ARCHIMEDES £, J. DIJKSTERHUIS BJNAR MUNKSGAARD COPENHAGEN 1956"Th chaps IVa thc work were frmenly blot in ute (Arh P Noort, Goningn, 1089), ‘Tho eobanet cheplors ‘pear the Date porn! Redes (XV SUIT XX; 1088-194). "The ark bow bree sel Ho ag by Mi ©. Diana CONTENTS Prac (Chapter Eth i of hin. "The Pence nee (Give o's pace tan on a ‘aor. Bho Works of Asciaina Masai ool alone ‘Chapter Ii Te Bomente a ha Work of Archi dos wor noY a ‘The Wreath Probie ‘Archstone a Meola. the clan the Peta, $: Tha Hdl Oran "Tao Dele of Sync. te Dest Asien ‘Notation 102 Fonconal Cnt of in Apliation of Aves 103 Wondarontal Cnceps ofthe Theory of Proportion (8 Main Operations ofthe Theory of Proper (Goceraion sd GecoalProperin of Conia. g a "The Oxytomo.s == ‘The Ambion (npn ee Asi ‘Gane Glin, Cold, an Spero {Lamas rr Asthntie and Appleton of Aen ‘he Inert Mothod for niniee Prose. ee Comssins hag On Spt Gin ie 2 4 Tooduntary Popa (i 5 Give Burts of Gyindee and Cane. Propet 7-80 1 Baracoa Volare of tho Spr. Propaniions 1-34 1 Surface of a Sogmeat of» Here and Volume of» ctor of ‘Lnsbanewonas phar, Prone 30-14 usanor One tes ant adr, Bok eo 188 ‘Chapt Vi. Moomment of = Co CII aaa ‘Chapor Vii, On Gonos and Spnoi CO aio ‘Chapt VIE, On Spt a oe ‘Cay TX. On the Boul of Bases or Gaon af Gravity ok we Fa oo: SES e See, Seen en fe menace Sea eI Sere Siegen Fy Perea eee at een mamma ada ead ras aces coasts cametal oes AL Leena, aon ‘Grock Antiquity, nearer to the undervtanding and the eppreciation ML Son ae Penne a the moter der. Bich a ltompt has on mae tice betoe, We Berti Fa eee aren eeane a eee eraulaiven guciine en ie temas piles ra Fe ocr eben MET ucuuummcmncace See an enemies aes ‘writings of the great Greek mathomaticion finds it justification in ‘he consideration thatthe method of trentment here abosen diffs fundamentally from the one followed by Hosth aa woll as from that ‘applied by Ver Beoko, As a matter of fat, Heath repreaente Archi ‘oedes? argument in modem notation, Ver Kecke gives a literal translation of his writings, Both methods have their disadvantages: in a representation of Gzook proofs in the symbolism of modem, algebrn i soften proisly tho moat charatorsto qualities of the ‘lawieal argosient which aro lst, so that the reader in not l= ‘ienthy obliged #9 enter into the train of thought of tho original; ‘tera franlation, on tho othor had, which like the Greek text says in word everything that we, spolld as we have been by the dovelopmont of msheratical symbolism, can gratp ad undor- stand so rch more eaally In symbols, perbeps helps the prevent- ‘day reader to little to overoome the peculiar difoultios which fre inovitably involved in tho reading of the Gresk mathematical ‘authors snd which certainly are not cue exclusively, may, not ever ‘primarily, tothe fact that they wrote in Greck. ‘The method applied in tho present book attampte to combine the advantages aud avoid the disadvantages of tho two mathods jet outlined. ‘The exposition follows the Greek text cosa, but ‘only the propastions sre given in « literal translation; aftr that 1‘the proofs are sot forth in a eymbolica notation specially dovisod fur the parpooe, which maker i posible to follow the Une of rae ‘soning step by stop. Tha eystom of notation, which was also sod in my work De Blomentn tan Buclides (The Elements of Buclid) (Groningen, 1928, 1991, in long prectce lis been found & useful aid in the explanation of Greak mathematieal arguments ‘Apert from tho introduction ofthis aid, Thave als tied to moet in wnother way the dfficltias which I Know from experienoo are encountered by present-day mathematicians reading Credle an- ‘thors. In fat, the Greck mathomsticias in their works aro wont to give, without a single word of elucidation about the object in view, dry-at-dast string of propositions and proots a which not the slightest distinction is matte between lommas ened fundamental Georune, while the goneral trind of the arguments often vory Jiffult to discover In order to bring this trond out more dearly ‘have oolloted in a separate chapter (Chuptor TI) al those theo ‘ems which in relation to the noelou ofa treatig havo the function fof elements (craze); with each individual work the argument ‘ould then be summarized much moeo briefly, boceuce all the lemmas had already beondisonened previously. A dosimal clam tion of Chapter TIT makes it posible to trao thero lemmas quikly, if desired, nd to find out how they een be proved. Through this arrangement the additional advantego has boen gained that each fof Archimedes’ troatises an be sbued separately. ‘The publication of this work in Baglish bas been rendered possible throvgh the financial aid of tho ‘Nederlandso Organiatic ‘our Zaiver-Wetsnechoppalifle Ondraoek (The Netheslance Orgy- nization for Purely Scientific Resaurch). "The author wishes to exprees his thanks to Miss C. Dikshoorn, ‘The Hg, for her very careful tansation, to De Mogens Pil, Gantott, for taking the initiative in the publication in Denmark, ‘0 the pablshing fem, Bjoar Munksgaard, for undertaking tho ‘dition, nd to the ste ofthe frm forthe eare devoted to the work. ‘THR LIFE OF ARCHIMEDES 1, The Personality. {in our sonaty Knowledge of Grovk mathematics the inforration ‘availa about the lives of thoee who were engaged in ite pursuit Sono of the woseat points. Reliable reports about the lives and osten of hardly any of them aro in ove posasson. Th period in ‘which they worked oan generally be only roughly approximated: the places where they dwelt are frequently altogether unknown, "To this general rule Archimedes is only an apparent exception ‘wis tru that elroady im satiquity © yeeal many stores aboot him ‘rere current, which have semioed indisolubly Bound wp with his Ihome down to oar own time, bat thao roporte aro usually very neil nd seldom stand tho test of historical criticism. Tb is therefore no more possible to wate a coherent and reliable Bio graphy!) of Archimedes than of any other Greek mathomaticisn ‘The write cannot do much beyond arranging the traditional re ‘porte and accurately stating tho sare fom which thoy originate; ‘nly oceasionaliy will i bo posible to assess the value of these parte, "The year of his bisth already is not established with absolute certain; itis usualy stated to bo 287 B.C., because he i reported hy the Byzantine polyhistor Twetzas!) to have been seventy-five "yd waiglty we iso @ Wiggly of Arhimidee written by ‘erie Hatton mtons iin Boe commentary onthe ewe (fa irae (Oyo Hi, B08), We do not know mb tn Howlin aT ‘rte work Om Spite 1, 2) Aches rr oh {ts nme who bongit Deities © Book 1) Jounney Tone ved at Osontantnnpl the ata f tho 12h etary. Ho wrote, among oer things histo wk, whieh is known, (tte Chae in vow os ponte division no book of 0 thom ew mah, Te razemont about eb ago of Archimedes kobe fund ‘hl, 6,10,‘when ho was killed in 212 B.C. during tho Roman conquest of ‘About hie parentage, too, little can bo said with oortanty. All lasseal writers agree in calling him a Syracusan by birch, Dut ‘whereas Cicero) and Sis Tealicus) orento the impression that he ‘was poor and of humble bith, Plutarek*) zeports cn hie family con- rotion and intimate ruations with King Hieron Tl) of Syrastine, ‘hich seoms to point to quito a different potion in tho Ife of the sity. Nor need thore be any absolute inconsateney between the two possibilities. Indeed, Hieron, who was suid to be the ilegiti- rate son of a noblaman by ono of his female slaves, apparently owed his biliant reer to his personal merits rather than to hero- itary privileges, and his orginal relations with Archimedes my very ‘well have remained unchanged, the wise mathematician having 20 ‘asi to sharo in the power and prosparty ofthe tyrant ‘According t an orginally incomprehensilo statoment by Arohi- ‘moves himself (a passago in hia work The Sand-reckoner, which i ‘moaniaglee In tho vorsion ofthe manureripte as handed down to us, but bus boon intelligently emended by F. Blas!) ho was the fon of sn astronomer, Phidia, of whees work we know nothing lyon an estimation ofthe mtio ofthe diameters fm std icon, ‘which Archimades refers to in the pastge in questi, Besides these rather vague biographical particulars there are *) tn ie wore Tamale Dispuatonas (V, 28) Csr (08-48 BC) lle Archinodee humid honercu (aembs itl an, Worde whieh say, owes ain be mann byway of oratria contnt wits the fyant Dion. ‘ty elon jst ber. *) kr Tea « Rema pos and orator (A.D. 26-100), he ple ‘Pani deals with tha soma Pune Wa He alo santions Arsh ‘avo Ia ho defen of Byenese and cal ha mur opaon (eats ‘er, EV, 343; 0. ener (Lag 182). Val. 1, PO "Plata Ve ares HAV, 7 (88) als hon gore 6 fant cere pee ") Many lgtinat son of Syracuan nobles, became commode Imchit in 274 BL. nd, after a mtsonfl exec again’ she Maer inca 270 Hing of Syrasans, Aer being vane i 3 by he Homans, lia mf with then ad euti to mapport teen ial hs dah I B16, Under hs pnt government Spracan gly Crake 1) Open T, 290 The ever ull Mer aes, tor whch F Blas (sr ech. 104 (888) No 248, p. 25) propa tho ots Fectro: due 8 rl yd args = om for Phin 10 some others of s more positive nature, which, however, ate not at IMI worthy of edt; the fat that an Arabian writer calls im fon of Pythagoras is merely mentioned here as an example of tho finchoked faney with which tho Arabian mathematicians were ‘wont to write about the lives of their Greek predecssors, And That, as Lineco Mirabello haa it, ho should have boen a pupil of Plato's in his youth at Syranne mast bo duo to a chronologieal error, beoanse Plato had Hoon dosd for sixty yours when Archime- deg wun boon, About his descendants there is & report which is ‘equally strange: Rivault'), who in 1619 edited a Latin transistion (of his colleotod works, aays in his biographical introduction that hh he heard trots learned Creve frond thatthe Sian martyr Senta Facia bad bron » descendant of tho great mathematician, "This much ix certain about tho fo of Arehimedas that he spont some time in Kay on at least one occasion; ibis not sing much ‘thot Arabian writers mention this, but Diodorus) coufiems i in toro paenagen of hin Diitheca Historic’), where he reers to the clas (a hydraalio machine to which wo ahall rovort in § 4) as tun invention of Archimedes, whioh ho was sud to have mado in Ray. Moreovee it appears from the prefaose to his works that froma Syrncute ho alwaja maintained vory friendly relations with several acbolars a¢ Alexandria; itis quite natural to suppoes that ‘here ties date from the period when he stayed for his studies a¢ the then contre of Greek science, which must always have exer- coed a peculiar attraction on mathematicians because at the Mu- test) the tradition of Beli livod on. Of his Alexandrian col- 7 tak thew fom A. Favato, Aten, Prof No 2 (ema 1923) 2) Arohindia Ora qe ekont nyo damonatrtionte commontrigue theta pee Dave Bat ® Penn Prin, Ad Chin Mo Felln 188, Devt Rial a Pranen (1571-1018) woe @ mathematician ie sours of eu "inden of grim (Sy) wat trian under the Kenpo ‘guts, Boron 00a 0B, b ete is big Mtr work ise ‘Horion the 40 bs of bis deat with worl hitory a Tar ws Coa Galle War “Dir, Dither, rs He Wop api 1690), 1,34 (en «serio a ho Milo dle), Vy 31 in a poenogo about the deining of ‘ipermine a Sai "rh tam wor bling at Aland where aoolae Log Te wat fonda i 390 B.C.Aeagues he seems to have had the higheet rogard fo the astronomer Conon) of Saunos, to whom, wnt the Inter douth, ho wed to fond his mathematical discoveries before their pmbliestion, aud. ‘bout whom ho always spoke with the greatrt admiration). These felolars farther ineladed the many-sded Kratosthenes of Cyrene”), for whom the Method was written, sod Conna’s pupil, Doathous of Pelusium'), to whom tho works On the Sphere and Cylinder, On Convide and Nphoroide, ad On Spiala aro dadicotod, “Aoworing to statment in the biogrsphy with which J. Toreli intoduoes i great Archimedes edition?) Arhimnedes ia said aftor hig return from Fgypt to havo visited other counteite ae well ‘There sin partiolae & story about a voyago to Spain in a note by {Leonard da Vine), in which the latter mentions that ho has read in a huory ofthe Spaniards that tho Syracasan Archimedes aidod ‘Relerces, King of tho Cilodaatr, in a macitime war nginat tho English through the invention af a dovic for spouting burning pitch ‘on tothe ships of his opponents Ii, however, allogether unknown in what work Teonardo can have read this, and authorities on ‘Spanish history toro both King Relidvides aad the pooplo of the ‘Goda. In connection with the possibility of» voyage to Spain, ‘a satoment by Diodorus about tho uso in tho Spanish silver mines ‘ofthe oochlias, which he allges had been invented hy Archimedes’) dosrva some atention. "Conon of Sari aitonemar and mathemati (ed ontiry B.C), seoto« wis om steamy, whi ho cltd tho ant oenrations 1 the Shldsansy by hi omer! wok be lid ths Soundaton fer tho orth boa ofthe Gomis ot Aion Open 1 3, 303 >) Batcthoos of Ojrano (barn abs 384 BCs when 40 yee of apm am to Alexandrina he ivtaton of Ploy TH Roorgte, to bo Uae {2 the King on Philopatar; Inter ho ameter Uhoe He nota Foe'n meerurmest of the radios of i srt, for hs saw feo) oe fing penn mombers, and for a mtn oft Dela probe. "Abu thi ntti no frtbr patie re known, From the ra in wich Armor starts he eorepondenoo with hm ate hw death ‘8 Cina (Op 1, 382) ae gts the prem that he dd noth his ariel. 1} arehineis que sapere oma cm But Asan smmaarie secre Jomp Trt, Vroom nova serine latina. Oxo 1792, Sota Sa A. Parar, Arhimad, p10 4) Vigo Nowe top. 2 Ee [tie posible that Avehimedes also retarned once more to Hgyp, ‘and that on thst oooasion he consirusted tho great works con formed with dike ond bridgo builting end regalation of the Nils lout whieh there sre somo reports in Arabian aburecs!). How. ver, nothing ean bo sul with eertainty about thie either, and ‘considering the large amount of work of a mathematical and fee real kid akioved by him in hs native city its rather more Ukely that spent the greater part of his life at Syracuse itself, and ‘hat it was fom Uhere that his great fame sproad in antiquity. “As is aderstandabio from the nature of mathematica work, this faone i ot based in tho ft place on the writings which he sont to hin mathematial fiends end which havo socured him the ad- riration of the ago, ever soe the revival of mathematical science. Even befor this, his astronomical work was appreciated in wher ‘rcs, Ho it, however, mainly montionod in non-mathomatiel Titeratare on account of the manifestations of his technical Ingo tity, and thw manifestations appesr to have mado a gree im- preston in the miitaxisto Roman Knpiro chiefly becanso they ‘made possible the military action—to be discussed more fly in § 5—which he developed during the defend of Syracuse, "I Pintarch is too beloved, ho himself sors to have considered the wholo of hie technical activity aa an ocoupation of « lower ‘order: as ite reported in tho Life of Marcel), “ho didnot delgn taleave bahind him any written work on such aubjcta; ho regarded ‘as sordid and ignoble tho eonstraction of instremonts, and in gener 1 evory art directed to use and peofit, and ho only stove after those things whieb, in thei Beauty nnd excellence, remain beyond all oontact with tho common novda of fe Tn pre mathematics ho fuel the posiility to abit thi desir ‘to the full, and if we sely once more on what Plutarch tolls 08 Sgther), hero seldom lived anyone who was so mueh preoccupied vith mathematier at he was: "continually bewitched by a Siren ‘who always accompanied him, he forgot to nourish himself and "YA, Rava, rkimede (Rem 10), . 