling me? (4.93) 'I’m putting alway some of the ‘junk that’s been lying around since last Christmas (4.94) I'm in'trigued by these “flashes that scientists have observed round here at of year, is time Schmerling (1976: 55-56) claims that nucleus placement depends on context; (4.95) would be considered normal in a neutral context, and (4.96) in the context of « hospital, ¢. (4.95) "This is the “doctor I was telling you about, (4.96) ‘This is the doctor I was “telling you about The Spanish counterparts prefer the nuclear accent on the rightmost content word, Cx (4.97) Ledia ‘Marcos los ‘libros que queria (4.98) '{Dénde pu 'siste el ‘libro que sa’caste? 4.4.4.5.5 Nouns +adjectives/participles Constructions containing predicative adjectival adjuncts have received the feast attention in the literature. The following examples in broad focus show thal they are also cxceptions 10 LL cg. (4.99) 'Don’tlet the “dog loose (4.100) He "leftthe “door open (4.101) He ‘had one of his “ribs broken (4.102) ‘Keep your “eyes shut + Atypical constuction exhibiting unaccented participles is the type of utterance indicating, causation, hore (4.103) and (4.104), and sentences with present participles, as (4.109), c.g. (4.103) How ‘often do you have your house painted? (4.104) I 'must have a new ex haust-pipe fitted (4.105) ‘Get the “fire going Bolinger (1985: 97-98) supplies two amples with predicative adjectives, both of which are answers to the question Why are you so upset?, and explains (4.106) as ‘accident state’ (i.e. a type of “news” sentence) and (4.107) aS an ‘essential characteristic’ (ef. Gussenhoven’s category of definition), c.g. (4.106) The “floor is dirty . (4.107) ‘Pornographic ‘books are “dirty Spanish once again favours accentuation on the last item, e.g. (4.108) Delo la ‘pucna dbierta (4.109) Man'tén los ‘ojos ce°rradosWord stress and sentence accent SRE 4.4.4.5.6 Transitive verbs + object + verbal particle ‘This type of structure has been accounted for in various descriptions, both EFL. and otherwise. It consisis of a transitive phrasal verb followed by a direct obj argument) and a verbal particle, all of which are in focus. The phrasal (or phrasal epcsitional) verb is the predicate and the parick may either precede or follow t ‘pring in the “dog vs. ‘bring the ‘dog in). The second paticrn is Spanish-speakers (0 deal with successfully, c.8 (4.110) 'Keep your “head down (4.111) ‘Are you going to bring “packages in? (4.112) "Doa’ forget to 'put the “clock back 4.4.4.5.7 Indirect questions In this type of eonsiruction the nuclear agcent goes on the objects of the verbs, provided they are full NP objects and not pronominal ones (c.g. something), while ‘tic verbs themselves are Jefi unaccented. Although paralle} Spanish constructions arc notimpossible to find, these generally adopt a verb+noun word order, as shown in (4.116), e.g (4.113) 1 ‘wonder ‘how many “albums Sinatra's recorded (4.114) You ‘can’t imagine ‘how much “effort Mark put into it (4.115) Tfor'get what ‘make Jack recommended (4.116) (a) I ‘wonder how ‘ong the “video lasts ~ (b) 4, ‘Cudnto dura'ré el video? 4445.8 Subject passive verb Structures made up of subjects and passive verbs are analysed by Gussenhoven (1984) separately from ‘event’ sentences, which involve intransitive verbs. These examples can be taken as responses to a question such as Whar happened?. c.g. (4.117) The “Governor's been kidnapped! (4.118) *Classes have been cancelled! (4.119) The 'missing “link has been found! Passive semtenc with a nuclear accent a 1 Spanish, the same as ‘event’ sentences, have different word order far to the right as possible, e.g. (4,120) Sc suspon'dicron las “clases! 4.4.4.5.9 Objects of general reference chubiger (1935: 14) is one of the first reports of the type of pattem in which objects are deaccented when they are ‘colourless substantives practically equivalent io pronouns’, 6g. (4.121) ‘Jack is for'ever dis pleasing people (4.122) I'must explain matters (4.123) T'must believe in thingsHéctor On ir ‘ana RASKENRUNNE ARTE CAANNSNRANUNAEABRNNN Kingdon (1958a: 173) rofors to these items as “nouns of wide denotation’, and offers pairs such as the following for contrastive purposes: (4.124) (a) ‘Let's go ‘round to “my place ~(b) 'Let’s go ‘round 1 my “olTice Later, Bolinger (1972) also compared items of different semantic weight (see (4.8) and (A.9)). In fact, Bolingor's theory of ‘accents of interest’ allows him to display 2 plethora of examples, including fossilised collocations whose accontual patterns would beter be trvated as invariable, such as “reading matter. Ladd (1997: 180-183) points out that ‘English ueais negative indofinites rather like other arguments, while it treats non-negative indcfinites as similar to personal pronouns’, as scen in tho following pairs: (4.125) (a) T'saw “nobody ~ (b) I 'saw “Mary (4.126) (a) She “heard something ~(b) She ‘heard some “footsteps Notice that Spanish negative and non-negative pronouns are treated as ordinary arguments: (4.127) (a) 'Nocscu'ché “nadie ~ (bh) Escu'ché “algo ~(c) Escu'ché “pasos ‘The deacccnting of items with low specificity in utterances in broad focus is a very sirong tendency in English, bul exceptions are also to be found, as can be seen in: (4.128) T think you're a ‘very con'siderate person (4.129) That's the . principle of the “thing! 