21 Th rept in qonstion oo cam, sdr alain tho began ook Tar a iinet of tho cglion Bitranab-Qi (117/73 To44). Vide WlbedWholomnsn, Dalege sur sce dor Notaretrnacaion TH, Seung Pye ‘a Son in Belang 37 (1005), 147 250 ) Pinar, Ys alco XVI, 4 (307) 5) Phar, Ve Mareall XVI, 6 (30) 1‘omitted to oar for hia body; and whan, a8 would often happen, he ‘wae urged by foros to bathe and anoint hinwelf, he would sill be Arawing geometrical figures in the ashes or with his finger would raw lines on his anointed oy, ing posses by a great estacy tnd in truth a thrall to the Muses". Elzowhore!) Plstarch refers nco moro to the slight importanco which Archimedes himself atached to hin technical inventions rmot of them wero the diversion of goomotry nt play whieh he hued practised formerly, whon King Hieron badd emphatically 10- queatod and porwacdd him to dive his arta little away fea tho tbatract and towards te conero(a, snd to roves his mind to the ‘ordinary man by ooeupyiog himself in somo tangible manner with ‘the demands of reality” 2. AOE MOI MOY 310... (Give me a place stand om... ‘An oconsion on which Archimedes was able to comply with “ieron’s request som to have presented itelf during the eonstrac- tion of the famous ship Syrucusia (lator Aloxandris), which the king, who was known for hie love of display snd his propensity 40 hhove big project eariod out, had ordered to bo built so that after ite completion he might'preasnt it, louded with article of food, to King Ptolemy of Ezypt. Detailed reports about the ap- ointments of this famous ship, the sizo of which is estimatod at 4,200 tons and which is ai to have been fitted with all eonosivable ‘wonders of luxury and toohnology, are to be found in the Deip- nesophistae of Atbenacnst), ho also siaies that its construction trae direated by Archisa of Corinth der the anperintendence of Archimede, He farther relaies that, when no one new how $0 launch tho ship, Archimedes sucosoded inthis all alone, with tho 2) Ptah, Vita Marsal XIV, 4 (305). 5 Albmoacr of aarti ee! about ALD. 20, ft a Alans, ee ‘in Rom. Hs dialog dusvoopea entice encanta somal toto all tre of subj. Tho statamants about the ship ‘meni ee to be fund i beans Nouratlane Dipwarphirn Ait 2XV; ro. G- Kalb! (layeig 1887) V, 40-44 (20-300). ASheoncos see ‘o tave ales hi doepton Sram at lee write, th pyian Meshion (not ote wontsed with te gynoonng ofthe mae me fom ho St ‘rth cary) hee werk be onal about the sip nro A len, “Gace Sistine sm Alou, 1 (aig 160), 9p. SATs As ENP, ‘Aroiale (Ro 193), 9.34. u aid of fo instrumonts, The same story i told by Proclus), who repteennts Hieron as operating the device himself and calling out jn anazetsont: “From thie day forth Archimodes i to bo holioved in everything that ho may say" {In Phiterch the desorption af the launching of e big ship appears in. alightly diffrent form. Archimedes is sad to havo declared tw Hieron that it was posible to move © given weight by a given Tore, Hieron then invited him to demonstexto this on a ship from the royal feet, which had boon drawn on land with difficulty and Ina there been Tosled with a larg erow and the customary freight: ‘upon whisk Archimedes with quiet movements of his hand put into ‘pration a device which drew tho ahip to tho sea ae mnoothly as Hf she wore already moving through tho watae. Tho story has be- ‘ome famous in particular becsuso of the familar saying whieh ‘Arehimedas i reported to have uttered on this ooeasion, Vi, “Give me a pla to stand on, and I will move the earth”. nthe tealitional form in which we have given them here tho reports about tho setting in motion af « chip aro of courso purely fantasti; deviees capable of wehleving what Archimedes must have ‘auired of them only exis in tho ideal realm of rational mechanics, in which friction and resistanoe of the al are elininatad. Tes, how cover, hardly to be doubted that the atocis about it have a real Ibs in the invention or demonstration of a dovieo by which foree was economisad in moving howry weights, And thus itis after all ‘to the point to speoulate with the classical writers on the question ‘what dovieo Archimedee may, thoorctically speaking, have used to ‘raw the heavy ship into tho sea, and how he proposed to it the fart off ite hingon i only he eonid have found place to stand om hile doing 9. ‘The writere who deal with this question are anything but un- ‘anima in thie anewers, Plutarch sayet) that the davies wsed was, 4 polyepasion (zoXéoxaoron), i. a tek with a large mumber of staves In each of the two paloy bloke, Taotzas) speaks in pur- ) Prost Dindshi én prim Bude Ebmonterwn Wun commento, ros, G.Frisin (trig 1679, p68. These etn te nl ote eto a, te "1 Prater, Pia Marea XIV, 7 (200) 1 Phar Vata Mares IV, 8 (900. 4) Mactan, Ohi Tl, ia 35,167 6tiowlar of & tispaston (rplenarrer), Le. a tackle with two pulley ‘locks, enh of three sheaves, With this apparatus the ideal ratio between effort aud load would be 1:6, which does nob very well ‘age with his acvertion thst weight of 60,000 medimns) of wheat had boon moved with i. More casually tho érepaston is also mien- tioned by the physician Oribasiv®); e states that Arcbimede rao ‘the device to dnww sips into the sea, snd tat tho medical profes sion had begun to apply a small sale model of it for reducing {acta and disioctions. Teron, on the coutrary, for the goneral solution of the problem | ‘To move a given weight by a given fore, discustes the so-called ‘Barcus, an Snstromien® in which a windlass rotated through ‘s ayetom of toothed wheels, tho Test of which ie driven by an ‘niles serew!). Probably Athenaeus is thinking of such a device ‘when in the Desgmowphistae ho reprewnte Archimedes as using & erew to move the ship Syracilat). “About the moving of the eagth we road in Pappus!), who mon- tions tho familne formulation quoted shove (Aée pov 200 ocd xl sods vby 7p); im Simplicns, in tho commentary on tho Phyoon of “Avettle), whore he ways that Archimedes, after having constractod ‘weighing machine, the so-called clarstion (zequrian), 58 re ported to have exclaimed: 28 sat nee yi (a place to stand fon! and T will move the earth); and in two paasngos in Tretzes, ‘ho on one occasion mentions the trispaton’), and on tho other the chorion), and who representa Archimedes as having sali 9) The din a At corm marr of aout 64 ee 5 Orbis wars fron gin nthe th constr, py n iney to th Baopeot Solan the Agua, wo of bf medical ery Unga "erg way he free tion 9 o found in ‘rds olin micron regu, 3. Warder TY (Leipig 1988), ST tne Sl wth av om Sventon of Archimedes oe Apel li, Op 13h sen tho polyp: ‘sy tanmie Ore I, 3, 26 ot ony sed TT, 98 so. £8) Allman, Depp (te Neto 3 0 p14) Vy 207 ab 5) Papa Cueto VIET, 103 1088 Splenda Patra Los Commoner, dH Dis (stn 150), p. 0. "Taco Ul ,e 42. The word hare ao: loi sin abe. anon, Oh 1, is 95,180. ‘the Devinn dislost of Syraouse: 2 fi, set pogrom vy ple aces (4 law to stand on! and I will move the entire earth boy means of» charition) "Now we have in tho fist place to ask ourselves what is to be ‘understood by the clarion, the dovioe which Simplicius ealls ‘hachine, which Tyotzse docs not define, but whol ia to bre found desoribed in Simon Sterin*) a comprising “amen met ‘ijn’ (haite with sores), s0 that he seems to lmagine some~ thing inthe style of the Hardews. Now it ean hardly be doubled ‘that in this effernos of opinion it ie Simplicius who is sight; Indeed, {tie falely naturel to suppore with P. Duhem?) that ‘the charision ie identical with the so-alled clarasto (also called conta, casino or barate), which is dsonssdl in the work ider ‘Charatonis, translated Into Latin by Gherued of Cromone from the Arable version of habit b. Qurra, and whieh is found to bbe the balance with unequal arms, which the Romans ealled ater, which is still known in French as balance romaine, and i English a+ selyard. The term clarition, about whose origin ‘here has beet) « good deal of sonteoveny, may originally have boon the name of the inventor or of the frat deserber of the de ioe; thie at lost the simplett way éo account for the stking fact that s mechanical instrument bears a neme derived from ‘word (idee) which docs nok have the elightett comnoction with {echnieal matters and which on the other hand frequently appears in proper nares. 1 this interpretation ia correct, the hyperbolic words of Archi- orden shout the moving of the earth must have been inspired by the lever principle manifested in the charistion, which consists in ‘te invesse proportion of effort and load tothe dstanove from the fuera to this lines of astion, And indeed, in vow ofthe faa that Thy Archimedes dealing with mechanics (On the Bawitirivm ») Son tevin, De Weghdat (ThoPrsetien of Weighing). Voor (sop) 10. The Pein Wesks of ion Stein Vo. 1 Garora Into [Meshonics, Blod by BJ. Dieechin Arter 1986.9. S865. 5) PDair, la origina dela Soe (Pris 1906) 1, 70h. 35 Ror orampie: Xeon, Kalen, Xap a The Zor Chara ie tno orate int eon of medival taxa om Ge tenon Weigh Dy BA Muy and Mc Cage: Phe Medio Sones of Weighs (Senta (Poor), ati 1862 TV Laer Berane 30-1. he orga of Ansinte¢ "of Planes) the theory of the lover diseusead, tho famous ying was {mn later days asa rule sociated with thin theory. Novertholes it seoms doubtful whether this th right intorprotation of the elas ‘deal tadition; indeed, Plutarch and Heron, who speak about a ‘polpasion or &trispnaton, snd Prost, who does not mention any pertiular epparatua stall, were squid with the propertice of lovers just a well as Inter weiter, and there would not have bee the lightest ream for their deviating fram the tradition, if this hind been wnambiguown i ite zeports about the use of w charstion. "Te would rather cer that the oonfiting nature of the various reports corroborates the view that Archimedes dd not make his fatement about the moving of the arth in connection with any~ ‘particular instrament, but on the basis of w general mechanical Insight he had gained hy wedging severe instruments which wore tlsedy Known before his day or ha been invented Dy him (wind Tas, pulley, laver, toothed wheel, aerew, ot.) This insight, which ‘wae later tobe formulated in the w-called Golden Bul of Mechanics find which was to be fally doveloped in the principle of virtwal Aigplacements, taught the fundamental posbility of reducing at will the effort that has to be applied for moving a given load, Provided one takes the trouble to ineraso proportionally the tistance through whieh i haa to be exerted, and thas als indieated {n principle the toana for moving the earth by a given fore from ‘fixed point outside the earth, Tt is quite consevabie that Arch Inedes demonstrated this principle to the Syracusuns by moving & Tange weight by means of tackles, toothed wheels or endless sorews, ‘and that ja the imagination of later generations this weight grow Into tho heavily loaded ahip which has beoome an indispensable loment in tho Archimedes legen 3, Phe Wreath Prolem, ‘An oqually inalionablefoatore of the legendary figure of Archi rmadee with the utterance about tho moving of the earth is the story of the so-called wreath problem. Tho story is vary familia; is muy, however, be related once moro in this context in the form in which the oldest sooree) mentions it: King Hieron, out of grat tae forthe mooew of one of his enterprises, wants to consecrate a 7) Viewing De Arsiotne 1X, 8 od Kobo (Lapa 1913), p18. ‘tevin was ann arte nr fo per Anges 8 Ge old wreath!) to tho immortal gods. When it is completed, the ‘mreoth it fonnd to have tho weight af the gold furnished for 3 however, the suspicion arses that « portion of the gold has bean repltoed by quantity of silver of the same woight?). The king, being unable to force the maker of the wreath to conte, asks “Archimedes for » convincing means by which to investigate the charge. One day, when the scholar, ill pondering on tho problem, ‘tops into © bath, he suddonly becomes aware of tho fact that the ‘deeper he descends into the tub, the more water flows over the ‘ego; this suggests to him all t once how he willbe ablo to answer the question, and he is c0 overjoyed at the disoorery that he jampe up and runs home naked, shouting algnye ofp (T have fond it), ‘Thos the sory is told by Vitravins, who thon gocs on to explain hhow Archimedes put into practice the newly gained insight. He ie reported to have taken lamp of gold and a lump of silver, each ‘having tho sume waight as the wrouth; whon immerse sucouively inna ves fll of water, each of the lumps eamed seertain volame of wolze to overflow, which was measured by aacortaining how ‘much watar was required each time to fill the vessel up to tho rim again efter removal of the lump of metal. When this experiment ‘was reposted with the wreath, the latter proved to eae more ‘rote to overflow than the gold and less than the silver. From this, Archimedes eould determine tho proportion of aller adesxed with the gold in the wreath!) “Another version of the mattr io given in a Latin didactic poom on_weights snd: measures, the Carmen de Pondevibue, which used 7] Tt wae w wrth (orpuee) and not m cow, a oan tne ‘As Cu van Deventer, repo wit de Mitra dr Oho ass 102) 114 vrais dire moran Soran the onan eat being etre! abject, wr noe ported tobe aubjnen to eam! ao ‘yan The wholo wreath pela bel within dota hy Ven Doventor ‘i Sit Ades pp 08-127), in the Ascii rnantion By Pal Ver Rake (ration XK) ‘tug thntthe dowry ofthe fut sok place “Lraon fous Por fort pede touche in Vitro, however, thing of fhe kind eth Sound andy a argue by Van Devi yf 18) ‘out af low degre of seaany aed tan kil ready ‘Sid at tha tla fr making tho mace of a allay of pre gl 19) the voles o he wrth and of egal weit go an lee | * a‘to be attributed tothe grammarian Priscian (6th eontury)!) In cis ‘poom, whichis of importance for metrology because of the sect {alo exposition of Roman and Groak metrical systems it contain, the method followed by Archimodes it set for as folio "in ono of the alot of balance with equal arm Tes a titra of ‘pe gol in the other lbre of iver. Both are immerved in water, fad the difernoe in weight established; suppose this to be three diachmae, Now taka the wresth Uo be testod and an equal wight of aller, and establish once more the difference in weight when {the same proceduge i followed. Let this bo 18 drackmar; the wreath then contains sie Hirue of pare gokl Th ie easy enough to make ture thatthe ratio botwoon the diference in weight observed and te diference in weight per tnib of weight indicates the number ‘of kibrae of pure gold). ‘The solution of the wreath problem by Archimedes is usmaly associated with the law of kydrestatios, fonnd by him, concerning, the upward thrust expesianoed by a body immersed in fluld, is foxperence in the bath then being looked upon a8 the origin of the insight formulated in thie low, ‘Tit view appears not to be sup porte by the report of Vitruviar: the overflowing of the water from the bath dose not teash anything about the upward thrnst fling ona body immersed im watee, and tho metho for de- fre V, Yo: Fy epost, and Sh wreath contain weight of go en ela of sve, th folming sola fe found 4 Tain poor as ft pri In 490 Sn the now very rare work ‘Valo de os pas ration Th How ating to Ch wrth ober store Tater publ ithe Archivos wdton of Torll (vi Note 8 to Jose I, 9.301 Tho whole Qvmen de Ponders ito bo found in Mle Peoria loys Fath (Llp 1868), 1, 8 oo. ‘Tho lnm rcring to Arona Ln 130-3 On he eon for ‘tating the pra 60 Psa eer TT 34 6t 1) 1 a spas qavioo of gl ad aver aro and ssp, tae aterone in wight par ons of wight of he two mabe, pon -righing under water, fund ob ‘of weight of which i go, the difiorenoe in woight from @ unite of slvr 1 on wreath wg @ ate underwater boots (°—) rom whi allows connie, 20 tecosining the epacifo gravity, which according to Vitruvius was in- ferve from ity ix not therefore based on hydrostato woighing, ike the one in the Carmes de Ponerbus, but on the volumeteicprine- plo applied in the pyknometar) "ho famiiar aneodote dows not Uheceore conduc to any clrifiontion of our insight into tho origin ofthe famous law of hydrostatic, 4, Archimedes as a Mechanical Bugineer. 1 wo may rely on the storios current about it i antiquity, the goneisy at play, to which Plutarch rofered as the source of 20 Inany admired inventions of Archimedes, seems to havo occupied his mind to-« greater extent than tho philosopher of Chaerones, ‘with his Platonle eantampt of telmniquo, is prepared to admit. We will ere dsens three mechanical constructions!) alevbated to him, the cocklas, the planetarium, and tho hydraulic orgen, efter ‘hich we intend $0 devote» separate diseusion to the engines of ‘war conatoucted by him, 9) Pha Coehlas. "The cochias or Archimedean sorew (alto elled Fimajan oF hy aullo screw) ia 8 machine for ralsing water, which according 10 Diodorss was aned in Bgypt forthe iergution of fells whioh were not inundated dieetly hy the water of tho Nil’), and in Spain for Dunping water out of minee), Acrording to Athenuous'), Archi- rede hina need ito keap the holds of the ship Syrecusia dry Doth writers ea that Archimedes wae jee inventor; tho corectn036 of this amertion i, however, somewhat doubtful. 