4.4.4.5.10 Final vocatives ‘The prosodic behaviour of English yocatives in final position in an intonation-group is fan arca where consonsus has in many respects becn reached. For Kingdon (1958: 105, 110) final vocatives are iagged on, forming part of the tail of the auclear tone; for Crystal (1969: 264) the nuclear accent is placed on the penultimate lexical item and the vocative is ‘nuclear tail'; Gussenhoven (1984: 116-138) and Cruttonden (1997: 36, 77) agiee that final vocatives do not take pitch aécent, 0.8. (4.130) Your “taxi's waiting, love (4.131) Good “morning, doctor Consensus declines with the interpretation of vocatives with a rising pitch movement following a previous fall. This has given rise to various positions, some of which arc clear'y inconsistent or ambiguous. By the criteria presonied here, a vocative such as that in (4.130) gan only finish tho rising ‘movement initiated previously, on the nuclear syllable (as illustrated by the interiinear notation (1.3) on p. 12), e.g. (4.132) Good “moming, doctor (ef. *Good “morning, . doctor) In Ortiz-Lira (1994) ample evidence is given of the accentual behaviour of final Vocalives in Spanish.'” ‘These can take two main options: they can be doaccented (the pragmatically unmarked version) or accented (the marked version), c.8. (4.133) A’pdrese, pues, hombre: (4.134) jA’pairese, pues, | “hombre!Word stress and sentence accent co 4.44.5.11 Finai reporting clauses ‘This area has been practically ignored in the Spanish intonation literature. In English, on the contrary, there is consensus in treating final reporting clauses (alias reporting phrases, background phrases, quoting clauses, direct speech markers, parenthetical verbs, clc.) us incapable of carrying nuclear accent. Intonationally, they are the continuation of the falling and rising movements initiated by the falling and rising nuclear tones of the host sentence: (4.135) I ‘don’t want to go “out, he said As with vocatives, pattems with a falling piteh movement in the host sentence and a rising reporting clause is an area where consensus decreases. In view of the definition of nuclear accent we have adopted, these clauses will be treated as post-nuclear and marked with an undivided, compound fall-riso, c.g. (4.136) I ‘don't want to go “out, he said Finally, in those casos where the reporting clause is modified by an adverbial requiring further pitch movement (an example of “double focusing of information’), the adverbial may be assigned a separate intonation-group, e.g. (4.137) 'Who are “you, said the caterpillar sternly 4.4.4.5.12 Final adverbials ‘The mos. thorough teament of the accentuation (and intonation) of adverbials is Crutenden (1981). The present description will be based on the gencral classification of adverbials into ‘scntenes" (i.¢. disjuncls and conjuncts) and “non-sentence’ (i.e. adjuncts. and subjuncts).'" In this section we shall concentrate on the class of adverbials which are. nomnally unaccented in English, in spite of the fact that they are content words; examples of acecnted adverbials will also be cxaminod for comparison’s sake. We shall organise. non- sentence adverbials in two groups: adjuncts denoting time and place and subjuncis oxprossing courtesy, degree, and proper functioning, 4.4.4.5.12.1 Adverbials of time and place Authors have suggested two different kinds of solution for the weatment of final adverbials of time and piace. Halliday (1970), whose preoccupation is to account for the way in which intonation relates to information, associates final time and place adverbials with ‘minor information points’, ic. information which is secondary or dependent. A similar view is hold by Kingdon (1958a) and O'Connor & Amold (1973). All three views: put forward the usc of rising intonation (low-rise, and Icss frequently fall-risc) on the adverbial, a tone which is associated with information of subsidiary nature. The other, more radical, solution suggests leaving the adverbial unacconied. For instanco, Brown (1990: 94) states that ‘time phrases which modify a predicato are very frequently placed last in the tone group and do not receive the tonic’, and provides the next three examples, the last of whi (4.140) focuses on the adverbial, for obvious contrastive purposes, ¢.g. (4.138) ‘Autumn seems to be aleriving a little “early this year (4.139) 'Britain’s ‘trade balance was in the ‘red bya ‘hundred and ‘ninety ‘three ‘million pounds last monthHéctor Ortiz Lira AIH EANARITAAHHRANANARNANNANATANTAAN ANNAN (4.140) The ‘prime ‘minister has had to ‘cancel his ‘visit o ‘Plymouth to'day | but he ‘hopes to 'go to"morraw In the following examples taken from the literature time and place adverbials ure given with a rising intonation (here with simplified notation), c.g. (4.141) A: Any news of John? B: He's ‘coming “home | to, day (O'Connor & Arnold, 1973: 93) (4.142) The ‘dress 'won't be “finished till next , week (Kingdon, 1958a: 35) (4.143) He ‘didn’t come “home last , night (Halliday, 1970: 38) (4.144) There are “deer in those, woods (Halliday, 1970: 38) (4.145) A: Whav’s the mater? B: I's abit “chilly |in_, here (O'Connor & Amald, 1973: 269) ‘The following utterances in hroad focus aw representative examples of unaccentod adverbials of place, e.g. (4.146) Ex‘cuse me. ‘Does « Mr ‘Henderson live here? (4.147) (On the phone) Ii ‘sounds pretty “lively at your end (4.148) "Waiter! ‘There’ s a “fly in my soup! (4.149) ‘Theres a mosquito on your arm Sometimes speakers may choose to focus on, and therefore accent, final adverbials; in other contexts, the adverbial happens to be the only accentable lexical item, c.g. (4.150) A: I’m looking fora polo neck sweater, please B: They're over “here, | on the “left, ‘There’s been ‘rather a “rush today Time adverbials can be brought into narrow focus for contrastive oF emphatic purposes, e.g. (4.151) A: Youhad a “dental treatment this moming? B: ~Yeah A: The c'leventh this “year? (Gussenhoven, 1984: 113) (4.152) A: T'm starving, the cantcen closes at three, and I still have all this lot to read B: Why don’t you cat something “now? (4.153) A: Can | borrow your ladder? B: “Sorry, | 'Mark borrowed it “yesterday, | and he ‘hasn't retuned it (4.154) A: I'm Tom Fletcher. I've got a room reserved B: “Oh, | Mr “Hetcher. ‘We thought you were coming