18 is not im- "This mothod of detrsuing the vol i ams wilh ho ame ot Arcades by Hato, tis 1, 29 rons Ope Tl, 18); however, Se orem nu yp mn Fopo mya Arcs be Ty For morta aba waters constructed by Archimedes, wie 1 3) Dion, Bikes Hiner I, 8 Atother ntepotation i given ty A-Pavaso, Archie (Roe 150, p 235 he bods that he contains ‘nu ot for dining pool hi fer wate had resco ai "} DiodorayDiothoe Blveroa V, 37. 1a ue in Spain J cnt, sccrding to FM Pan, Die Tes der She and dee Mealy {Poulan 1891), p93, byw tatement by Ponsa ‘Vide Note tpgpossible that the machine is of a much older date, and that Arohi- Inedes himaclf became aoguaintod with it ia Baypt’). Tt ia also striking that neithor Stabe}, nor Philo of Byzantium), war Vi ‘ruvins), who all shroo montion or deseribo i, nasocato with it cho name of Archimedes, ‘A dotailod description of the cchias, which isnot, however, quite clear owing to the abeoneo of any drawing, ie found ia Viteaviue: ‘On a wooden eplindcr, whew height is as many fect asthe dia- moter fingers breadths, havo been drawn sight halioee, which start from the vertiws of regular polygon inthe upper sue and the pitch of which is equal to tho circumference of the basic ciel. On ‘cee helices have been provided sarow threads of lexi branches, which together form the imitation of the snail shell (woz, onblea) to which the instrament owas its namo, The aight of ‘hoes sere thronda is aach that the dinetar of tho thikened eylinger iv equal to one-eighth ofthe eylindor axis). "The channels thus formed are covered with wood again, so thot eight spiral tubes few formed. All the wood ha boen imprognated with pitch; the ‘whole device is surrounded by iron bands. ‘The eplinder iz now adjusted to bo rotatable, 29 that the sxia thor an inclination relatively to the hecizom which a equal to the mallet angle of a right-angled triangle whos sides ro in the rio, ‘34:6. If, at a stable level of immersion of the base below the ‘zurfaco of the woter to be punped out, it is now rotated in tho right direction, ie. such that the opening of ech cube is drwctod dowawards when it enters the liguid, the water is found to ise in ‘the tuber. Tt is a phenomenon not without reason termed “not only ‘marvellous, but even miraculous" (nm solo maravigtio, ma miaco- ties Hotinn ng hover dit sens yA acho, te (ot to p 3) p. 13. ") Siraonia Gspaphin XVI, 2 4430. ron G. Kenner (etn 1852), 1.377. Berto wat o Grok goograpa (06 ICA. 36). 5) Vit Toaans De soyasone inn, cp 8 ne Phioie Ale nit pst a 2a, We (Bin A, 5) Nirovn, De Archit X, 6, ¥-Meoba (eipsig 1913), p. 257 Inthe tions X, Hy ng Me View Pai de etc ie dao (Gorter 1049), p31 AEDT aii npr wma is Ln 8% Pa {oua) by Galle); Gere is indeed something paredasioal inthe foot ‘that the waters suisod, while nvr the influeneo of gravity it con tinally flows down, We shall not here go into he accurato ex- planation of thie phenomenon, which must be ablo to account, mong other things, far the rlation between the mageitudes of the files of inclination of Uh oylindoe exis relatively to the horizon “ind ofthe holies relatively to the base of the eylindr, and also for the level of immorson of th base. In principle it consists in ‘that at tho chosen values the first part of each tobo inclines back: “rand at the moment when ita month loaves the ligaid, x0 that tbe Water it contained a longa the mouth was below the lg level ‘ows in. he next winding of tho tube then lee relativaly to this water jast ae the fit lay relatively to the water level, nd the Water tht reals higher and higher windings. ‘Vitruvius’ desription isin particular obsoare where he speaks boat the wey in which the dovies is startd®) Tecan only be in- fevrod with oestanty that this was dove by eontinaally treading pains! epokes which were attached somehow to the eylinde. That ‘this starting method was aatually used is confirmed by a discovery matte during excavations at Pompeli: a feesco pointing there un- ‘covered shows» horizontally placed cohlas, which i kept rotating by e regular eeadle motion by a lave siting on a hoam over the cylinder. PI Phe Planearine. Tn a great many classical writers there are to he found reports about the spheres constructed by Archimedes, in which the motions ‘of the heavenly bodies were imitated by monas of « mechanism) ‘According to & report hy Cero!) Marcela had kept two such ‘ontrivanoes a sole booty far himpslf during the suck of Syracu "all, Dalle Sense Meson « dll ad che of rgd dg Instr 8 gat, Bao 188, p31 *} Virwron De driers 6 ol W-Rroha (alps 1013), p- 28, ets 1) Noten del aH emits, publica dts R, Aco dt Tin ei 198%. 'Pha pistare ha Dem rope by Gino Tain, drcimede ‘te tn Ras TE, an 1925), p ‘"Ratencmoa! wo of Aide dead fa Ghepter XIE, 5) Gwe, De spun Ip 1 CF Tula Dioptotne 1,25. De ma ue dea 5 2‘the one, which he hed caused to ho st up in the temple of Virtus, ‘yaw apparently a clored star globe, on which tho vatious eonstal- Jations were shown; the other, howover, which later came into the oswsson of C, Salpicivt Galles), aacording tothe description must Ihave been @ oomplot, spherical, open planetarium, in whieh with ‘one revolution the sn, moo, and planets performed. the same Inotions relatively to the sphere of the fixed stars as they do in ‘he aly in one day, and in which one could moreover obmarve the inuoestve phases nd the ecliaes of tho moon. “Archimedes apparently mle a deep impression on tho elute ‘world in pico by the contraction of the last-mentioned instru- iment; closed globes which, govolving uniformly, imitated the di- “ural motions ofthe fixed stare hod indeod long boen known: in-Vho Dossge eed above, Glo nientions one of Thales, which i sid to have boon described lator by Eudorus of Cnidisand had wen sng by Aratus nan astronomical poo’); by others, Anaximan- der ie held to bo the fist maker. That Archimedes, however, suo: ‘celedinropresenting themutually independent and widely diferent ‘motions of ean, moon, and planeta by one mechanism simultaneously ‘with the revolution ofthe sphere of tho stars, seamed to be evidence (of « soperhoman iatligence. No wonder that liverature has pre- served many records of this aclevement: in a welllenown epi- ‘rann®), Cladianus deplete the amazement of Jupiter when he sees the work of his hands imitated in a glass phere by tho art of the ‘old Syrnonsan scholar; perups Ovidius also refers tot whan in the ‘Fast, in tho deception of tho templo of Vesta, he speaks of tho ‘anall reproduction of the immense globo, looked up in enctal by SSpracnaan art; wo farther find tho instrament montionad, emong ‘thors, in Martinus Capella) an in Cussiodorns), wod in aoveral +) ©, Spi Calin, a stndmt of axronemy, wos col in 108 B.C. 2) Aint ef al (abo 276 BS) wrote a idee pou on teeny, etd Panera i dom nat, however, cota ay dpa oth ‘Bier in natn Arts Plororwna, 0 E.Mans Beri 1503) "Das Clon? Carn rT Ros Uaiess 1503). Carmina 3 nora Lt Gatanon ve abate AD. 40 ) Ovid, Poti VI, 377. 4) Pate linac Marinos Copal, De naps Phone ot Mevurit ‘ra VET, ed AD Lyng 1988) M21. VE, 855, Masi Capa liv abst AD. 470 at Carthage "9 aurora ee"Th Mommenn, Monsnnonta Gor. Hist, Aust Py pasages ofa philosophical or upologotieo-thoologicl nature: Cloero toc) as an argument against the Hpicareans; Sextus Bmpivins!), in his work aglnat science, was indwoed by it to arguo against the raleralist the enpariarity of tho erative iutllactual principle to tnatler; Lactantine) ueea to combat the atheists, in a way which ‘hos romaine! naval wp to our dage (ff man has boon abe to produce tauch a thing, oowld not then God have ereated tho protatypo of ‘hat which the intelligence of his ereature is eupnble of imitating?) "Arehimedes himself seems to have attached greater value tothe construction of hia planetarium than to any of his other technical rehiovemnents, Indeed, for this he apparently made an exoeption to his custom never to leave any written reoord of hie inventions and mechanical contrivances, At lous, among his lst works there is Imontioned a book ep! eyaigaodas (On Spheresmaking}), which fan bardiy have deal with anything but the manner in which he ‘constructed conteivancce such a hie planotera, ‘ethape this hook alo furnshod information on the muchas: cussed quertion how the contsivance daseribed by Cioro was ect fand kept in motion. ‘The most likely explanation fs that cis was {Tone by means of one ofthe hydraalle mechanisms of which Heron ‘sores such a gest vavioty, and the application of which is eo tain at lene forthe time of tho Bmporor Augustus") 1) Phe Hyirautie Org. _As already bocame apparent above, the reports abort tho techni- al gehievennenta of Archimedes occur not infrequently in wetare ‘where one would least exc them: just as Lactantins wrote about Aig XT (sn 1805 1 4p A Casodora wos igh ffl mer ‘Rn Sit Ontragoiio king hi ved bot 400-0 1) Gro De aterm, $8 1 Sent Rpts, ere Pein I, 11, Operas le J A. Pabrlas (alpeig 1718) ph Sore epson wana ani th ed erg. 1 Ts Cad Brians Lata Divina Lune Th 8 r-8.Hraa ‘oper Pore 1 Corp Srp, Hea Lat XIX (Vienna 160} Lalani vod Shoat A. 30. ‘y This wook a mentioned on ths aathovity af Caryn of Antowd, by ‘Pappas, Oats VI, 8 1036, "About thw ne fre A Favaeo, Arcimade (Rome 192), pp 40 ot ea 2%‘the planetarium in a thoologieal work for an apologetic purpose, "Tertullian! in ie boo De Anima weed another wonder of Archi rmectas technology to explain the essence of the soul. Iti the so- called hycrwulo organ in which the nr fed tothe pipes was com- [prosed above water in an airchamber), the grest varoty and ‘complexity of whooo differot parte, which nevertheless constitute ‘2 whole, he praror at e most marvllone work of art, after which hh furs it to aorount to ilustme the unity of the soul in spite cf tho diversity of its funetions, Ts may be nerd from this that in antiquity Arehimedos was crdited with the construction of auch an instrument, but not that he wes held to be ite inventor. Ths honour is attibated by difer cat writers, specifically Pling the Elder), Vitraviw!), ani Atho- ‘acu tothe Alexanclrian mechanieal engineer Ctosibins), 45, he Defence of Syracuse "The widest fame enjoyed hy Arvhimodes in antiquity, howover, is not go much due to the peaseel inventions and contrivances Ditherto decribed ne to the active part ho took in the defonoo of Byraruae against tho Romans, According to Plutarch) he hud lady beforn that time constructed engines of war for offensive ‘and defensive purposes at the requet of King Hieron; during the reign of the latter, howover,thero had never been any vocasion to ‘we the, Bat when in 214 B.C, the Romans lad siege to the town, ‘thy wore confronted with a formidablo and unexpected opponent {nthe person ofthe already god mathemstician, who, i the oporte ‘aro to be trusted, personally superintandd the ue of his instru tent, ‘Detail information about this side of Archimedes? works found 2) Perlis, De Ani I, 145 JH, Wann (Amer 1885), 0, Pinks Sands Not Haorae Lies XVII; el, Ce Moho (Galpig 1960) NTT 38. Vol TE, 48-4 2) Viteuron Dr Ardea HS, 8a Fron (Ue 103), 9.318, 5) Monson Depphias fide Note 2 to p14) TV, 1740-4. 5) Cust rat eed fron abt 0 to 390.0." rade may ‘ont em Ac G, Drache, Retin, Phonan Howe. stay 6 ‘hata puma Gopenbagen 1848. “Phra Pte Marte EV, 800, 6 { fn tneo historians, in Polybios'), in Livy!) and in Pltareh ‘They tell about powertl ballistic machizes, which from the distance discharged heavy blocks of stone on the Roman legions and whieh, Jmneombination with machines or shorter rango, the -elled sooxpi- ‘ous, which cast their misiles through holoe in the wall, roped ‘the enomy on the land wide, In dots they further desribe tho fence on the mn se, where the walls of tho eubusb Achradina ‘leorndod sheer into the water, and where the Roman general Marcus Cladivs Mareeliu personally conducted the asa of the fect, Here, in adition to tho varions type of engines of war, cranes ‘were in notion which, when turned cutwards, deopped large stones tr heay piso of lead on the approaching Ftoman ships or whieh Hite the prowe by means of anion hand, after which they auddenly lot the ahige fall om the water again, In thia way Arehimodes even soot in baffling the assaults mate with the aid ofthe so-called fnbues (osu), broad sealing Inder which, rapidly pulled ‘up on two interonnnectod quingueremes, was to make possible the swaling of tho walls ‘On the Rotaan sien all thie ix aid to have mado auch a deep iampreesion that 1 soon aa they saw a rope or w pieoe of wood ‘projeuting above the wall, they wonld take to their heels, shouting that Archimestos had invented anothor engine to destroy then) [Marvell hin, though body thwarted in hls plane, seoms to have ‘nad the groatostsdmiration for hie mathomatical opponent. “Shall, sre not", Plutarch reprosonts him aa saying jeatingly to his own ), make an end of fighting against this geometical °) Rayne of Meguopot born about 204 B.C, Actaonn satan vente of tho hiatal work ger fee 10 books, which oro [try teen prenrved, Ho was souret mime to the event at Sprain Fle tory aout in to be fond In Paghis atric VIL, 8 ob ony 0 ‘Hath (Borin 1868) 1, 23 tw, 1) "Tina Live Peta (98 B.C-AD. 11) woo itry of Rom (AD seb cmd) in 142 oaks, which have parly been pred. On Arch 7) Pitas Vile Moro XV-XVEE (906-308) There are aio reports lathe dione of Sasi by Achindes i tho opie Pani, XIV, 292 ‘Seo hy Sie Maton, T= Bese (Lp 180 Tl 02. {hnangns of wary vhs we tse foe reer to a mua ‘nara dere a daly Pays, Historie VIE, °) Ptarch, fs Morel XVI 3 (37) 5) Bitar, Pte Marat VIE, 1 (307. 2“Briaens!, who wos our ships to Inde watr fom tho sea, who as Jqnotinioualythreshed and dsiven off the sabuea, and who by the ‘multitude of miei thet he hus st us all at oneo oxtidoes the Inundred-armed giants of mythology” Actually the Romans did not suowd in conquering the town until after long siegs, about ‘which farther detail are to bo feund in Polybius and Livy. ‘The traditional storee shout the dofonoo of Syracuse alko relor to the famous burg mitors, with which Archimedes is seid to ‘hare foouased tho sun’ raya so Intensely onthe ships ofthe Romans that they eaught fie ‘This story, the technical improbability of ‘which is obviow, is found in nono of the three above-mentioned historians, and for this racon alrsudy deserves less credit than the reports about the ballstie Instruments, which in spite of evident fexeggerition may quite well contain « coro of rath, The oldest [posse speeking about the setting on fire of Roman shipe isto be Found in Lacian'), who does not, however, refer o mirrors and inerely sates that Archimedes st the enemy's trremes on fire by frfelal meas; this may also imply that he spouted burning sub ‘stances on to thet in the way bo ir rid vo have done this in Spin, tovoeding to the report prsarved in Leonardo. That he used ‘mimrors isnot explicitly atated before the physician Glan") and the Ryzantine steht Anthomius of Tralles, who In the Oth century ‘wrote a book on buming mirrors, which is of importance for the History ofthe focal prupertcs of eonie seotions, Acooeding to him) ‘the eontrivanoe of Archimedes was composed of e large number of famall, ot mirrors, Ta late contain thew mirrors aro ruferred to ‘much more frequently, Tustathiua?) mentions them in bis eom- °) arene or Angaon mae one of th two Hessonharn,bundred- ane int, nnn of Ur ad el ‘Lavan of Sameain eetrican bd piper, ed inthe tot century AD. Tn png in eatin Hpac. Bo N-n p- 2 p18 ®) Gal (A.D, 128-109) wan the goat physician of ansily afer “ippnmca, Ti eaten ab Avon tobe Sound sn De Tempe rosso, 2 Gan! Opere oxo Jotran eons (Vise 100), 12. ’) te wa born at raga ld im 634 Th ater about Ashi mates to bond eb woe, ba in APA GOBOrPADO!. Smiptnse rerum mortan prov, oA. Weetarmans ‘Greneice 1600, pp. 158 08 1) Buel dechlpices Phenms Commit ab Homer Hi Py woniay on tho Tied, when he dscns tho Ueary that ho fox Tisha Dlazo shining about the shia helmet ofthe hee ‘heme had eon cans by the refleton of sulight. Nato- Pilly Tartans doce not fll o refer to), ad Zonas), 00, 0 ‘Thcluy sage on tho enthorty of Dio Cait) thet Archimedes e- ‘ad ts an’ ape on eto, tha he extaed thea to ignite ‘thongh ies oem density and chroagh the emoothnes of th mio, fc hat he coal he fr eng ship Tying inthe ps of hin fie. Acooring to hin, Prosi we tho sme wespon at Coetan- po in 1, when he heed to defend tho city agint tho fet of Viana. Iu she 7th and 18th centorie the question whether the eect sated fo Avid ean setually bo atained in paso was {eae with by various investigators. We