to'morrow. We've reserved a room for you to’ morrow night. But ‘don’t worry. There ‘should be aroom free tqnight. (Adapted from O'Connor & Flotcher, 1989: 59) Notice, however, that adverbials can also be brought into focus in contexts which are ‘not necessarily contrastive, e.g. (4.155) A: Any news of John?Word stress and sentence accent LEE : Yes. We elgreed to ‘meetin the 'main “library ‘Yes. We a'gived to ‘mect in the ‘main ‘library to' morrow B,: “Yes. We a'grced to 'mectin the ‘main ‘library to'morrow at ‘Tour o'clock 44.45.122 Adverbials of courtesy, degree and proper functioning The courtesy subjuncis please and thanks (and other related forms), when final in the uulierance, are non-nuclear, ¢.g. (4.156) A: ‘Have another “helping, please B: I ‘really have had enough, thank you ‘The nuclear option can be considered to be pragmatically marked (.c."Yes, [please!), cither to emphasise the courtesy, or to indicate attitudes such as insistence or cven annoyance. Degree subjuncis, on the other hand, fall into two groups, ‘down-toners’, which reject nuclear accent, and ‘intensificrs', which are usually acconicd, c.g. (4.157) Your ‘rucksack ‘weighs a “ton, practically (4.158) T'm lust going “out for a bit (4.159) Iwas be'ginning lo ‘think | ‘didn’t be'long in there, sort of (4.160) She "lost her ‘head cont pletely (4.161) I'm ‘sure she won't 'mind th the “slightest Informal intensifiers this and that can premodify other adjectives and adverbs repre= senting given information and therefore attract nuclear accent themselves, c.g. (4.162) A: [suppose he has a very negative approach to his work B: Well, it ‘isn’tall “that bac, | actually (4.163) A: How can he spend such a fortune on cigarettes, | wonder B: He ‘doesn’t smoke “that heavily Adverbs of ‘proper functioning’ (Gussenhioven, 1984: 38) tend to reject the nuclear accent in contexis such as: (4.164) A: Shall we reconsider the arrangement about the clcaning and the cooking’ B: Do you ‘think ill “work O.K.? (4.165) A: What's wrong with Granny B: cait’t “hear properly 4.4.4.5.12.3 Sentence adverbials Sentence adverbials (i.e. disjunets and conjuncts), which modify the whole utterance, * nommally occur as afterthoughts and are appended at the end of intonation-groups, cithcr unacceniedly or with the rising pattern described above; (4.166) to (4.168) illustrate disjuncts and (4.169) to (4.171), conjuncts; notice that rather profers an unaecented tail, c.g. (4.166) He ‘promised to be ~good, naturally (|. naturally) (4.167) ‘Prices went “up, unfortunately (lun, fortunately) (4.168) I's.a ‘question of equality, basically (|, basically)s, Héctor Ortiz Lira ‘MMAHANANANAANHINATTTNNANANNATAAN CHAAR (4.169) ‘All our ‘fricnds are going to the “Lake District, 'We are going to the “seaside, though (|, though) (4.170) "Take school-'ieavers who ‘can’t al'ford uni versity, for instance (|for , instance) (4.171) 'R'Pis ‘nota “dialect, | but an “accent, rather Another group is made up of ‘reinforcing’ adverbials, which tend to resist. being ‘appended to the mai intonation group and take a falling intonation, e.g. (4.172) I ‘couldn’tbe lieve it, | “honestly (4.173) ‘There were “millions of cars on the road, | "literally (4.174) 'I'm not taking ‘any of his “bullying, | “definitely (4.175) He ‘lost his “watch; | an ex'ponsive one “too (4.176) She's an ‘excellent “actress, | and ‘good-looking “also 4.4.4.5.12.4 Sentence vs. non-sentence adverbials Some adverbial forms may function as both sentence (disjuncts) and non-sentence (adjuncts), the difference lying in their accentual behaviour. Notice that identical accentual tendencies occur in Spanish, €-g. (4.177) ‘John speaks “English, naturally (|, naturally; disjunct) (4.178) "John speaks ‘English “naturally (manner adjunct) (4.179) We went “home, happily ({_ happily) (4.180) We went ‘home “ha (4.181) ‘Alice ‘tried to imes*fere, between you and me {| between you and , me) (4.182) ‘Alice ‘tried to inter'fere between 'you and “me In (4.177), the disjunct nanuraily indicates that the speaker finds it natural that John should speak English. As an adjunct, in (4.178), naturally expresses the way in which John speaks English. A similar distinction can be found between sentence and nan-sentence adverbials in Spanish (here with simplified punctuation), e.g (4.183) ‘Habla in’glés naturalmente (=como es de esperar) (4.184) 'Habla in'glés natural mente (=con naturalidad) Similarly, then, as a non-sentence adverbial meaning ‘al that time’ usually takes a accent; cf. unaccented then as an inferential conjunct, ag. (4.185) I'm ‘told that ‘Alan will be ‘in on “Tuesday. Do you ‘think you could ‘talk to him ~then (=when he comes; adjunct) (4.186) You say that ‘Alanis the ‘only one who can ‘solve my “problem. Do you "think you could “talk to him then (=in that case; conjunct) ‘Spanish reacis rather similarly: (4.187) Nos 'vemos est tonces (=at the agreod time) ~ Nos“vernos, entonces (=as a result of the agreement we have just come to)Word stress and sentence accent accent ceccnn 4.4.4.5.13 Other pattems in broad and narrow focus The last scetion is a miscellaneous collection of rules which apply to different items and constitute a problematic area for Spanish speakers. 