do nat intend ogo into this, ‘hr wil only menton the clneevation ef Athans Kizer in Tir dre Mop lac Ui) tho oxperzentalinestgntions ‘ot Bull, which are dncomed ia hie Hire Nature), ad thaws Sf Peyrard which ave inorperte in the appents to is Arhi- Smee rnstion) Tt ir oteworthytha alte, ike Antho, {ep alan tho objet by 2 combination af large numberof smal, fn mis, which ze indeyndnlly rotate in every dweton®). om (Lng 88). Htathion wa chip of Thoin nthe 1) ts 2) ese Gh 1, Hi 35,101 pnt ic 8-0 2) enc ence wo Spec on whi th fin bal of he suis antry sea Ketan ert te peed om the Cnt So Tin nue! "Saree ene wml Zonre Annals TH Pie ow 10) 10 *) is Gonna ed fh a ontary A.D, wroten work n Roman tisha ela Homo ne we vy ey Ardent Pac 130 1) Tar an exnmive dsuson ofthe whole question of th Domi »6. Phe Death of Archimedes ‘Daring tho sack of Syracus, to which Mareallus, elegedy with ‘tears and not without having made numerous retrietions, haa been {oreed to ccnsent'), Archimedes slao pevsbod, inspite of the ex plleitordee to spare him, an that under clremmstances the main features of whieh have retained indelibly imprinted on the memory of mankind ‘Tho details ofthe story inded have become somewhat corrupted {in tho couree of tho agee; tha induces us to subject the neoounts of laseal writs about the sory anee morn to a careful exami: nation; typical anecdotes aftr al aro entitled to historia correct ‘ca jast ae much as demonstrable fact ‘The oldest reference isto bo found in Livy): acconing to this ‘woonnt, amid the eoufusian accompanying the captare of the town, Archimedes while intent on some figures ho had drawn inthe dust) ‘was killed by a soldier who did not lnow who he eas, Phtarch has several versions: according to two of them) the old mathe: matician was oo much intent on a diagram with his eyes and hie sind alle that he had not noticed the incursion of tho Romans; oldie then came up to him, ordering him to follow him to Masoelias, “Archimede refused to do x0 until he had worked ont his problesy, Upon which the soldier bocume enraged and killed hima, Others say ‘that the soldier already threatened his io while coming up to hin, ‘and that Archimedes begged him earnetly to delay th oxeoation of ‘his threat Zor a moment until the problem was eolved and the proof ‘completed. Acoorting to a third version bo was killed, while om hi ‘way to Mazeclas with some of hia mathostion! insicuments, by ‘some sodiers who were wador tho impression that he caried gold. ‘When wo road theso accounts, we are chiefly struck by two things: Hitly, thae none of thes oldest sources mentions the fx nilia saying which iallged to havo boon utterol by Archimedes to his auailané and which has hooome aniverally kuown in the form oli turbare eveulas meas; and secondly, thal in none of them is ‘cro of Archimedes th rar should cols D. Bg, Heft Archimolor etapa wpe? Parada 17 (1/8) LE 1) Ptare, Ver Mel IS, 1 (08). 2) Livy Al sete oa XXV, 9 5) inno frie gue paler depart, 1) Dhar, Vata Maro NIX, 5 (08 909), 20 hero any question of the drawing of diagrams in the sad on the round, to which the accepted trulition of latar ages refers. The ‘Oldest souror putting dfinige words into the mouth of the threatened Isthemotidan ie Valerioe Maximns'), who makes him say, ‘nhl eleotching out his hands in protection over his diagram: nal score it dsturbare, Ia Tastze4), von more unrestraindly and Tatorally, he anare at hi aseilant: "Andry, dooms, 106 Buyers woo (Fellow, stand away from my diagram). The Siew, however, that Archimedes drow hi diagrams in tho sand on te ground fim itself already ienprobablo in view of the complexity fof his profs) i based on nothing but tho report of Valeri Mxi- tur, which speaks, apparcatly owing to @ mere error, of diagrams "im or” insond of "in pee) “tudee, by this pois, of which not only Tivy, bub also Cero") speaks, is undonDledly meant something quite different from the ‘snd on the ground, In fae, i i known Usat the Greek mathoma- ficiana drow their diagram in «surfaco of amoothod eand or glass ‘lust filling a tray whieh, just Hko the familar ealouating instra- Imont, was called alucus!). Tho filling ratoril was called ys, ‘hich alo asconnta, among other things, for the expression puis nude na mctaphior for mathematis!) in Cloero, and for his levcription of Atcimedee ax Komunculam e puvere true") ") Valorun Maxine babroen A.D. a6 and 3 wot w hiv work acre mata Le, wherein VILL, 7, oC. Kept (tei 48), p80 toe tory of tb dnth of Arete a ‘tases Chi 1, Hi 2, 140. 2) Ls tT ta aon aaa intra dais fora dss 1 Gao De fina Bonrar ot marion Vr 1s 8 5 The moat ting mfr fe he water of St, Jarmo inhi com swomtry on Brak Chaple whore tne gosto f the portraying of aL‘Wo shall thereforo havo to imagine Archimedes in tho hour of hin death, not. out of doors, poring over the ground (he eould Ihardly have fale to notice the tumalt of war there), but indoors, sitting at small table, on which was placed tho sbacus (which nid to have boon rather heavy). "This view ia mpported in the most striking manner by # mosaic found at Hereulaneum, which apparently represents the famous cane of Archimedes’ donth; a roproduetion faves tho title-page of ‘his book. Te originates from the legacy’ of Jéxdme Bonaparte, iter fame into the possesion of Frau Hz Schabell at Wiesbaden, ant war published in 1924 by B. Winter}, Tho publichar takes it tobo ‘9 reproduction of @ picture from the beginning of the Hell ‘ra, which may have been mace while the ari wae ail under tho ‘improsson of tho scholars fata. The picture shows a man behind a small table on which is placed a rectangular tray, looking up in- Aigoantly at »-wacvior, who stands beside him with his sword drawn ‘and who apparently orders him to come along with him, ‘The threstened seholur srstahen out his hands protectively over hie work, and itis hardly to be doubted but he here utters the worde Which enraged tho Roman co much and put an end to his precious i ‘Acoorling to a statement by Plutarch’), Archisiedos during his lifetime expressed tho wish that upon his tomb there should be placed » cylinder cirsunsecbing » aphere within i, together with ‘an inssription giving the ratio between the volumes of theno to hols), which ho had discovered. It scams that Marcellus, who is snid to have been greatly distresat the death of his great op- ponent, and who conferred honours on his dependente, saw toi that thie wish was failed. Ab Teast, Ciro relates!) that when in 75 [B.C he caime ae qusastor in Skily, he eoveeded in finding at the ‘gto of Achradina a aepolsheal column, overgrown with brash wood ‘and thors, on which the figure of sphoro and eylindor was r0- produced, 2) Pras Wines, Dor Md dey Arian, 88 Winkanngeogracics dot : ‘Gea su Bovsn arin 192), 3) Phar Vita Maras XVI 1 (30) 5) On he Sphere and Cylinder 1,34 Poin. 6) Choro, Tuacdance Dispattions V, 3 2 ‘THE WORKS OF ARCHIMEDES MANUSCRIPIS AND EDITIONS [As we sway sav, Archimedes was accustomed to vend is mathematical writings to hi ollonguce at Alexandria: Conon, Do~ thous, Rrolouthenes, who apparently saw to thei futher dite Dation. ‘The documenta were accompanied by introductory letters, ‘which eottained » summary of the propositons to be proved an hot istequontly referred back to statements made on erliee ooens- fons. In this wey we know tome particulars about the order in ‘which he mado hit dieoverios and ubout the way in which he ‘published thom, “Teappears that he wonld nally fin sen the propoitions only, ‘with the request to diteuss them with other mathematiians and Tinge therm to find the proofs for themselves; the complete treatises {WOuld follow afterwards, On the whol thesoacem not to hare been Uispatched until aftar the death of Conon: infact, the introduction 4o one of the oldest works, via. Quadvature ofthe Parabol, bins ‘vith wor devoted ta the memory of his admired fring, and also ‘ontaine the stggstion that Doeithous should henceforth act x intermediary with the Alexsndan mathematicians). Afterwards “Archimedes more than once states with reepoot to new treatises ‘thot Conon, if he wero sil alive, would uadoubtedly have been ‘apuble of appreciating the discoveries and sapling the missing proof), The question whethor Dosthous waa les suceesfel in the Totter or oly took an understandable great interest inthe methods ‘plied hy the discoverer himself need not occupy us here: again ‘and again, however, ho urges Archimedes to wend the complote proofs). This desire doce nob always soum to have been flied ‘ery tn; from the introduction to the work On Spirals it i evi- lent that many yoars had elapeedbotwoan tho fist publication of the propositions and problems of On the Splere and Cylinder arid ‘the commmnication ofthe proofs and solution; thie i justified by *) Opens I, 262 9) Opera Th 2 9) Opera E1661 sonia PyArchimedes with the argument that he preferred to leave it to _mathematicians to find ou thing fr themselves. hare was also ‘some malignant design in this for on the seme occasion?) he reveals that to of the propositions on the sphore formerly enunciated by Jha are incomes, and hat he had sdded them in order to entien tho who are always saying of everything thet they have found it, without over giving roots, into saying that they had diwovered something inapassibl "The works dispatched by Arohimeds soo to have boen ated ss Alesandra, but never to hyve been combined into one ernst); that ie no doubt the reason why they wars partly lot. Brom slate: santa by Heron, Pappus, and ‘Thoon of Alexandra itis, howover, cevtain that in the Sr and th centuries moro of le works were extant than are now in our possession. Those other works probably perished in 391 In tho fire of the Sorapcton’). Han those of his ‘works which eloady had a sufiiently wide ciculutin in entiquity not to be threatened with extinction through such catastrophes, ‘were early expeeed to mutilation and neglet. A proof) annonnee by Archimedes in On the Sphere and Cylinder was no longee present in the 2nd ceatury B.C"; and his treatise Measurement of the Circle, ‘hich is quite evidently a frepment of or an excerpt from a longer ‘work, i the period which the commentator Butoclus was aaquaint- ‘ed with apparently never existad in any other form bab thet in ‘hich we exclusively know i). Tt alzo aooms that people soon ) Opa i 2 8) Opera Th 4 5) The proportion in ntin ao a alow 4) Ws apne i dso hy placa into sol pt, he ai of > ‘volun of th magnus the pats mati Sato the mse, 7) Of all psa of aja which have ean stan the mgr lnc ig the Soar part of the meter ae the grstot wom, 1) Th seogunt parsinlrs aboet the Meter of thy Arends mana serota havo fea tan fom he Protgenena of te econ ton of to ‘Gro ort hy Hg. Ope IT, xv ) Teme of Serapin of Alexandr With uno Key 5) Opera 102 ne 6. 2) Opera i, 130; L10, Butosoe bro repart Uat the prot in uostion swan sotto tins in ny eo, ead that Dm end Die oto ‘oth ved in tho 2ed etary A.D) eonmgualy rod to pple the ining argent. *) Opa TT 28, u ‘gen to sudy n pardouls the more elementary works, spci- cally de Sphere abd Oyler, eaowremento Srl and nthe ‘Equity of Pons, wile tho profoundr investigatns fll ore ‘rls ino oblivion; i ie ateking to note in whet vague terme 4 ‘rite like Haron of Aleandis ean soa about te decoveris of “Archimedes, and how slight the inffnen® a hi hydoetatie di ‘ious remained throughout antiquity); one even gota the fn ‘resin that tho authoritative and accurate Kuo, who com: ‘nents in detail on the three works just meationed, did not now the other now famous books, notably Quadraare of Be Parole tnd On Spirals, or only kw them fom hows) ‘Meanie tho eomposion of the abovementioned commen: arin doce tel to growing dos to Iezome thoroughly ao- united with at feat cho more clmectary part of tho work of the pent mahomatilan. Ts da found expreioneepocily {be school ofthe Byzantine mathematicians Anthem) and Ta dove), who in 682 wer entrusted hy the Etapecor Justin with the e-eonsracton of St Sophie tt Constantinople and. who, shee they were urged by the prsctieal problem of architect {o muko theoretical stadiey or were inepirod by love of pw mat satis, showed grat interat in the work of Arwhitmedo,Tidorus ‘pparetly made his pupils abudy in pareular th works On the Sphere and Cylinder and Measurement of he Cirle wth the relive commentarios of Rodi) Its probably also do 9 these of 1) Paina. th place to tho nod book of Hers Mat, Hovis ‘Opera I, 98 Tia discasonteltosto droinans of alse Wi (edt aero cena, adele and Heron pow up Chat some people ‘vs tho nso for thi, boing mpeg, to Archi, hat be [ov sale wheter Shey ware ight in deg oe Baliye way ‘wis ho meals about the ycatatiel ene of Archon in hat ‘Spl of fn Aerio U2) Slrnde Opry 139 *} a the sommnttos of Arstitl, Aranda Aptodinie, esi ‘ion and Spl ther eno trae of tke Bang Sogn with ve the Wements of the hytantain of Abies *) Opes I, xa. 4) Vido Note to p28 4) Born at iets ata 682 he was changed with suparintonting the ‘lang of St op s)he otetaren cman the tno at Abed th tae ‘nent tht thay baboon "revo by our tase, a Mla hai Tiler Ths wow toe taken for sates hy aoc, wi ny 5 s‘auch works for intrnotive purposes that these alone were translated into Attic from the Sicnlo-Dorian dlalect used by Archimedes. "Tue school of Isidorus achieved considerable merit for the deve. lopment of mathematics because in an era when the sources of rnathematical creative power had deed up thoy ab Jast realized tho valuo of the great works of tho past and were enrefl to study fant peeservo them Contnning this tradition, the sebolas of Con= Santinopl also were the first conscionsly to make it their objoxt to eolect tho dispersed works of Archimedes, and it is €0 these forts thatthe ios important eodcs, from which western mathe Inlicians were (0 dotive their knowledge of the work of their great master, owe thei existence Infact, in th oth cantury the eneyala~ ‘poedist Loon of Thsenlonea, sieknamed the Tatrosophist or the ‘Philonopher') who through his aetivity put new life nto Byzantine tse, provided for the compilation af a manuscript (inthe nota tion of Heiberg: Codex A), which bocame the archetype ofall ‘manuscript fom which prior to 1906 the Grek text of Archimedes ‘ould be infeed. Te peobwly also from Constantinople that the ‘ellecton of works on mechanics and optos (in Heiberg: Codex ®) ‘originates, hich was sand in tho 13th century in the preparation of ‘tho frst translation of Archimedes into Latin, and the sane applies to the famous manuseript (called Codox C in Heiberg), the dis covery of which at the end of the 1éth contury proved to havo ‘onstitatod a contribution to the kaowlogo of his works which was fs important exit was wnespoctd. ‘We wil now give brief olin, based on Heibergs philological investigations, of the fates of these different, manuscript. The Covtoes A wo seem to have made their way to Western Burope fn the days whon under the rule of the Norsemen and their sc ‘however, crotolagely possi, banaue ho wa contemporary of Au rn ce pupa Pros nnd ste of Sian ho mse therefore rete bor tte fhe th eaeery, at wa ha etal mo @ Pte een wn aay ota '} Th aon, who i ab to be confused with to Biperor of th ae nae, Lao Vis uname the Peloophes, was archbishop of Thelin at pofsow a the Magura Univers Constantinople. ved nde {ho Rongrors hoop (80-849) and Maal IT (83-807. He now, ‘Speily for hn etal oepelopaotin he Seo Teg Opera Vo ng nd My Protons. cxsors from te house of Hokenstawfon a new contr of culture Dogan to foarih in ely, and the first desire awoke to entich in {ellotual lf with the tenantes of Greek aeleneo. Aftor tho battle of Benevento (1266), in which Manfred, tho last of the Germsn alors of the Scilian kingdom, lost his eeown and bis life, the two “Arehimedes manvacripta, together with the whoe brary of the ‘vanquished king, peed into He posseasion of the Pope At the end Ol tho 14th century Codex A mist have got into private hands; it is farthor established that in L491 it was tho property of the Tiafian humanist Giorgio Vall, From this time dates » summary of the contents), from which may be seen that it contained the following works: On the Sphere and Cylinder, Measurement of the Circe, Om Conaite and Spevoids, Ow Spirals), On the Kguiirivam of Planes, The Sand-reckoner, Quadrature of th Parabala, to whieh ‘were added the commentaries of Butocins and the work De Men- inure of Heron. Valin seams to have meant to prepare e complete Latin edition of these