4.4.4.5.13.1 Fossilised expressions ‘There are 2 number of commonly used expressions with a fixed accentual pattem which Jeamers are advised to commit to memory just like ordinary compaunds. Some of these phrases reflect the generalised tendency to decent nouns (arguments) at the expense of verbs (predicates). The last seven examples have a contrastive overtone. Here we shall list a few of them in decontextwalised form; only the nuclear accent is shown, €.g. to make one’s ‘mouth water to allow the ~dust to settle 10 pull the “wool over sb's eyes 10 see which way the ‘wind is blowing to get one's “fingers burnt to look like something the “cat brought in to keep one’s “fingers crossed 10 keep one’s “head above water to get on like a “house on fire to make one’s “hair stand on end to have a “screw loose to have a good “head on one's shoulders till the “cows come home at the “best of times to “my way of thinking afar as °I'm concerned on “second thoughts in “one way in “other words in “my opinion 4.4.4.5.13.2 Any-innegative siatemenis Negative statements with any may have a broad focus veision with an accent on the proceding verb; the accent on anything is a narrow-focus accent,” o.g. (4.188) A: Shall we get into the car now? B: “Yes, 1 ‘don't think I'm for getting anything (Cr. 'Hlow many ‘times do I ‘have to “tell you! I'm 'not forgetting *anything!) (4.189) ‘Come ‘straight to my “office. You ‘don’t have to “sce anybody. (4.190) A: Did you plan this? B: “No, | I ‘didn’t plan “anything 44ASAS.3. Reflexive vs. emphatic pronouns Reflexive pronouns arc unaccented, whereas emphatic ones are accented, cg. (4.191) He 'won’t ‘worry unless you “hurt yourself (4.192) That ‘nice-looking ‘girl in the ‘middle really “fancies herself (4.193) We've ‘already “proved ourselves. 'Now we can relax for the 'rest of our “lives (4.194) I don’t quite "ec! my'self today (4.195) A: Sometimes you scare me B: Sometimes I scare my self (4.196) A: Believe me. I'ma different person now B: I ‘have to ‘see it for my'self’Héctor Ortiz Lira ATA ATTAIN NNMNNNNMHANNN 44.4.5.13.4 Verbs ofbelief and verbs of saying ‘The prosodic behaviour of certain verbs of belief and saying sometimes depends on whether the proposition was accomplished or not. If the subject happens 10 be right, the main accent (.0. a fall) goes on the introductory verb and the predicate is taken to be given information; if the subject is wrong, the predicate becomes new information and geis the nuclear accent. ‘The Spanish translation of the verb form J thought in the noxt wo cxamples will clarify the issue: in (4.197) the subject is right (Sp. ya me parecia a mi); in (4.198) the subject is wrong (Sp. yo pensé, pero me equivogué). In (4,199), being on the phone and getting in fouch are synonymous expressions. In (4,200), B, takes Colin and somebody ef as coreferential and treats the latter as given information; in the last example, By considers Colin and somebody else as difierent referents, c.2. (4.197) A Manchester United two, Leeds United two B: [ “thought it would bea draw (a , draw) (4.198) A: Manchester United wo, Leeds United one B: 1, thought it would bea “draw (4.199) A: That was Fiona on the phone B: ‘Ah yes. She “said she'd got in touch with me (, touch with mc) (4.200) A: Colin was in charge of the proof-reading B,:°Oh, |*no! I was afraid somebody else would do it By: Good! I was afraid somebody “cls would do it 444. 3.5 Vocative vs. apposition Since a final vocative cafnot take a nuclear accent in English (as in 4.201), Pamela, in (4.202) can only be interpreied as an appositive, i.e. its referent is identical io that of the previous noun phrase nexi-door neighbour, e.g. (4.201) She's my ‘next-door “neighbour, Pamela (4.202) She's my ‘next-door “neighbour, | "Pamela In Spanish, however, nuclear accents on both noun phrases can neatralise such difference, ite, Pamela, in (4.203), might be interpreted as either vocative or appositive, c.g. (4.203) Es mi ve'cina, | Palmela 4.4.4.5.13.6 Syntactic focusing Apart from nucleus placement (the most common way of focusing in English), speakers may want to resort to grammatical focusing, such as the usc of cleft constructions. In these, the accent goes on the focused items, which in negative sentences (4.206) may be given, thus Jeaving the rest of the given information unaccented, e.g. (4.204) A: What a fabulous watch Peter gave you! B: “Beautiful. Butit was "Paul who gave it to me (4205) A: Does Paul know about the watch? B: Itwas Paul who “gave it to me| Word stress ond sentence accent sicanncncsinnannananini es eS mannan (4.206) A: Sorry about the noise. I know you were trying to concentrate It’s “not the “noise that Ihate, | but the “heat 44.4.5.13.7 Prepositions Apart from obviously contrastive contexts such as not ON the iable but UNder the table, prepositions can also become nuclear in contexts where the last lexical item is given, c.g. (4.207) Ifyou ‘can’t ‘count on your “brother, (4.208) A: Can we talk for a little while? B: ‘Whatisit you ‘want to talk about? (4.209) A: Where shall I run? B: "This is an a'tomic “bomb. There’ s ‘nowhere to run “to. (4.210) The 'view to the 'summitis 'said to be magnificent — if youcan get “to the summit ‘who can you count “on? 4.4.4.5.13.8 Adverbs ws. prepositions Sequences consisting of verb+preposition and verb+adverb are distinguished by absence or presence of pitch accent, respectively. For instance, in (4.21 1), GO on means “to base an opinion” and GO ON, “to continue talking”: (4.211) You ‘want me to ‘help you ‘find your ‘missing “cat, | but you ‘hayen’t ‘given me ‘much to “go on. You were ‘saying about the “colour. 'Go on Similarly, (4.212) ‘That's the ‘bed my “maid siceps in.*Oh, who ‘sleeps “in (4.213) "This is the ‘music that ‘turns me *on (4.214) 'Thisisthe 'pivot the wheel “tums on 4.215) ‘What ‘time did she ‘come “to? (=regained consciousness) (4.216) Just ‘look what we' ve “come to (=reached) Tfor'got to tell you Thavea ‘maid 4.4.4.5.13.9 Operators Operators (i.c. the first or only auxiliary in a finite verb phrase, and also be as a main verb) do not take the nuclear accent in sentences in broad focus. Since their central role is to signal positive/negative polarity, they take nuclear accent in order to express contrast, 0.8 (4.217) A: Why didn’t you talk to the supervisor? B: [did talk to him! (4.218) A: Iwish you loved me 4 B: ButI “do love you (4.219) A: didn’t want to leave a message. In case there was someone else B: There's “been no one else (4.220) A: ‘They won't listen? You should punish those little devils B: They're “being punished!/They “are being punished! (4.221) You ‘say you no “longer call ita threat. What “do you call it then?Héctor Ortiz Lira AAO ATTA NOTES ‘The area of prosody is one in which there is considershle temminological disagreement. This can be a hindrance to students who consult different authors. They should, thecefore, make sure how each author defines the terms he uses fo explain his theory. ¥ “The tern ‘obirasion' is used by some authors to seer fo the fact that the pitch of a syllable deviates from @ relatively constant pitch line and is therefore peratived as different (prominent) from the previous syllables —citber higher or lower. The term was coined by Bolinger (958) and can also he found in [eel (1980, 1996) and Crittenden (1997). Bolinger speaks of upward and downwerd obiftision and Cruttenden (1997), of step-up and step-down in pitch. The phase ‘pitch change" is also found in the literature. We prefer to use the word “contrast’ because ofits similarity with Spanish. For further information, soe Cruttenden (1997, chapter 2). * “We shall define Snental lexicon’ as ‘the stored mental presentation of what we know about the lexical items in our language’ (Crystal, 1997: 221), ‘Following the British tradition, we have alopted the notion of intonation group to refer to the basic ‘nit of intonational strudure into which wtlerances can be divide. 1c can be defined as a werd or a group of words (cg. clause, a subject, an adverhial, 2 vocative, ec) unified by a tune. Hach intonation group has a hierarchical intemal structure based on the prominent parts known as pitch accents. An adaptation of Lackts (1996: 45-46) definition of pitch accent is as follows: a pitch feature consisting mainly, but not exclusively, ofa pitch movernent which signals thatthe syllable with which itis associated is prominent in the utlerance, ‘The lest pitch accent is called the icleus oF nuclear accent, withoat which an intovation group would te considered incomplete, Other names for intonation group arc: tone group, tone unit, intonation phrase, yan group, sense group, breath group, ct. * spar from the nuclear accent, an intonation group can have one or more pitch aecents preceding it. The streich of uterance wach begins witha pitzh accent is called head. [nformationally speaking, the heed plays the part of modifying the meaning cinveyed by the nuclear tone. An example of an intonation-group displaying at possible components is: [{Ue10} (‘nation is a'subject of in'ceasing im} [por] (tance! prehead heat nucleus tail * —_Inexiremely contrastive contexts even a non-prominen! syllable can become nuclear, e.g. Did you say “intend or “pretend? * __Swess shift has been profusely describ in the literature Jones (1954 253-254) called it Yhythmical vasiations’, Knowles (1987: 124-126) describes it a8 the ‘intermediate accent rule’. Metrical phonologinis refer to the resulting strong-weak-stiong sequenc: as the ‘iambic reversal’ rule (Liberman & Prince, 1977: 319; Hogg & McCully, 1987: 132) +" “Two-syliabie words affected by stess-shift rules pose an extra problem to analysts, A. iffereat explanation from tne one olferd is 10 say that these wonds have an underlying double-stress pattern and ae tnerefore subject to stess-snift Tues, Le. ‘et cess, ‘cont pact. Lack of consensus is shown by words such as Berlin ao Belfast. Berlin is given with only one siress in EPD bat with two in LED. EPL provides two altematies for Beja, both single-sressec, L2. -- and'-+; LPD, on the olher hand, prefers the double-rcss pattern. ° "The approach to word stress adopted in this booklet can be said w belong to une vacktional model, Which is, in our eaperinee, the most convenient for EFL purposes. The most moxlem view the metrical approach considers stress a relational notion expressed in terms of strong and weak sylables forming metrical foot. ‘The following figures show the relationship between stress pavement and number of syllables in English and Spanish, adepted from Delaltre (1965). The figures, given in percentages, show the predomirance of words with a stress on the ponultimate syllable in Spanish,Word stress and sentence accent AR nna cnc (TT Tallabie wou Tableware Tbe work A TT Tran | m4 | 26 | ss] 39 ] # a [3029 J 2 spaiss| re | 9 | is | 4 | » | o | vm | 6 "1 Notice that thers ae a few cases where stress docs not differentiate between grammatical Clases, i. verbs and nouns and/or adjectives have the same phonemic and stross pattems, e.g. af dress, “comment, concrete, deposit, direct, express, process. . ay (1967), the three meaningful choices of intonation are ‘tone’ (the pitch paticrs proper), “tonivity’ (Qhe location of the last accented syllable or ‘aucleus") and ‘tonality’ (tho disteibution of tho ntoration-groups). ‘These form the set of phenological systems which Halliday collectively refers to as intonation. In this booklet the mark | will be used to indicate only those intonation-group boundaries which do not coincide with a stop. § ‘Thedefinition of naclens adopted here is not without problems, since aucleus perception tests reveal that native listeners do not always coincide ia identifying the last piteh movement, particularly when it consists of a rise preceded by a fall. For a discussion of this top, see Crutienden (1997), For similar, but not necessarily identical, views on focus (broad an arrow), soe also Gussenhoven (1984), Ladd (1996) and Cratenden (1997). Ladd (1996, ch, 5) is also a good discussion on the distribution of accents within focused constituents, {Lada (1956: 293) later admits tat the term ‘fault accent” shosld be replaced by a now term, in view ig assigned by computer jargon nowadays. ‘The fist attempts