works, but nothing oume of it; fragments from Archimedes only are ftind in the work of his hun De exp tenia ef fugiende rus, publishod after his death in 1600 (Venice 150). ‘After Valls's deuth the manoroript was ought for 800 gold pieces by Alberto Pio, prinoe of Cazpi, from whom hie nephew, Cardinal Rodolfo Pi, inherited it in 1550; the Itt died in 1664, ‘bat the eaalogue of hi rary, which was then compile no longer contains any Arehinedes mannseript, Codex A must thorefore have ‘een lost between 1880 and 1664 ot passed into other Kanda; i hae ‘nok baer posible to tae it, "Naturally thie dose not mean thet the contonts of the precious document wern alo lost; on the oontrary, Codex A had e volumi= rows offspring in the form of copies av translations which wore nade of iin the ooare of more than two eonturies and which include the mast tullable fomudaions of the modern editions of the Grea text, "A large past of A waa translated into Latin in 1260 by tho Rlom- {sh Dominiean Wille van Mootbek!, who was ngage vm 1268 Ope It, x vi pac tha wosk whic i rferol o a De resus a ie wat orm aout 1915 at Moore rmmont; bo enter the ”to 12408 the Pspal Court at Viterbo ln making soveral Croce works ‘cossible in a franelation to the scholars of Western Burope (among, ‘whom knowledge of Grek was then still exceptional), and who thas Ina an important shave in the spronding of Hellonieoultur'), The ‘original mangsoript of this trazalation (in Heiberg: Codex B) was found aguin in Romo in 1888); it contains literal translations (00 bers indeed that even wharo the translator di not nderstand the text correctly, they are eqaivalent to a Grock version) of the works On Spirals, On te Zqulirium of Planes, Quadrature of he Parabola, Measurement of the Cirle, On th Sphere and Cylinder, On (Conoide and Spheroids, On Flonting Bodies;in nition aso the com rontariee of Kutocios (exoept that on Measurement ofthe Cire), ‘a work by Alhazen on burning mirrors,» trent De Ponderibus, ‘and two teatines by Ptolemy, Tho translation wae made between, February and 10th Decomber 1260 “Moorbske's translation oontaint ano work of Archimedes not appearing in Codex A, viz. On Floating Bodies, Tis shows that he inna also have tnd another aouroe for his work. It hs hoon found tit this mist have been the above-mentioned Byzantine col- lection of waitingv on mechanics and optios, which inluded, besides tie work On Floating Bodie, lao Archimedes’ Quadrature of the Parabols and On the Byuilsbriam of Plans. Tt found its way to ‘Western Europe in the same manner at Codex A. Ite presanco in ‘tho Papal Ibnary ia attested forthe years 1205 and 1811; in Ister yeu no tos of it isto e found any more. Codex B itself was in tho possession of the German priest An reas Conoras(f 1822) in 1508 in Rome; ho took grat interest in Greckmathematicaand mudesevers eorrotinain the text. Who ware the other owners np to the year 1740, when it got into the library onder of 8, Domine, an Colne aed the Inte of lets Mar. ‘Tham be peobebty ape long in no a, hrs ho ceed po Tone wwe of reo sek ferent gage Prom 1208 to 2 ho ‘nurs fo Pop Chm Vn is neem, ae bongo ash Tap ot Cointh, Ht ded oSoe oe 10 Tade Homans 83 Ou ma da Morne afb Tro der sop fotos reine, Ravin ‘Quctions einlfqs, 128.Soparae. ") Trough hin, Thora of Aguiae and ota shlase doctors boone ‘ined with oman oft wos of Avital he TM ey. "Coos Oetniae Latina 1850, Py of the Vationn eto be found accurately enumerated in Helberg). (f Cocdx A toveal more Grek: copias were mado, Botweon 1449 ‘and 1468 Cardinal Bessrio®) had one made (in Heiberg: B= (Codex Marcianns 305, Venies). A sccond copy (in Heiberg: D Codex Laurentianus 28, 4, Florence) dates from the time when Valle was in posneion of the orignal It was made in 1401 by order of the fatooua Florentine humanist Angelo Poliiano!) for tho Iib- rey of tho Movie family; this acems to have taken place not ‘without some protests on the part of the owner, who jealously {guarded his treasure, and who refused its inspection by anyone el. ‘Two other important copiee (6 — Codex Pavisiensia 2360, and HL (Cortex Parison 2861) weremadein tho time when tho orginal was ‘tho property’ of the Pio faily. HL waa written in 1844 hy Cheistoph ‘Suet, by onder of bishop Geonges d’Armagase, ambassador of King ‘Francia I in Rome, for the Royal Library at Fontaineblean. We fare passing by Sn slnoe several other les important copies “A-secondl important Latin translation of A, however, which was :mnde in 1450 by order of Pope Nicholas V by Jacobus Ceomonenss, 1 priest of Ban Castano, aleo haa to be roslled. A oopy of thi ‘comctad by reforonen to K, was brought to Germany abot 1468 by Josnnes Regiomontanue) from hs iret allan journey; plan to publish the work wa not carsod aut, but the manuscript, which is preserved at Nurnberg"), wos later uiod in the prparation of the lio princeps. "The summary of the events of the Grose mannesrpte of works of Archimedes and theit Latin teanalations givon above is by no ‘moans sufficient to judge of the difusion of some of these works ‘during the Mile Ages. Recontly several Latin translations of Arabie versions were made known), Bforo 1260 there was a translation ‘per IM, i 5) Bema live fom 1409 to 1479, and wan wenn from 142 on- ‘wane Ho an inportan shuren to ova intern a Geek olan, “y"hngelo Polen (1484-1400 wns aot meat tthe et of "yh Mali, fom » eal pla now Kiaipshng (rake) alld on tnt ann Rogimentanan oe Tome de Monte Bae, was the pints {ut Germ sntiomnton attrac ofthe Ee enter. To ved Fron 148 to 16. ) Noviabenace Cnt V, 16, harasses man Rogiomontaal srg 5 For one Staind information th Tour tay sonelt tbe valle tie f Maal Clagett Arbimedr sn he Mie Ags. Tho De Mon ”of Mensuremontof the Cirle possibly by Plato of Tivol, anda second ‘one which inall probability may be aseribed to Gerard of Cumone. Te appeurs thet this work swag ther popular Also before 1260 fone Johannes de‘Tinemae wrote & commentary an Book TI of Ow the Sphere and Cylinder under the title De cureis superficiebus “Archimonde, "Thus far we have only spoken of manwacript Tn the 16th canta: zy, lioworen, the growing dese to booorne acquainted with the works Gf tho groat Greek inalematicions gave tke to the pabicaton in Drintad form of works of Archimedes. "Tho oldest of these editions ie to be found ia @ now very rare Dooklet by the Neapolitan mathematician Lea Gaarico on the quadrature of the cite, which apprared in 1603 in Venoo!; this ‘contains the Latin traalation of Measuroment of the Circle and Quairaure ofthe Parnboa, taken fom Codex B bofore its correo tion by Cones, "A literal copy of this edition, enlarged with the Latin toxt of On the Kquilbriam of Planes and of Book Lot On Mating Bodin, was ‘published’ in 1649 by Nolo Tartapia).1n his preface the editor boasts of the grunt dificlties whioh he had to overcome in the Aeciphering al the translation of anciont and all bat ilegible (Greek mantsoripts and whieh be oly managed to surmount through “ineredible desire” to accomplish the wrk. According to Hei- borg, however, it it & basefaced lie that he used any Grode text shall he mere eopied the edition of Gaurieo and a copy of Corex ‘Grol, Oi 881-01 an «nolo om Gouge Sarton Horas. A Guide {th tary of See. Walton (a) 1062, 0 Ta $42 1,2. Noe 186-186; oe, "Nico oringtis (Bria 1506-Veioe 1567] wus a wllénown Taian athe 40 13, errors and all!) From the legacy of Tartaglia, the entiee work (Oh Ponting Borie wan published in 1965 by Curtins Trianns, & ‘ublishor at, Venn "Meanvtile in 1684 the edit princops of tho works of Arohimedes aad boen published at Blo by Thoma Gechoutl Vonatocies!); this edition coutaine oll the works kzown at thot timo, in Greek with» Latin trnalation, and also the commentaries of Butocins. "The Groak text wat taken from a manuscript!) whieh Wibald Pinekheymer (f 1580) had sequired in Rome; itis mainly a copy of {A atthe writer alu sooms to have consulted B for his work. The TTatn text isthe one of the tranalation by Jaopbus Cremonensis, forrectod hy Regiomontanus, which has already boon mentioned sbove. "in 1588 there appeased at Venice « Latin teunsation of « number of Archimedes? works, prepared by the excelleatanthority on Greek ‘mathematics, Federige Commandino'); i contains Monsurament of the Circe, On Spirals, Quadratuee of the Parabola, On Conois and ‘Sphere, and The Sand-reoner, Tho text was taken from B or 8 ‘apy of it; the editor did not ueo ony Greek codex, and did not Tenow Tartaglia edition, Tn 1565 ho completed his edition with & ‘ranalation of the work On Floating adie!) Towards the end of the 16th century another new translation of all the works into Latin wos published: the Monumenta of Franosweo Maurvlio". 2) dechinaiede intense... (ef resione Nios Torts) T)ckimeie Syracunt Pkionpht ae Gemeiae Bvoietiasins Opre qu gui stn, en i ie Seer 0 ah a tint nn, reps priuon o Gace eatin oa Acta oe nt ‘Bane Aeceloni tnlam Archit tae Comsat Som Cree o “tie, auc ete etc Base, Jaina Bervagioe exe fc 4) ores Nernbergemsin ont. V app 12 chaste a: XVI ) Ratwige Cnanding (f Grin, 15081570) eed Latin trations ot Belay Aschineon,Apll,Aeitarca, tomy Horan, a Pap fru eine Ops nm mula Poeroo Commentino Urinal wer lana ems cmmontrde trata. Veo, MOLT cst ne anti apie Feargo Comin sino Urbina i itr ra ei 1 omental ata. Ba. ‘i, DISC. dim’ Archinede Sonu: Monamante ome mathematica quae stints ee tone dering iri Ds Bran! Masel. Para a‘The printed olitions in Gzeak and Latin whisk were published in tho 168h contury were followed by many moro in latar days. Of these we mention in the firtplaco tho edition by David Rivaalt!) (Paris 1610); this gives the propositions in Greak and in Latin, and ‘tho prool, slightly adaptod, in Latin, ¢is on this edition that the ‘oldest éranslaton into a living language was based, wi, the one into ‘Gorman by J.C. Sinem’) (Nurnberg 1670). In Boland Yano Bar- om!) prepared 4 now Latin edition (London 1675), whiln Wallis!) ‘edited. The Sand-rictoner and Mensurementof the Cale with the commentary of Hutocins on the latter work (Oxford 1676), At the cod of the 18th century appeared, likewise at Oxford, the mon~ ‘ontsl edition of tho Greek toxt with Latin translation by ho talon mathematician Joveph Torelit) (published after his doath ‘by Abram Roberteon). "This was followed by tranlatons into living languages agains & ‘wanslation of the works On the Sphere an Cylinder aud Messe ‘ment of the Cirle nto German by K. F. Haubee*) (Tubingen 1758), {French translation ofall the works with a commentary by F. Peyrand!) (Parle 1907), « German translation of Quadrature of He DMDOEAXAY. THs ea tar spins of tho eign iin of 150, whi ‘rar at, bl fora few coping in ahipwron Prancenn Masri (Meni, 149-1648) pub etna ne ornare of sve Grok maton °) Wide Note 2 0 p11 8) de Gir. Seam, De Arima Kumar, tor. ‘st ol ut (Nrmborg 160), Toe years blo, the mae wer ha ‘io tema Phe onder, Quote in Hat, sina, Icio *1 28. Baro; Opera Avimal, pont Parga ora Mri hes dans spaces methods noo itr dane. Lai 67S. Quoted In Toathy dveinoie, Invasion ce 1) Arenas Sprecusan’ Arnaut Dimane Cl Blot Arab tae hana Coomera, Cur Verein Nat Se Wali Oxon 1078. ‘Kio in Johann Walls Opn Bathe tib waninbae cnt, IL {Ozone 1080, 00, 62. Watt (161-1705) wave Wal now Haga {tennis be wa vine Profanos of Onn at Oxon, ie ot 1 Fe 118) wenn ase ‘quoted edition contatne °) chime ey Bar ar Rip wd Colinkr Been Ki caning. Veer nt Armen beget von st Fad Hm ‘Tobingn 1788 ") Vide Nob 0 p28, 2 Parabola by J.J-T.Hottaana’)(Asshaftenburg 1817) and a.complote German one with ertieal notos by Hust Nisa") Stralsund 182). ‘Mecnhile the knowledge of tho work of Archimedes tad been widened by two now ditooveriee: in tho 17th eentury Poster’) in England and Bool) in Tely had edited ahorly after one another tin trandations of & work by tho Arabian mathematician ‘Thi- Dit b. Quer), in which nt all ovente curtain discovories of Archi- meds ave dineunsod}; and in 1773 Lessing” had edited an epigeam inwwhich the Ctl Probon atteibuted to Achimedas i formulate. ‘Nevertheless there stil zemainod several lacunae, In tho frst lnc saversl works wero (and sil aro) unknown which are quoted by ancien writers (about which more will be ald presently, but the Greek taxt of On Floating Boticealbo was sill missing. Tn 1828 Cantinal Angelus Mai) based on two manaceipts discovered nt 3) Gannon of Won, Fralurt ar Mai 1 Arehinodse son Sypurerhandone Werke ur dom Grichilen ser ‘wc tind mt aroemdon nd ita Avmerasgon ee som na ‘Mie Staind 162, Millen ie Lebron Mathemasnoe Sammut Foster, Oli Lantinsin Collis OresenatAuomone Press Pain i) Oma Silico tity pleraqee Latin es, pee Stasi Jebannis Tyan. Lomlnt MDGLA. Trastatan 21. Lemmeta Avtimedi pd Grae J tiny Jam pi esta ¢ tat ode AS.Aroies 9 Fohanne Grove (rots mune prima om Arle Sao publins Lodi MOU. ommata Arhiva, t taduatione Thai Sm Coa eam Cones ‘Bnolonts Vrt 4 Aton Als fit Aled Alnor “S deckins Tr Aavamptonon iteprte This Dex-Kora expmere Amcchior: ooo Arabica amacrine Ser. Mages Dui Brie ew ‘nmos ecole Latine ett Tor AMoonan Barton Noss air "The wore onsite an appendix to Bory works Apollon Pergos Conca Lake V. VIVE To Aeoaoe Bren, Fvetico MDCEE. "That. Quen ran, Mopotaniny born S26-27 or 85-86; 1 901) ‘waren ef the imperiant rrmstnr of Grek a yan was into Abie: Tiron rok end shat of ahool gusty bapa ta pene he woke af ‘in Grek mtbr yt work oust hy Tibi one be By Aree in tho or in whee pon eos haul i qed ns srl ts 2} Gotthld pans Losing, Zur Gackt er Irate See enter hr, Bibb mu Wolf nha eter Dien, rans 177 ‘risa Sinise Sort, 0 Uncen; So Suga (Muna) XI apg 897, 2. ‘rh tong partelare ao taken tom H. Boman, Lo. (Note 8 40 pn Sopomtn pp 8 “Sn Yalan se pono mie of Ok nga Matfer th eo rf ge cet den wero te sh tn i ft kw tg Pty arma meee ak “tte ya mow Stamm stn te eet eas tom ea spt tunes stn co Blin Sc i hey hs py me ye ‘i yt tn ys ee nin mami oa as vo te ss il oct ope w Thana nes Ot abe we ors ne sg tn eaten sty apo to heat sgt i gly alta on ay te mt hy pt ron Ms emia he wns ng ys 8 75 pve ean anne 0h ‘Shey etn i'l al iSite er es ge ve! Mays a at iin gsr trons nr at OF "indents Stor of ee sO it paren Puts pss ca fk ‘clei iy scanty crept sel apni ay es ScRat tina's eines ln stony oe sts eset rao deo cnt ao REET sin nt mo ag ng sais Sere ees Sergei Si Theat etary i echt ‘redeem stash ee 3 secu Sly se a cee TE es ‘pe iat See as Aipgre telat reat ae SEAL ap mal aaa mieten SET tatty “ =fipidws or "Bpodesirs Archimedes’ own ttl is “pedo, which we say tranlate by Hedhod, x will become vident inthe discussion of ils content, this work furnished us with a tly mew insight futo tho way of thinking of Archimedes. The © manuseipt was farther found to contain some fragments of the work Zropegen, in hich ind of puzzle, slo known as laudus Archimalins, is dealt Ivith, and another fragront of which has been preserved in Arabic") In this way 10 baw aleo Ben established that the Stomachiow is Indeed a work hy Archimedes (fot formenly doubted by Heber). "The texte newly found in C naturally do not yet appear in the ‘Bnglih edition of the works of Archimedes in modern notation ‘published by T. L, Heath in 18974); by the publication of « aup- plement) this Iona wae filled Inter, a3 far as tho Athad is con- ‘ern, The first eon containing all the works now known is the second edition of the Grek text by J. Heiborg’), on which are bow all translations aubeoquently published. ‘Of those more recent translations we mention in the fist place ‘he very roliabl, absolatly literal French translation, with de= tailed comments, hy the Belgian enginoce Paul Ver Beoke®); be- fides this, there are German, translations in tho series Oxtli’s ‘Rlassber der exalten Wisserachofton, by A. Crwalina. ‘Wo aro concluding thin chaptor with a summary of the works of Archimedes im the order in which they appenr in the Heiberg fcdition and in whieh they will alto largely be diseussed in the pre- tent book. A fur asthe frst eight works are concerned, tis is the traditional order of the manvscripte derived from A. This is not, however, the sane order a3 that in which the works wore written cr published, The eriginal order can oly bo given with any oer (i (od Beklar, Rovin 1854 Todo 496, ol 1), Heron quoi the Betis (Plrmse Op I, 9,84 10, "Thiet was inod oy He Sater: Der lca Area let Dan Syphon de sna» Abt Gosh Bat 9 (1S), “L-t0n ee found im Gonnan teosaion in Opera Ty 80 Pete it of work ote, A 5) Vids Nove to pt 4) Pade ta iblgrophy, p87 ) Vide the tilogaphy, 9.417. ) The feng anno have apprads Ueber Spl (No 201 108). Kal ol Zlinr (So 203; 1022) Die Quart dr Paraben ‘ater da els eener Plahen (No 303; 193). Cader Para, [yr Bern (80 10; 102), Uater shiner Kargor nd ‘Die Sonat (So 218; 192), ‘etainty in some eases; as far as it 6 known, wo shall indicate it (eccording to Heath?)) by the bracketed bers in Endo-Arabie ‘numerical notation. Tn the following chapter the works will generally bbe quoted by the abbroviation givon bohind exch of them, 1. (0) ON TAB SPHERE AND 229! opaipar xol sation ap CYLINDER. Two books, De Spaene et Cylindro. S.C. TL, (9) MRASUREMENT OF widow pésona: ‘THE CIRCLE. Dimonsio Cire. D.C, TTL. (7) ON CONOIDS AND xg xavostoy sat epgoctéor. SPHEROTDS, De Concidibus e Spaces, es. IV. (6) ON SPIRATS, sel ay, ‘De lines opraibue. SPTR, Vi (0) ON THE BQUILI — “Enior tonpprmese wbrroe RIUM OF PLANES OR fopsv durée w. CENTRESOPGRAVITY OF De planorum aepuilibrit sve de PLANE FIGURES. Book I PLAE. 1 VE. (3) IDEM, Book 1 PLAB. Th VII, (10) THE SAND- wayatens RCKONER. Arenarius, AREN. VII. (2) QUADRATURE OF serecyomsuis nepepo¥) THE PARABOLA. Quadhatura Poralela. Q.P. TX. (8) ON FLOATING “Ozooniran a6. ‘BODIES, Two hooks. Decorporiu flatantibus), OF. X. STOMACHION, ronan Locate Archimdivs, 1) Tt oath, Orck Madhomatin 1,28, 2) Thi ude ectiny wot autbeuts, boas i Arenas the word paral dows not you appr nth tna» onl tin, he cil {ide mast have Bon: eweopunu re 18 AD nd tn XT, (4) THE METHOD OF epi say przensi Beopndowr -MISCHANTOAL THEO. ‘nets "Egavorderp Hates EMS, ADDRESSED TO De mechonictepropoitontbue ad -HRATOSTHENBS. “Bratocthonem methods. METH. XI, LEAMIATA. Lier Assumsorum, XI. THE CATTLE. edpinne fen. ‘PROBLEM, Problema Bowinun. About the lost works of Archimedes we have the following re- porte’) 1. Pappuet) mentions investigations by Archimedes on semi ‘gular polyhedra, We will rover to the contents of his epare in Chapter XV. 2. In tho Sand-eckoner Archimedes quotes afew times") an older book by his hand on expressing lange numbers, which had been rout to Zeuxippus. ‘Tho title uewally given is “Aeged (Prineples), but Holtch!) refers to it ax marorduntus in dg (Naming of [Numbers The contents of thie ook ae ineorparsted in tho Sand reckoner. 