at explaining the accentual patterning of ‘event’ sentences can bo found in Palmer (1922: 73) and Schubiger (1935: 84). Palmer, for instance, speaks of ‘sitemants puting forward a fact not previously mentionsd’, and Schubiger, of ‘announcements’ which consist grammatically of a subjoct and a ‘redicatz but, psychologically speaking, ae all predicate. Halliday also acknowledges the existence of intransitive clauses with inanimate nouns as subjects; since these constructions violate 1.1, he is forced 10 -on-neutral) information focus. ‘The intonation of final yocatives in Spanish is particularly susceptible to pragmatic factors and geolectal use. The use of pitct-aeceated vocalives in certain varieties of Spanish (e.g. Argentine, Colombian, ‘Venezuelan, Peninsular) appears to be less marked than in Chilean Spanish. % ‘The most detailed grammatical and pragmatic accounts of adverbial are Quik et al. (1985) and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990). Gussenhioven (1984: 111-116), on the other hand, proposes four categories of adverbials, apart trom time-space markers, viz. (a) ‘cohesion markers’, such as additives (0.2. as a matter of oct, actually, inferentials (€.g. then, of course), concessives (eg. however, though), reinforcing (cg. of ‘course, if necessary); contrasive (c.g. om the other hand, for a change, (b) ‘eare-appeal markers’, such as you know, I mean, thanks, please, (c) ‘comment clauses’, such as I suppose, I wonder, 1 hope: and (A) “approximatiyes" such as in aay, oF mare, or something, ard so on 1 "Two dictionaries, ALD and CIDE, are particularly use for their information on the accentuation of ready-made expressions. In this respect they are even more informative than the {vo siadatd pronouncing dictionaries, LPD and EPD. ® A further difficulty relates to the tone used with these pronouns, eg. She ‘won't ralk to “anybody (=she is quite incommunicative). CF. She "won't alk 1 “anybody (=but she does lak to selected people),Héctor Ortit Lira ‘uNANANNANANANANANANANANIANNN NAA NNN REFERENCES Allerton, D. 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Oxford: Clarendon Press. ‘Thompson, 1, (1981). fatonation practice. London: Oxford University Press. Trager, G.1.. & Smith, H. 1. (1951). An outline of English structure. Washington: American Council of Learned Societies J.C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Hastow: Longman Group UK Limited. Cambridge: 1c, A.S. (1977). ‘On sues and linguist rhythm”. Linguistic Iuguiry. 8 wiHéctor Ortiz Lira {AAA ANETTA Practice material Students are advised to analyse the following words, phrases and sentences, sort out the various categories (here appiicable),- identify tho. rus thal_govem their patterns of prominence (stress or accent) ard mark them. Ta the eaie of ccnnocted spacch, they should feparate infonation-group boundaries. Finally, they should read the ilems out love 1, Stress in simple words LL commence suburb café impulse conirol canal excerpt folklore robot distinet vaccine suspense lament massage donate 1.2. interval disciple entertain cauliflower expertise recipient sarcasm decisive recognize molecule pyramid tribuacal contagious maintenance advertise 3. optimism centenary apparatus profitable irreparable penicillin siinated mediocre escalator hereditary 1.4 commemorative communication recommendation intelligible indivisible comtaminatton improvisation — interrogation —intoxicaied abominable 1.5 allergy-allergic — suburb-suburban — academy-academic remedy-remedial narrate-narrative refer-reference —. apply-applicable _exclaim-exclamutory 1.6 vary-variable-variation imitate-imitation-imitative _refer-reference-referential demonsirate-demonstration-demonstrative _observe-abservatory-observation 2, Stress in compounds and collocations 21 heavy metal guided tour saueral gas native speaker ime immemorial preventive medicine personal compuier illegal immigrant interior decorator refrigerator-frevzer Juvenile delinquency founder-member 2.2 population explosion —examinaiion paper concensrauion camp multiplication table registration number reacreation growtd television programme — Independence Day magazine stand 2.3. sticking point learning disability —_firing-squadd losing battle running shoe mining industry hopping mad Jishing growids greeting curd pronouncing dictionary learning process “consulling room , 2.4 habit-forming — namedropping decision-making shoplifting free thinking’ public funding family planning French dressing wishjid thinking phone-tapping sleepwatking spine-chilling 2.5 Three-word compounds and collocations Third World countries infant mortality rate front-page newscc Oc Word stress and sentence accent re cen (8) hormone veplacement therapy Internal Revenue Service never-never lard silver wedding anniversary Public-address systert peak time traffic video cassette recorder computer aided design _redbrick university British Broadcasting Corporation teacher training-college second-class citizen public service anrouncemem daylight saving time three-piece suite next-door neighbour left-hand drive New Yeur's Eve fairy godmother fancy dress party ail-day meeting Al Suinis’ Day —_‘back-seat driver great-grandmoiher four-wheel drive —_new-laid eggs forget-me-not all-night party all-round atilete NewYork City stone-cold sober 3. Streso shirt 3.1. insufficient insufficient evidence coed a coed school prepositional prepositional phrases unskilled —wiskilled labour disappointing a disappointing result HIV HIV positive Nort Sea North Sea oil IBM 19M compatible 3.2 never-ending Work at school is never-ending Learning a foreign language & a never-ending process seven years old Tom is a seven-year-old child Rosie is seven years old outdoor An outdoor life is extremely healthy Farmers live mainly outdoors ont of the way 1 love visiting out-of-the-way places It's a nice area but a bit out of the way off-putting George's behaviour is really off-puiting She gave him an off-putting look 4. Sentence accent 41 Sentences: Even a tragedy can have a happy ending. Better the devil you know than the devil you don't know. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A positive anything is better than a positive nothing, When is a door not a door? Very simple: when it’s ajar. To be or not t9 be. That is the question, God help the poor, for the rich can help themselves. ‘Young men think old men fools, and old men know young mea to be so. ‘The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. T hope you don’t mind my saying this, but I don’t like that Ue you’ re wearing, He decided to buy not the most comfortable car but the most cxponsive one, If the soup had beca as bot as the champagne, and Uie champagne as oid as the chicken, and the chicken as fat a5 the waiter, the meal would’ ve been perfect!Héctor Ortis Lira L.A OO ATTA ATTA ANANENNNARNNNRN 14, ‘There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked aboul, and that is not being talked about 15. Tean’t get the new battery into my clock. {can get the back off all right, but it’s getting the new one under the thingummy that’s the problem, It won't go in at all. 16, Rosie is in a complete daze, Cupid’ s been at work. They met in a launderctte. In he walked and it was love at first sight 17, At peak umes the underground system runs every couple of minutes. At off-peak umes it’s every five or seven minutes, 18. Are you he person who was in the other day? Yes? | thought I recognised your voice. Listen, the house is still on offer, but I can’t give you an answer straight away, 19. Pets are tovely but uiey all have their advantages and disadvantages. A cat is casicr because it cleans itself and all the rest of i. A dog can take you for a walk and you have to go even when you fect lazy. 20. Iwas bom in ninetcen fifty-two, and my wife in nineteen sixty-bwo, We have two children. Paul, who's fiftcen, and Jane, who's fourtccr. 4.2 Dialogues: x 1. A: What)business are you in’? oo, B: “Me? I'm in vomputers at the moment Ad of Drs. oe eet Wes 2. As What about the job you were applying for? It was «bank, wasn" Lit? B: That's fight. Whoard from them this wiozning. I've got an‘interview next wock. A. That’s‘none of your business. B: On the’contrary. I think it’s"very much my business, ‘Az Arg, you in Santiago for,business or pleasure? > a! s-naoe pyss“yrs Bz Forbusiness and pleasure, lei Must pt bas! 5. As Thave'news for you, Not the very pest of news, Yay Somry 10-3ay. mat) Le B: [you tell me tne,pté news/in a good way/t won" sound 89 bad, Andel a A: I'mbomy/t couldn't hetp you.” ” Cunole deafetia~ B: A fine'friend you turget out t0 be! 7. A: Do you thinkTom will succeed? ta quetnom D: Tdon’t think $o, 1 know so! ype ® ins (MH B.A: Were you able (o,find the pleat righvoa ot oT” Whwhe No. And to make things worse, tne;phone’ s just gone dead! ln Vos. Is there any tea going? —— aypat Gonlln Yos, here it is. Shall | pour or will you? 10. I'm terribly worried about you, honestly. You haven’ t been cating much and’ you're such a workaholic. B; Come on, don't Jay it on. You're imagining things. ~ 11. Ar Can't find your glasses again? B: No, I'm afraid. But they’ ve got to be somewhere! 12. A: Don't forget the agreement thal you and I came to, B: I know. 1"Il help you on condition that you'll help me in return,AA 23. 24, 25. 29. 30. 31 A B: A B: A B: AD B. PER ER Be DP UR EP PP SP Pr Sr P> oes Word stress and sentence eccent How can T get in touch with the gas people? Weil the number (0 ring is one six four, double two three Iwo. ‘The instructions are to transcribe into RP or into our own accent if' we don’ t speak RP ourselves. Whatever will the teacher think of next? Theve a confession to make. I"ve Just realised | left the money behind, Couldn’( we phone somebody? Or don’t you trust anybody? Now that Jim’s walked out on us, who’s going to help us’? Nobody. We’ ve got to help ourselves. Td like to take Emily with us. What time does the last show begin? Eight thirty. But ['m sure it's a film for edulis only, definitely. Have you been to the south of Chile, by any chance? ‘Yes. And I’ve been to the north too. What will happen to programmes that rua from midday to midnight? I've no idea. What happens to those is anyone's guess. ‘What can 1 do now that the whole project has been cancetied? None of my basiness | guess. That's your funeral W's a real business Gilling in this form, isn’ tit? You're telling me! It’s a nightmare, really! My sister"s coming to see me tomorow. I'd like to take her co the theatre. 1 ‘wonder what's on. Have you seen the paper? Sorry, mate, but you wanl your eyes tested. There, right in front of you! Now we're ina fix! We'll never get that pay rise. Come on, you should look on the bright side of things. Are you going to wear that swimsuit you bought just recently? Of course. Specially if What's his name Is there, | want you to look at this picture, What do you think it's a picture of? As far as I can make out, it’s a small square inside a big circle. If asked you to become my partner, what would you say? T wouldn’ U know what to say 1Do you think the rest of the board will be pleased with what I?ve done’? You" w beon the biggest contributor so fer, by far! As simple as that! Do you want to see John? He wants to see me, you mean, I certainly don’ t want to see him Two more policemen have Deen kicked out, according to the news. Law makers can’t be law breakers. I wonder why Meg keeps turning me down, She won’ t go out with anybody. Remember she's got her finals in June. I'm sotty T've kept changing the dime, bu iwelve is also out of the question. Not to worry. Is three a good time for you?factor Ortiz i ‘4 32. 