8. The two books of On the Bqutsriem of Planes do not by any means contain al the writings of Archimedes on the subject of ‘Statie. Several other titles aro mentioned, but ite nok posible to seoertain with any degree of certainty whothee different works 0 ‘shraye rally meant se ch, Book Tot Om the Bosslibinm of Planse fs probably an excerpt from a langer work, Blemente of Meckonies (Crovgte eo» wnyanescn), which Archimedes himself quotes by that tide}, Khiowhore he aaya that something has bean proved in the Biuilibria (Br eats “Toqucan?) ot 8 rote “Tonqgonvol"), what {nthe fru cate in certainly not the work Om the Byuiirivm of ‘Planes which is meant by this, boowuse the quoted propastion does ") Samaried for tho groter pat ig J Ia Haters, Quantones Arc mans, Copentagea 387 Fp 22-30. *) Popp, Cale V, 2, 380 1) Opera It, 816 noe 1730; 39, tne 145296, tine 19.20. +) Hit by Paly-Wisoowe, Reosveydopate der elasohen Aer tensors Aebisndn, a S11 2 ‘GT 3, Opa M, 35 tn 31-23. 8) GH. 2 Ope IL, 3505 lin U 1) METH. 1 Open 1, 8. a‘not appear in it, Further Pappus!) refors to © work acyl Se {On Balancer), while in Heron (in rman translation ofan Arabio text) there ie quetion of e Buch dey Statzo), Tt is improbable that 1 alatexient by Simplicins indionten the oxstonoe of a work s97¢0- Been. “t. Thoon of Alosindia in his commentary on the Almagest attributes to Archimedes a work on opties (neo! waranroer)- ‘This statement is eonfirned by Apuleius, who enumerates several ‘optical subjects said to havo boen treated by Archimedes in ‘olwmen ingen). Olympiodorae quotes « remark of Archimedes bout refraction, andl th Sehola tothe Cototriaaof Buela contain ‘proof by hi hand on the equality of the anges of inidenco and reflection’), 5. In Chapter T wo alrady discussod tho work eo! aagarodes (On Sphere making), in which Archimedes suid to have dest with the construction of his planciara. As to tehnical inventions, itis ‘stoned by Arshinn writer that he had wetien a wore on water ‘lock, Au Arabia tivation on this bjoot waver hie nase hae 2) Pappa, Cueto VI, 14; 1068. 5) Mechanica 2. eons Opa 1,127. 5) Sin in hin comnary om De Cot of Aristo (Shain Arie sutton; eal CA. Bronte, Berka 158; 608» 30) cays that Archies fd sng ines have writen ease orogeny mene {hat they ote barnes ets ) Clit Peonaet Magnae Contracn, i eat Prin cosets meee pertctonts rt ELIE. Phan Atcondent in eantem Coven. nor Ee ots MDAAXVITL Cnn I 3 1, tpl Apatgiasse Pro oe de magia ier. Cap. 1 ee BB Baler 0 A'S. Ome (Osfont 1014 “Aang the mubjcte dels rth e mection the questions why n plan ‘unex ed eon no the innge x sreesvely a age a, alee {anand lenge ha oes wy right and et a arcane nto ing wh the nga ix omnia trie it rt of te sme ‘uncrs wy it ponble fo it tal wth soneave meena co which ‘ight fale, Apuloon of Mara wee an Aan weiter of tho 2d ‘Stary, The pong n quien printed a Ope, 30. *) Olympidoren tn drone Metso, print in Opa 1, 880, ‘oyupioiorn wa Cee hatorian ad alert (1k aboat LD. 400). ") Bucs Opera VIL, 94 No Th poate Bae otha roveney oF tho ry of hn Bi ttt ot gta Bwana Not tt ‘oven been preserved, in which ho gives detailed deseeption of a swaterclock') “6. Hinally, several planimetzioal works aro atevibute to him by “Arsbinawrtor'): On Circo touching one ancther; On Parallel Lines; On Triangles; On Properics of Rightanglad Triangls; On ‘he Assumptions forthe Klemens of Geometry; Hoot of Data or De- {finstions; On the Heptagon in the Circe "The existence of tho las-sentionod work has beon established by the dissovery of treatixo by the Arabian mathematician Tait, 'b, Qurraon this subjet, which was publishod with « German trans lotion in 1027), Fvather detail about this will bo givan in Chaptor xv. ‘THE ELEMENTS OF THE WORK OF ARCHIMEDES Owing to the completion of the Mlemonts of Bucld, the Creal ‘mathematician had gained possesion of a systematically arranged ‘collection of the fundamental mathemitial propositions on which they conld base their further investigations. They were thus the solved from tho obligation to rovert in their works to matters of fan elementary, ie. fandamental natare: whon a proposition was ‘intained in the Alsen, it waa wufficient, in viow of the appar fntly sniverel diffesin of the work, morely to mention it the reader waa to become aequainéed with the work of writor of Archimedes level, however, an undersending of the Bl-ments fof Euclid war—and still iw prevoqulite, though by no means & sdfciont preperation; in fost, hie works ae often found to contain refaroncos tothe Blements of Conie (ri name ever), by which ‘unt be meant oue of tha works on this enbjest which had been °) Winder (Le, Nobo Lt p18, p. 287) Ae penlaity of the ‘pparabe deste by Aahisnedee nmin Unt overy Bear aaron ropes m pee i rg, tn ennsing meal no "7 Hsin (la, Note Ito), 3990.1, Whedon, 1 p28, 5 Dis tapmarnon Laken den prihen dstrncrnen ibe -Raiin fakin Ahmad a Bint, dart rach Ab QinGn aad vor Car ‘Soy: Nach dn ods doe VartanersBerwonggatn ow Ti Rs nd Hesiod Wishitowe(Hanswvoe 1827), 9.76 om avait 0‘compiled by Avista) and Basi). Apparently, however, the war- ‘ou election af Blements eielsing In the days of Archies ‘ido yot contin ll tho fundamental properties which bo to. ‘ued for the expodton of his partioular doventiption; be fro ‘dently also derives proportions of an elementary nazar in Ma ‘Works, orb formlaten them, observing that thay ar cally proved "The degroo of mathematital koowlign roquted in the modern roader of Archimedes" works not infroqontly eanatiuten a serious Ineie to is appreciation thom, benaeeho seer hisknowlede ‘ofthe element of his sence in 0 atirelyciferont a mane ro Euclit'e dincpln, Moreover Archimoder custom to pros the real sssons of hie tratines ky numero los, the papas of ‘hich dose not become apparent until meh later, when they ae ‘opled, dos not make it any the easier to emain awa of the Ahr of hi reasoning ‘Tn order to moc all thee dificultios, we into inthis chapter to combine an fara pote the elasentary propouons nok mae tioned by Kvelid, bet quoted, enuotinted or proved by Archinedes, into a system of clement the perma! of which wll eonaiute « snfisnnt preparation forthe study of hit investigations proper; 4 doing 4, however, we aamino tho reader to be aoqualted vith the sin feature of the Bloment of Busi). ‘The reader whose only conser ix to be informed somewhat Auikly shout the most esentil points of tho investigations of “Archimedes advised to skip this chapter and oneal it, dsr, ‘uring the reading ofthe following capters, when reerenee is mad to iin the spplisation of lms here dealt with; with «vow such oer decimal notation ba boon adopted) ‘We sll fis give a short summary of the eymbole Yo bo was in this book forthe reproduction of the Grose matherntial argu rants, and of tho chit propertis which av in themselves alrondy lementary Sn ration tothe ayer of Tlemnts to be doused, “Arkon th se} wa on ole ont of Bali conn to Pappu (i VI, 3, 2) he wre wo ve bok oe ‘Senet ih te tary a no ry toot bk fn of Bat od WH 40 a oe Atta the work Aran 1) San the divin a ssa he bog, pA. 4) The mode quan bi follows byte ds tr. » a e924 (0.1 Notations: A rectangle with sides a and b 0 (0,8) O.of *Ozteynor ‘A square with sido Tia) Tot Leeadjunor A cirlo with diameter d —-K(d)—-K of Kéelos "The ratio of two homogeneous!) magnitudes A and B 4.2) ‘The ratio of two equaros with aides a, 8, for example, is written (re. Te "The above symbols aro used in partilar in the practive of the socalled Applention of Areas or Geometrical Alba, which i the instrument used in Grook analytical geometry, and the elements of ‘hich are dealt with in Huei). If desied, any line of reasoning rxpred by theoo aymbels may at onco be tranilated into the non prevalent algebraic notation by the following substations 04,8) ad Te) mat (4,8) = AB, 0.3. Fundamental concepts of the application of ares. (0.21. A plane igure X is said to bo applied parabotically to a tine segment A won tino segment 1 ie constructed such that 014, 5) = x. 1.22, A plane figura X ie aid to be applied liptically to » line sopmont with defect of the assigned form (4, 2} whan X ia ap- plied paraboielly to line sxgment B< A, so thab Xs OFT) andalso (7, A-B) = (4,8) 0.28, A plane figure X is aid to be applied hyperbulically to Hine segment A sith exo of the arsigned form (4, ) when X in ap- ‘lied parabaielly toa Hine engment >, 80 that X= O(B,P) andals (7, BA) = 4,8). 0.24 "Tho Greek names forthe three above-mentioned operations A pit nd Bee ase en iy Aha mea > Band mB °) Bioente of Bats 1, 12, 103 ” aoso aro succomively: sweat (parabola), EZziyc (lip), and dee Pons (ayperboa). 08, Fundamental conceps ofthe dear of proportion") O31, When (4,8) = (2,0) ‘wo call (4,0) the duplizat ratio (Setar Rayos) of (A,B). Symbol: (4,0) = BALA, 5) Ta this caso (4,0) = (T(A), "051. ‘The algobraio equivalent of « duplicate ratio is the square of ‘ratio, Tn fac, Srom a:b=b:e i follows that a= aot 0.2, When (4,B) = (2,0) = (@,D) wo all (A.D) the triptione rato (epexlaalaw Ryo) of (A,B) Symbol: (4, D) = TAA, BY ‘The algebraic equivalent of a triplionte ratio is the cube of a zatio, In fac, from ab=b:e-e:d it follows that ad = ab 0.98, When (A,B) = (3,18) and (B,0) = (P,Q) swe call (4,0) the compound ratio (ovpctusvoc Ayo) of ‘the ration (30) andl (P, Q) "The algebmaio quivelont of « compound ratio is the product of ‘oro ratios, Tn fach, from e:b-—men and b:e= pg it follows that ping 0.4, Main operations of the theory of proportions). 4. Brom s propartion (4, B) = (C, D) there real, throngh the ‘operations to be mentioned bolow, the proportions given behind ‘hem: 3) tomo of Bul 1, 88-88. 9) Blane of Bot 1, ca cor alranio (i248) (A, 0) = (B,D) [oot tn) oD. pron mo) at.) 2 (ei D.D) onde (aon) (ABB) = (0-D,0)| BOMB Gomucriondo (dnaorelpeor) (A, AB) = (C,0—D) | 4 = 8 ® o>D tnd by «combination of the above: fnvertendo componendegue (A+B, A) = (04D, 0) separando inveriondogue —(B, A~B) = (D, 0~D) ‘onveriondo insertondoque (AB, A) ~ (O~D,O) Contrary to the aston of the Greek mathomaticians, wo shall suse rule pesform these operations withont mentioning the names. 142 The shove mentioned operations ae frequntly applied to in- tcruaitn a well. In this cago tho porablo change of the sig of foequaity into bo note: Prom (4, B)>(C, Di fllowe that pormaande (4.0)> (B.D) Irocrtondo B.A) = (0,0) componendo (A+B, B) > (C+D.D) ipurando (B,D) > (O-D.D)\ poyiged A > . Mode (Aca © (0,070) | oven A > Pan o> D and by 2 sombination of tho onvertendo invtendoyue (A~B, A) > (0-D,O) txporandoimarteninque (B, A~B) < (D,O-D) Inowrndo compnendopes (A+B, 4) < (04D, 0) "Tho way in which tote conclusions oan be proved i ulfcantly parent fro tho following example: Suppostion: (4 B)>(0,D) What roglred 10 be prove: (+B, B)>(0+D, D) root: Conaruet magoltode B>C wash hat (4, 1) ~(F,D) 2) Wo rind he render tht (ht ran tare Sat ot eno pit of ‘sual mtbr 9 eh tha mA DnB, Wut m0 SnD. se049-08 Componente (A+B, B) = (R+D,D) > (0+ D,D). 0.43. An inequality of rating romains true upon duplication,‘ from (4, B)> (0, D) i follows that AAA, 2) >BA(C, D. 0.44. From (A, B)>(0, D) and C> D it follows that A> B. Proof: Construct H such that (H,B)= (0, D), then B D it followa that #' B, honce a jortin’ A> B. 045. 1 A>B, and C is any magnitude homogeneous with A and B, wo have: (4, B)> (440, B+0). root: From A> B it follows that (4, C)> (B,C), homeo (4+0,4) < (B40, 8), from which permuand (A+0, B40) < (A,B) 0.48. Wo hero remind the reader of the conslusion ex aepuali, in ‘which i i eonchaded from (4, B) = D.B) and (B,0) = (BF) ht 4.0 = (DF) 0 Lema of Bld Yor the operations ofthe salle net method of psn to 4 tint (UIE) the salle Toma of Euclid (Blonds X, 1) i Slementay (Ge. fnetion ee on lest) in hi fs onmciated ‘hat if trom any agai there be abled mary then te halt, fom the romain again moo thant hl, nd 8 0 cm tinvay thre wl lng remain a mage les than anya signed magitude. Asx mentioned ina por, thin proposition x ‘ho tun nh can whan rons raining nage there be Sonny mented ta ln hi a nove he ‘proposition 7 mae? ‘Tho proce of eontinned btokon enced hy htm “iho tomy" u 06 0.8, Numerizat atom. or the expression of sumbers Archimedes used tho alphabetic system, in whieh all numbers below 1,000 could be represented by tuitive juxtaposition of letee symbols for the nambers 1, 2.0, 10, 30..,80, 100, 290...900. The symbols in question were: ro10 | g= 10 oo 200 $= 300 bo 00 5 = 000 ges Ze 900 gor y= 700 re a = 800 dao = 200 (0.61, The numbers 1,000, 2,000...9,000 were expressed by the symbols for 1, 2.9, witha smell dash infront and below the ine, ‘the number 10,000 by 2F (of jg), myziads by Mt. ample: ra igpGd = 306,500, (002, Unit fractions were expressod by the symbol for the denom- nator, with an scoot affixed. An exeoption was mado for the fraction 1/2, foe whieh the symbol L’ was used ‘xample: ant (0.88. Ganaral fractions were expresod either in words or as sums ‘or mltples of unit fuctions ‘amples: (D.C. 2): Sie {Sourpeonropdre = ton soventy-oncths fed = La = a8 1, Generation and goneral propartien of conic. ‘The way in which conice aro intreducod and dealt with in Gresk ‘geometry, in epite of deeporrecemblances, is outwardly ao dfor- ‘ent from their goneration and ctudy in our own day that it seems ‘sirable to precede tho expesition of the elements an which Ar 5510 chimes built his work by a short sketch of the evolution of the ‘theory of thowo curvas from tho time when it was preeumahiy framed for the frst time up to its complete elaboration in the Conies of Apollonius. 