33. 39. 40. 4 B 44. Bee ee ee PR PSR Ree eee eee ie A B A B: A B: A: B: The second-floor offices are being decorated. 1 know, I wish they'd do the thicd floor ones as well. Chuess what! T've passed my deiving test! Good for you! Now we can drive away for a day or two, can" w ‘What's the use of having a good-looking husband if he's always had- tempered? ‘My husband isn’ good-looking but unfortunately I can’ (call kim pood- tempered, either, Most people think of an actor’ s life as glamorous. What's your opinion? Well yos, it has its glamorous side, of ecurse. But think of all the lines and ‘moves he has {0 fear. ‘We musin’ t forget Ann's birthday. Shall I get her a book or something! ‘Well, its ner sister who likes reading. Ann’ s fond of music, And clothes ‘That settles it then, What size does she take? What's the namie of that plant you gave me? Which plant? ‘The pale green one with the bright red berries. T'm afraid the picnic’ s out. It’s pouring outside. Well, they promised rain. ‘Yea, it looked like rain anyway. ‘Tom, where’ s the book I lent you the other day? {lef it on your desk. Together with the cassette I borrowed, remember? I'm afraid Tdon’t. The trouble i¢ 1 want to lend it to somebody. Which flat shall we choose? Well, the one in Burton Square had a lovely kitchen, But the cine in Stanley Street was cheaper. ‘Never mind the kitchen. Lets go for the cheap one. Ever been {0 Mexico? Never been near the country. Would you like to ge there? ¥'d leap at the. chance! How do you picture your ideal man? Slim and athletic, with jet black hair and greenish blue eyes. ‘And about twenty-five, 1 suppose? Nearer thirty-five. Could I have your name, please? Robinson, Robinson. And your rst name? George Robinson, Isit five yer? ‘Ten minutes past fiv My watch says five o'clock. It’s ten minutes slow thenAIM 45. 46. 4. 43 Word stress ond senterice cceunt A: Hello, Paul Harrison spcaking. B: Hello, Paul, Hie here. ts Jenny in? A: No, she’s not, Would you like to leave a message? B: Yes, please, Tell her that Eric called. Shes got some papers to sign, A: How did the trip go? Did you enjoy yourselt? B: Yes, I suppose I did. But let me tell you something. No more package tours for me, where you simply can’t choose the food you" d like to eat ‘A: Was it that bad? B: It's the monotony of it that gets me, Always tho sume, | think chefs all have one-track minds! A: Where do you live? B: I live in Bedford Street. A: [thought you lived in Bedlord Avenue. B: No, Bedford Street, A: There’ sa Bedford Road, isn’t there? B: There’ sa Redford Road, but no Bedford Road Analyse accent placement and type of focus and then provide the rest of the dialogue: 1a) 2a) 3) 4(a) 5@) 6(a) 1a) 8(a) 44 1a) 1 2a) 3(a) 4a) 5(a) oa) Ta) He shaved and took @ bath, 1(b) He didn’ take a shower, he took a bath, He failed completely. 2(b) He failed unfortunately. T'm afrald not, 3¢0) I"m afraid so. Can [ offer you something? 4(t) Can I offer you a drink? Promise you won't tell anyone, 5(b) Promise you won't tell my parents That's a promise | will stand by. 6(b) There were lots of people standing by. ‘You know that it betongs to me, 7(b) Tl belongs to me you know. Someone's coming to the door. &(b) A policeman’ s coming to the door, The following exchanges correspond to speaker Bs provide A: “hoped you’ d recognise me. 1(6) 1 hoped you'd "recognise me Twas afraid nobody would come, 2(0) 1 was afraid nubody would “come, Ies"ten ta four. 3(b) It's ‘ten to “Four, 3(¢) It's ten to four. ‘On the ‘first of "May. 4(b) On the “First of May. 4(c) “On the first of May. "How many “languages Jo you speak? 5(b) 'How many ‘languages do you “speak I'm ‘off to the “seaside tomorrow. 6(b) I’m ‘off to the ‘seaside to’ morrow JT think we “like cach other. 7(b) [think we like cach “other.Ecitado por Libreria Blackpool Dean Funes 395 5000 Cérdoba- Argentina Este libro se terrriné de imprimir ‘en Marzo de 1999 en los talleres graticos de Letras de Cordoba Mariano Moreno 1196 Tel: 0851 - 4692962 de la Cludad de Cordoba ISBN: 950-9686-02-6WORD STRESS AND SENTENCE ACCENT Dr Ortiz-Lira presents a consistent and comprehensive account of the theory of prominence both at lexical and postlexical levels. Itis intended for graduate and undergraduate siudents of English phonetics, particularly at teacher training level, The work is divided into four Sections. Section 1 deals with the general theory of prominence. Sections 2 and 3 address the problem of word stress, both simple and compound, Finally, section 4 examines sentence accentuation in the light of past and present theory and is, to some extent, a simplified version of the author's doctoral thesis. Students’ success in matters of prosody is particularly influenced by their mother tongue. and that is why constant comparison with Spanish is made, in on effort fo point out differences and similarities. A final appendix contains practice material for users to analyse and mark. Apart from around 2,500 words, the corpus comprises nearly 300 sentences ond dialogues and represents the largest collection of data on the subject of pestlexical accentuation ever published for EFL purposes. A cassette containing the mojority of the examples is also available, The author Héctor Orliz-Lira Is lecturer in English and Spanish Phonetics at Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educacién (Santiago) ‘and Universidad de Santiago in the undergraduate and post- graduate programmes. In 1974 he took on M.A. in Phonetics at the University of Leeds and in 1994 a PRD at Manchester University. He'is the coauthor of A Course in English Phonetics for Spanish Speakers (1982| InWORD STRESS AND SENTENCE ACCENT HECTOR ORTIZ-LIRA, PhD Lecturer in English and Spanish Phonetics, Untversidad Metropolitana de Clencias de la Educacién Untwersidad de Santiago de Chile