1.0, The discoverer of conic ix eomidered to be the geometer Ms nnochinus, who ia rofored to, for example, in the Callayus Come: trarum of Proclus!) on aoeount of his shnze in tho dovelepment of ‘geometry after Budoxus, and who mast therefore have lonrshod at ‘about 860 B.C. The ground on which ho ix eredted with so i= portant « discovery is rather vague: in fact, ina treative preserved, Dy Butoctu), whic iin the frm ofa letter rom the goometer a= tosthenos to King Ptolemy of Bgypt, sont with « new xoltion of ‘ho problem ofthe two mean proportions its stated in » euevey ‘of older solutions that the cone shonll not be eatin the tals of ‘Menaechmus'). Sinop further Kntosiusssaribos to Meoaeehmes a onstruction of the two mean proportionas), ia which use is made ‘of parabola and an orthogonal hyperbola, the passage fn the lotion of Bratoathonss ie usually considered av an indication that Menseoh- us wae the discoveror of cones. We are naturally laft completely in tho dark as to th further partiulary ofthis discovery. We only Janow through Butosius that Menaochinus solved the problem of ‘tho construction of two line wgmente BP, which in combination, ‘wlth two given line ngmenta 4d satify the relations (4, B) = (B,1) = (P, 4) Dy a goomolril interpretation of the relations TB) 014.7) OWT) = O14,4) TW) = O17, 4) fn which B and "aro looked upon se variables respectively ® parabola, an orthogonal hyperbola, and « parabols (to anticipate {or the moment the later names), and thee ho thon detarmined the (vo unknowns B and Pas eoondinates of «point of faterceion of toro of these curves, Tt is obvious Uhté this raises w great many questions: in tho first plaeo the question how ho then roalzad that "Prk Dino in primum Susser br commenti ds Prdlin (tpg 1673p 3) Opera 1) Opera II, 9; Hine 17, Morris morc sete, *) Opera I, 78 aa ‘tho curves thus defined planimoteically may also be plane sections fof a cone; secondly, whether be also determined the other conic ations planinetrically Before generating them stereometieally: flo, whether is discovery porhape consisted in his finding that. the faves alrendy known af sections af a eons coal be mde #ub- ‘event tothe solution of the problom ofthe two mean proportional. ‘None of these questions, however, can be answored at the present singe of our knowledge of Groek mathematics, i. Howover thin may be, from the fact that us early at about 300 B.C. the abovementioned spodial tteatioes about conias by ‘Avistoons and Enolid cold be waltten it eun be inferred that the ‘hoary of thes curves toast have been. very intensively studied in the sooond half of the fourth century B.C. We have some details bout tho foundasions of the new theory, Ze. the manner of gonee- ‘tng the cones, from motually concordant statements by Poppe) fand Butorias!) (he latte refers to Genainas). utoins relates that ‘cones "the ancient’ exclusively understood the solids genereted by a right triangle rotating shout one of the sides including the right angle (2, right oreular cones), that they easifed these ao- farding tothe type of the vertu! aaglo ofthe complete meridian footion a right-angled, obtuor-angled, and aeute-angled cones, and that they wed each kind only for the genoration of one typo of oni. In fac, thoy eat every eane by’ plane st right angles to a igoorator, and elle the eurves thus obtained by the names (which ‘were asid by Pappas to originate from Aristeus): tection of the rightangled cone (eBeyerlee nov rom, henee- orth to be referred to 26 orthoto). ection of the obtuae-angled cone (2uBkeyantoo wéivov ro hence. forth to be referred to a8 ambiyfome). reotion ofthe acuto-angled cone (#2vjatov sow rye, henoaforth ‘to bo referred Uo ws axylome) {eis obvious that thes srw the curves which ever since Apoonins Ihave boon known at parabele, hyperbola, anid elipes respectively "No authentic souress are avaliable to show in what way a 4ymp- tom (odunvaye i. acharnotoritiorelation bobwean thocovondinates ‘of any given point of the curve which, translated into algebraic 3) Popp, Calo VIL, 80; 672, 3 Apetonan, Gonos 1, 108.MW ymbolim, becomes the equation in reapect of the oo-endinate system used) is deduord for each of tho curves from thovo defi nitions. However, considering the symptomnta that were chiely ‘od prior to Apollonius for characterization paxpooe, Iti highly probable that this was done as follows a the fllowing figures let the meridian plane through the genor- tor, 0 which the eutting plano ia at right angles, be chosen for ‘the plane of the paper; the cutting plane is then denoted by 2. A pane st right angles tothe sis of the cone intersects the plan of the poper in I'd, the eutting plano in KO, ob right angles to the plano of tho paper. Now A ie m point of the curve, Onthome r BZN, 4 A OF vs ret Now wehare "TIK6) = 018, 49) = 01re, 242) A184.» ATAZ, thon (Te.04) = a, 2) thence symplom: T{K0)= 01274, 46). In alginic sytem (KO~y. 40 274 =) ‘this amounts to the oquation: y= Ambion andt Onjome TKO) = O76, 48) 046, 10) sa 1a. rer (HO, 1A) = (80, BA) = (86, BA) thence (H6, 36) = (14, BA). ‘From this i follows that [0(40, 16), 0148, 20] ~ (14, BA) ~ (244, BA) symptom: [T(K6), O(48, B6)]=(244, AB). In algebeaio aymbetiam’ (KO =, 40 =m, BO = ay 24d = p, AB =a) te equation: ro Ba ‘We hall rler to this form of the equation defining th sotion a ‘the two-ebavina form, 1.3, For the ako of comparizon wo all now desoribe the way in ‘which, moss than # century le, the conie azo dealt with by Apol- 0Tonius; they now appear to be generated on an oblique cioular ‘one, which ia intersected by eatting planes of different pation. In the following figures let 774 daneto thet plane throngh the ‘xis PHP) of tho cone of which tho interyetion £4 with the plane ‘of the baso of the oone (the plane of the eres M) is at right anges to the straight line BZ, in which the euting plane interoects the ‘base. Let the triangle 774 bo called the axial tiangle The entting plane intersects the plane 7A in AH A ie thus fine of oblique, symmeicy for th divetion 14), Now there ae three possibilities: ‘5) AIT is parallel to one sido of tho axial triangle (Fig 4) (BAIT intersets one side ofthe axial trina, and the other sido ‘produced beyond 7°) (Fg. 5). 9) AB interoeste both sides of tho asialtianglet) (ig. 6), Any plane parallel to tho base cute the cone in a cole on PIT ‘as diameter and tho eating plane in 6. K lien on the satface of the cone, and is therefore» peat of thosection. Ineach of the three ‘ase the following relation applies ‘or tho ordinate KG): TKO) = OW, Pe). [Now in Fig. 4 let AAI AT, so that 110 = Aa, Now "Tho aa of tho camo Sethe neigh ina thr the wrt al the ) Thien ca, eh any thes, righ metry when BU All $e: 82-714, er wea 724 the plan Sought a a ight gh Apolo isthe Get to smsidar alm th pat of the curved mutaoe sf the tone fonnad by jong bane? the bal genantare scutes by Atchineds Ho thus aoe a two Brandon of te hyp «Since the earvod wurace of the sone bu soodved fn eto etn, cho bso om nwa Upto shone that ts the ea 5 By tn ern dinates ob ad acai Aebedi wory ‘we tran te ding Apelonian expan ryan pony a ‘notin dts, rn in ho conjugate etion, whisk Arcades eo ‘ie eed none cnouon o (44, P4) = 4,74) (Pe, 49) = (Ar, 7) ‘honco [0(8, P83), OPA, AB)] = TA), OCA, TY). [Now find line segment X such that (14) = Ta, O74, 71), thea {TUKO}, O(PA, A0)] ~ (3, 7A) = [OW, 46), OLA, AB] therefore symptom: TKO) = OWW, 48). "The equare on K@, applied parabolcally (0.22) to N, thus gives ss rectangle with sido 48. 1 algebraic eymbolism: (KO = y, 49 =, ¥ =p) vow {oat in respect ofthe obligue aystom with X axis: AU, origin: 1A, dizvaion of the ordinatas: BZ). ‘On account ofthe correlation ofthe eymptoms thus to be derived13, ‘with the various forms of application of area, the curves are called parabola, hyperbole, and elie repeatively by Apollonius), In ig 5 and 6 le further: 74 48 (A on 14}, Now we have (119, BO) = (4, PA) (P9, 40) ~ (44,74) thence LOUTO, P9), O(60, 46)} = [OW'A, AA), TYRA). [Now find a line segment 3 such that (AB) = (OW, 44), T10)] ‘then wo have symptom: [T.X@), 0/86, 46)} = (N, AB). fin Pigs 7 and 8, BO—2, and tho straight line AO meets the ‘perpondioalar through € on J in, wo have. (02,48) = (N, AB) i" et Hes whence TTUte), 018, 46)} = (0129, 62), 0189, 46)] o T(K0) ~ 0189, 92). ®) Tint thas nanos ware stanly nealy intone ty Allis, op wate from the propastinns Gonos, LTS, nan ef which cm wh fo torte xed 8 ry Lewd ‘ho square on KO, apied { (ns2-029) to ihn {S58 te et who eB (8, A, ho yields a rectangle with ride BO. ‘in algebeate symbol: 1, BO = 2, N= p, AB =a) (¢ teambsteney = for exytome (Equation in respect of the oblique system with X axle: AB, origin: 4, direction of the ordinate: #2). 1.8, Tt thus spposta that the mothod of Apollon difers on two {nndamental pointe fom tho (presumbe) original ono of Monaceh- ') The symptom is dasivod in relation to one out of an infinite ‘amber of resiprocallyequlvalont diameters of the section, each of ‘which ie line of oblique symmetry with regard to a conjure Airetion; in Menacchasns it refered to a siglo diametar (tar ‘led axis), which waa a lino of right symmetry. We shall express ‘this honeeforth by soying that in Apollonius there is abique conju ution between abacien and ordinate, in Mensoohanus right conju ation, b) The eymptom is expromerl with the aid of the concept af the ‘application af area, a doveloped ia Book VI of Buc’ Mlements; this doesnot bring abowt any atoration, as compared with Menacol tus, in the treatment of the orthotome (i. no fresh alteration bess that from the main axis to any diamoter), but it does with regard to amblytome and oxytome, which only now deserve to be ‘alle hyperboln and elite. In analytical terme thie means that {in Apollonius alao for amblytome and oxytome the equation it formed to aystom of axea consisting of any given diametor and ‘the tangent st ano of ita extremities 1.4, The problem thst now praiente act whan we want to state the clomente of the theory of oonies in Archimedes oonsisis in that ‘we mort try to show what point in the development of this thoory, ‘ho intial and final stages of which wo have now become acquainted with, hi method of generating and dealing with conia constitutes Cs1 1 has sometimes boon considered that this question could at once ‘be snsmered hy pointing out thst Archimedes sil uses the nomen- lature “aeotions of the right-angled, the obtuse-angled, and the ‘cuto-angled one, which are chersteristio of Mennechnn’stand~ ‘int, and that he therefore will seams to have genorsted the eons iting right cirenla cones by lanes a rght angles to a gener- ‘tor. "This argument appears to us to eaery Btls convietion: namos sxe opt to linger on when the measing of th oonoepts to which they refer bat altered, and wo should be equally justifiod in inferring {rom tho fac that we now sil soak of hyperbola and ellpa that vo alll onerato Uhooo curves by moans of the Buclidean method of applition of areas, ‘There ia, however, «more potent—though lao terminologieal— ngumont which may bo avanoed in favour of the aupposition that ‘tho standpoint of Archimedas (at least with regard to the Blements ‘on which ho builds) docs not yet fundamentally differ from that ff Mensechmus. Indeed, whon ho writes down the symptom of the forthotome for point with abeaina 4 and ordinate Ke, chia a9 fellowes ‘TuKe) = OW, 46) sd he then cals the fine segment 1 “the double of th line as far 45 tho axis” (6 fendaote ae ys ro Aone"), Thin is dentin ‘which i patsy in ine with the gonoraing method of Menoeh- rn, for in ig. 1 we bad ‘(Ke = (247, 40) land thence 1V war there indeed equal to 247, i, the doublo of the part of the goneratar 74 batween the curve aod the axis of ‘the cone. Tie definition of tho Hine vogment Nis not st all in ‘have boen used betweon Mlenscehmus and Apollolus and in whieh sither a right eircalar sone would be eat by any plano or an oblique fon by a plane at right angles to the main weotion. Tis obviows that this terminologioel consideration carios muuch amore weight than the preceding one concerning the namor of the 1) Ten tn be note sheaf tat day ref 1 th a ofthe con, and nt tase ugh ns which weal nx of the pasa Tn the Ses {ho word ent found Archi. oo | 2 u ‘conics Teed, «parabola, s hyparboa, and an lips generated 20- ondng to Apollonive remain uevertheles setions of right-anged, ltnoblaae angled, and an ecute-angled oon, and one mey therefare tent to ell thom By thse names for tho ake of tradition; bet the line wgment 1, to which the squares on the ordinates ar ap- plod porsbolically (ng” dr Serveet a xh ds tod, a is the dei- Eton in-Avchinnden aa well atin Apallonia), 2 bo Tonge “ho touble of the Tine aa far aa the axis” an son an the geneating tnvtod of Mensechm is lbdoned, andi dificult to imagine that this exprenion, whichis nota technica abbreviation, but a definition, should yot have continued to be wed. “Tho above formal argument are mappored by others which avo even more closely connected with the import af the Archimedean Ahoory of conic. Im the fine plaoy Ie is aeking that be alway ‘peaks of the diameter of the orthotome and the amblytome, and af the two diameter, the greatr and tho lease, ofthe oxytome) it appears irom the caste that by tho latter he means the pric pal axes, and he therefore seens to locke upon the sjmptomata of Tho scctions (at least im ao far aa they follow directly from tho Aafinition) a6 relating to right conjugation ‘Nor dove ho over refer i his discussions on amblytome and cxylouo to the magatade which we denoted by 2 in our expos jim of tho mothod of Apollonius and which sof ewential import tnve Jor the connection botmeen the theory of concn and. the Buelidoan spplication of area, To pat it nnalytialy, Arcimades always une the equations for eli and hyperbola in tho form sh cont, nm isin ight conjugation, ond never ia the Apollonian form 1) Ono may nti o oboe that cannot Bo infeed fom tho tec of bw eapruaons "pons Grae” sd "haaor Sams” that only {io dann on lg ener, hentaethe ato ry abo sly tao eats wnt te ne of at inom Ts the Gros ton, however it ‘eis wacranted, ces epprat from tho woo soma tive oo supmatve inthe supromions wallan gener aod f sso [Sincec thot only te dixie nr vor At he zblyarn, het Tone only ove dame oto bo space By th fat Hat the blr esta of only ene branch of hyperbola imate Ca16 ‘hare the conjugation is conosived to bo abliqu!) All these arguments in combination seem to us to justify the conclusion that the theory of oonies of Archimedes does not ot Aifer an any eeential point from that of Ariston and Hucid Th will heoome apparent from the following pages thet in some 70- {pects he toade a step forward, a» compred with tes, nthe rection to bo subsequently fllowed by Apollonias; for the see, ‘howover, a reading of his treaties confirms the impression gained. from the Conicaof Apollonius, es. that th goometer of Pega gave sn esentally now forndation tothe theory of conics wha he based ‘he disousion on the oblique crvular cone with any eutting plane ‘and correlated tho aymplomata ofall thre sections with the eon- cepts of the Euolidean applieation of areas. ‘That for the rest the contents of tho fit four books of the Conica were not now in every respect, s known fom his own utter: lance’), We shall therefore ala, withowt risking any anachronisms, be able to draw on his workin order to reconstruct tho elements ‘of the Archimedean theary of oaies, provided wo formulate what hie finds aa obiqne eonjugntion ss right conjugation, and provided ‘wo do not make use of any propositions which have an essential connection with the concepts of hyperbolic and elliptic application ‘of areas Té may also bo ai that when speaking about Arehimedes, ‘vo must not yet look upon the amblytome as a hyperbola and ‘upon the oxylome ae an ellipa; an idontfiation of orthotome and perso in ee objectionable, hosts the symptom of this section In already formolated by Archimedes with the aid of (parsbolio) applicetion of areas. 1.5, In Apollonias* Coniza tho definitions of the sections are followed hy various propositions relating to the namber of pains of intensotion which they havo in common with straight lines of feront kinds (eg. peeallel or non-parallel tothe diameter, drswn {in the direction ofan ordinate or not), and to the relations “within” 7) Pile wore, IL 6, whie tw bonne apparent tab the ot mont of le a hyperbola obtique eajugntin tr all wan ay oa boro Apolo "pon, Conn Te 15-61 and “without” in respect of the section. Disowasions ofthis nature, ‘which concern the relative position of elements of the figure, are rnever among the strongest points of Gres mathematiciane: the fabeaneo of tho axiomatic hasis on which sich discussions would hove to be built makes iteof fot again and again, and under the sito of an abstract logial argument a tacit sppoel to goometaicel Intuition is yor repeatedly made. It stands to reason thet on ‘this point tho poution of the theory’ of conic in the days of Archi ‘medes was no hotter than in the days of Apollonias, and that we fare by no moans likely to underestimate it by quoting the follow ing properitians from the Coniea as ite probable component, elo- sents: Conica I 10. When two points be taken ona conic ection, the baight line joining these points will fall within the aetion and the line pro- (duced will fall without i), ‘Gonica I, 19. Im any conie action a straight Wine drawn from a pont of the diameter the direction of an ornate will mac the cure. 1.6, Tho statements mado sbove with rogard to the—to us rather ‘unsatisfutory—teeatment of relations of postion in Gredl mathe- nates also apply to the manner ia which the tangent coneopt i= introduoed, For this, with all curves the mathod familiar to as for the cirle from Huolid’s Hioment is applied sneha: there (TT; De. 2} the tangent to the cil i defined a the straight line whieh meets the cielo and, whon produced, does not intersect the cio, fie. doce not mest ibagain. Upon this, «condition ix derived which is nevessry and suffcint for a straight ine to touch a ile, and finally the clos proximity of sich « stright Lie to the circle is further iustrated by the propoitin that I not porsbe to drew ‘through the point of eontact any line all pints of which le bobween tho tangent and the ete, 1.61, or other eurvs the definition ie not even explicitly mentioned. gain; i i, howover, the buss of the derivation of the condita hich a straight line has to satisfy in order to touch the curve Tn & completo diseasion, mareovee, the property of the close ‘proximity is proved for each curve anow.. With the conics thie 5) Th Gah do nt ifrntnt btwoun ds tern “eg ne ad “stright ie segat Wo an follwing tt sore te rations he meaning i lenge 60 effet rn the content orheat method! dose not present any disadvantages. Among the other ‘curve which are certain to have been studied in antiquity, wi. the ‘quedrateix of Hippias, tho spiral of Archimedes, the conchoid of ‘Nicomedts, and the eisoid of Diocles, it x only the quadratrix which admits of the Hclidean concuption without any modii- Cation, With the other ourves the tangent genarally meats the curve ‘laowbere as well, while in tho iaflexions of the eonahoid thers ‘oven appears the phenotisnon—contrary to the natare of tangoney from te Greek paint of viow-that the tangent intersects the eurve inthe point of contact. tdoos not, however, appear that Greek mathemati concerned ‘teat with the tangent problem for the quedeatix, the conchoid, fand the oisoid, And as to tho spiral of Archimedas, for this the ‘aetideon definition can be retained, provided wo confine ourselves ts Arohinedas wil contiavally be found to do—on each oocesion (on consideration of the separate tums which are tracad auc costively by the moving paint when the radius vestor performs ‘8 complete revolution from the zero position 1.62, In Apollonins’ Conica wo moot with the following funda. mental propositions, which are true forall eonies: Conica I, 12. If @ soot Fine bo drawn though the verte) of amie ection inthe diration of om ondinat, it wild fall without the ‘tion, "Thisfollows st once from the xymametry property ofthe diameter: i the straight line met the section ones more, the vertex of the toution wool have to bo a the same time the middle point and the foxtrot of the chord obtained. The contusion is that the stright Tine therefore touches tho sotion ab the vertex. ‘Conioa E38. If straighs line be drawn through the vertex ofthe section inthe direction of am ordinal, wil touch the setion, and no ker tight Kine wel fall ethin the rea Eten the eto tin tht araight ine. “in the demonstration of this proposition a distinction is made between tho eaoee where the section is a parabola and thos where it in enelipan,w hyperbola ar the ireamfareno of» cirele, We will revert to this in ont dieussion of the diferent conics 1.7. We shall find Archimedes speaking repeatedly about similai- 1) Vetox (ne) of ole any extent of diameter os 20 {y in connestion with conie. I all probability fie understood by this the stane thing ax Apollonius, whose conception fits in entinely with the Buclidean view of simiity!); his definition may be re- produced, in w aightly abbreviated form, ae follows We eal i conics sislar sehen the Hinze dra tonards the dia neler in the divation of am ordinate are proportional fo the parts of the diameter whic they detarmine thraon fom the certs!) "The mecaing ofthis is as Tolows: “Imagine on each of the diamotee a sries of points with distances ta tho homologous vetion 4-5 Ei Zy--~ tapootively 0 that (eu.8) = (ep fi = (Oy da te while we then have for tho corresponding ordinates yy Yess i iets ee (8) ~ (5B) = (ny Bl bo ‘Fvomn this then follows that (ud = Gem) = Uw ns) ote. ‘Rxprotted more briefly, this is equivalent to saying that a-con- stant & cn bp found such that from # ~ 18 ib follows that y = 2p 2, Phe artlotome. 20, Tho method of generation hus lready boon mentioned (1.1); ‘plane is drawn at right anges to gonerator of a right circular ‘cone the meridian action of which hae right vectical angle. The ‘orden i the seotion whieh tia plane dotcemines on the surface ‘of tho cone, "Ths point whero the cutting plane meets the generator fo which it is perpendicular is called tho verter (wogep) of the section; the interiection of the cutting plane with the meridian plane at ight angles thereto ie Zr tho aootion «line of eight wymmo= try, which ta called the diameter (j Sdugac)). We wil aloaly ‘esignste the distance of « point of the section to the diameter a6 ‘ondinat!) the part of tho diameter Detwean tho vertex and the 2) Bani of Bi 1,828 3 pelo Comin Vi D2 2 tennant later, not he tn ig ') ide 1; Note 6 on p60. oo201-24 {oot of tho ondinato aa abscissa, The double of the lin segment bounded by tho vortex of the station and tho verox of the cone (i dexiaale eae pézes 200 alone, the dole of the Bine a fares the aia) wo will already call by the Apolonian term orthia (f do0ie srlovod=latu rectum), Tho symptom of the gction i ‘Phe aquere om the ordinate of point of the scion in oval to the rectangle contained by the abciten and the ohio. “a applications it often used in the following form: ‘Phe mquares on the ordinates of tuo points of the section aren the ratio ofthe abseissu of Use pints. 201. (Conien I, 22) A ataight Line having 20 pointe in common ‘wih the ortotome mevte the diameter withowt the eetion. ‘The proof follows from a consideration of the trapezium formesd by the line wgment between the intersections, their ordinates, and the diameter, 202. (Conicn 1, 20) A atraiglé line parallel to the diameter always meds the suction, and only én one point. ‘Sinco the ordiaato of the interootion, if any, is known, the ab- scizon enn bo unarabiguously construotod on the basa of the aymp- tom of the asation, 2.08. Of straight Kine parla tthe diameter, the half-Kne lying om the conver side of the scion followithout the wection, the other half Fine within st "The proof of this proposition ik difficult to reoonstruct it vow ofthe absence of any definition of the tarms “within”, "without", ‘and “convex”; at will bo taen later, other propotitions (0.32) ar, however, bused on the above enunciation, go that they must havo ‘ocoured in the Hlement, 2.1, As hae slredy boen mentioned in @ proposition applying to all conics (1.62), the lie drawn through the vertex in th direction of an ordinate ia tangont to the scetion. Tho proposition —alao fnunolated azoaly in a general wey Ube no other straight line ‘nn fll batweon the soction and tho tangent is proved as follows for the orthotome (Coniea I, 32): In Fig. 9 let the tangeat at the vertex of an orthotome with 7) This to bo remambored that th lami aurea i the dosbla of vrhas in analyte geometry alle ho parmotar in sho oqution = eae rch ep 0 22-220 diomolor AB aod vertex A bo AP. Leb Ad, drawn theough A within the angle BAT; not moet the soction again, Let the straight Tine, drawn through ay given point of tis straight line in the dicetion of the eninate, mac the seotion in 1, the diameter in E, ‘Then r [ria Tay) > (rer, TAH), = (4B), when NV ropresonts the ora (2.0). ‘Now find a point 6 on AB such that (%, 46) = (1B), TAH, 40 < AB Let straight tno through 6, parallel to AB, meet tho soction in A, the seraight line Adin K, ee. Thea hen (Tue), 1(46)] = [T4B), TAR = WW, 48) = (O(N, 40), TAB, swhenve (Ke) ~ OW, 49) = T1406) so that A coineides with A, and consequently the straight line A Imeta the section in K. 22, Suhsoquently condition may be derived which i euficiont jn onder that atraight Kine shall toned the orthotomo at a point ‘other than the vertex. 2.20, (Contr I, 1 If in Fig. 10) 1° Be a point ofthe othtome with beciaa AB, ond if onthe diamster, on the opposite se of the verter a La M1, n21-22 A to where the absiaan ics, a Kine segment AK equal to BA. be measured, ang point of the straight line BI ether thon T° wil fall teithout the scion. BI wil therefore tow the setion at ‘Proof: Tet a point 2 of BT ic within the section. Let the perpendicular through Z to the diametar meet tho latte: in 4, ‘he ection in IZ, Now in view of similarity of triangles (rz), T8y) = rea), eB, a ‘and ooause of the aymptom af the section (ruta), TWBY ~ (44,40), Cy ‘hones, house 114> fd, (44, 4B) > (Tee), THB), or [OAs Ad), THEY > (TUE), TRB) o O(AB, AA) > THEA). "Thin, howover, ie bpomible in view of Buelid IE, 6. In fact, A js nob the middle point of BA, therefore 048, 44) < 478A) 2.21, In order to formulate the given proof algebraically, we write tho oquation ofthe seston on the eytem of xe dlamter-tangent tthe vertex vate IF tho co-ordinates of I are thon (ays of Blatt uh of Ti+, 9), the two relations given above ate: 5 @, w ‘rom which we derive 88 ang Bt Py ant % nt _ defer we Gath so that wo rua once: Ste 2.22, For 9 modern reader this natorlly mach simpler than the 3) Aseing to thin proponiion if AF represents the ida point of AE, wo baves O(AB, 4d) = Tats} (Mal = TMA) ~ ETE}. 2 32a Greek wording, This is partly doe to the indirect formulation of the prot of Apollonius, which hore, as in many other places, is ruperfiuous. The Greeks bare & marked preferonos for this mode fof demonstration: rather than prove that yy <3 they will prove tho hinpousbility of y,>yg (Hho pouibty of yyy, thon being ‘sutomatially reled out, beeanso in that case, in view of Conica I, 10, other points of the straight Uno again would fll within the section), we now suppose with Apollonius that y>Y we shal find, a8 algebra traalation of the Gres proof, from (1) and (2): Peers =” GaP “ Aye) (2rybO* ent? Ga” whence keeps) > (Bay o 0 the ground of our knowldge of familiar imple algebraic ‘dette we now wo st once tho absurdity ofthis, and at first view ‘consider i fr-fetohed when Apollonius, in order to reach the same feoncusion, makes we of an identity (Bucld IE, 6) whieh, whon formulated algebraically, would read anti (" airs = (5) -(5) ‘This example, however, merely shows that by auch an algebraical ‘transition we do not Tealine the etwnoo of the Greek modo of ‘thinking. To « Greck mathemstiian tho identity of Buolid Th, 8 is jst as fondamental uf one ofthe familar algebra identities to us, and that it why to hima in viow of the identity (4k, 44) ~ TANA)—TUAEA), in which Af is the middle point of A, the impossibility of O(4z, 44) > TY) {is immediately obvious. 2.28, Teas now booome apparent thatthe orthotome has a tangent at any point, 1. sill has to be proved shat at any point thre ie no more than one tangent. tat the condition that tho subtangent n208 shall be double of the abscissa is not omly sutiient, bat also ne= essary. The proof of this proposition in Apolonins ie as follows (Conicn 1, 8) s gt ‘In Pig. 11 et a tangont BY touch the ezetion st F, tho abeoiaa Doing AB. If 84 isnot equal to AB, then leb Ad. If Ad ix baoiass of point Z lying on the aame side of the diameter as ‘thon (2.2) BZ wil touch tho wotion at Z, 22 will thus have two points ia common with BM, and will therefore eoincide with £7’ Z therfore lies in I’, A in B, and Uerefore BA AB. Tho con. ‘luson thas, in dition to H, #4 must havo enother point in om- mon with Eis based on inspection of the figure, showing that ‘EG, which must not meet the rection ngain, cena’ proceed trom ‘ae area bounded by HV, the soetion, and the diameter in any ‘thar way but by mocting 7’ In the eace wheto 4 lies on the ‘opposite side of H tho proof undergous an obvious merlfontion. Tes further proved that through F'n other ersight line en be ‘arava between 1° and tho section which meets the setion in 7 ‘only (2 that on tho tide of PF where the seetion lis no hal-line ‘eeeos through 7, allothee pointe af which are without the ootion). Indeed, if YE wero such a ateaight line, snd if A were detersined by AA=AK, thon KZ would bo tangent at Z, while (at above) it would eoindide with KT, i. would moct the section agnin in I. 2.24. From tho proved proposition about the eubtangent it fllows ‘a once that the subaormal of the orthotome i constant. Indeed, ‘when the normal of in Fig. 11 meets tho diamater in H, and N opments the ortia, we have (Ht, £2) = TUR) = OW, AB) = OWN, FB), ‘rom which it follows that BHT = iW. cn 2a-292 28, ‘Tho property of the preApollonian theory of conics which i ‘matt important for onr purposes is she one that the symptom of ‘the orthotome applies not only to the diamoter, but also to any sight line drawn through point of the setion parallel to the ‘lantter, provided the direction of the tangent at that point be ‘wd asthe dieotion ofthe ordinates. ‘Tha iplies that t any rate the orthotome was ele treated in oblique conjugation already bore “Apollonine, the fundamental difference withthe standpoint of the ‘Conica remaining that tho posiblty of obligue conjugation has to be derived planimotrically, whore, if tho section is genernted on ‘en oblique ciroular cone by any eutling plano, it is present fom the very beginning. "There are no indications ae to the way in which tho property in sgnestion may have boen proved by the older writers, Inthe follow- ‘ng we wil disonss w method which is eccoptablo on aecount offs ‘lose affinity with the Apellonian mode of thinking, 3.31, (a, Conica I, 48) If trough a eariable point of th ortatome atnnigh lines be dren wh ave eucesively parallel to the tangent {tthe verter and fo the tangent at any given fl point of the section, ‘hse tho straight lines together with te diameter include a triangle ‘he ara of which is equal to that of the rectangle which has the a “son of the variable point and the ordinate of the ficed pint for its ies, Tn Fig. 12 let bo the vortex of the orthotome, with tangent AK, 1th fixed point with ondinato 1B and with tangent TE (s0 ‘th BA = AB), 4 tho variable point through which there axe drawn towands the diameter AIT TB, AZ| AK. "Uhen the proposition ia: nda = OE. Ap 1a rBR, 4 42H) -1(PB), T1A2)) = (AB, Az) = GEB.AZ) = ((a188,02K), EA ‘Theretore ‘A AnH = 02K. ren. 12.2, On the ground of this property th aymptom of tho orthotome ray now be drived in obligue conjugation, To thi end we provemen (ig. 18) that botween the line segment 46, which has been drawn, parallel to the tangent at 7, towards the straight line through 7 parallel to the diameter, and the ine segment 1, which is do- termined on that ctright lino by the extremity 6, thore existe ho relation ‘T49) = OW, Te), in which Mf roprosents 6 now eth. root: 1 the tangenta st "and A mest in Z, it fellows from AB~ABi that also AB~KT; therefore A ADE = A KBP. ‘By addition of AZT'ZA to cither member it fllows from this by 231 that BETADS = Q) AKAD = 4 ant; consequently, after subtraction of HOAZH from sither member, at Add0 = OD TOHE o (49, 79) = (2, 4) Also (49, 7) = (04,240, therefore (T(48), O(79, T)] = (FW, AB). [Now take a Hine sogment M much that (I, AB)~(M, 8), then UT (46), O17, 1 = (Hf, 7H) = (OVE, 78), 01, PE), 6 asa1-2.04 ‘therefore "(40) = OU, 78). 2321, Tn onder to correlate the new orth Mf with the original forthe N, which ocurred in sight conjugation, we write (2, ¥) = (O(M, AB), O(N, AB) = (TW), TUB)] = = (146), TAA), x Tin modern notation: af = tangents at and 4). "i this form the property ix quoted in tho proposition C.S. 3 8 courting in the Blemonts of Conics. 2.88. "Tho possiblity of tenting the orthotone alo in oblique on- jogation vill aot bo proved completely until it is also established (ig. 13) that tho straight line through 2, perllel tothe diameter, ‘sete the chords parallel to the tangent at 1’ In order to demon: Heute this, we conser tho chord Ad of the direction in question, which moots the stright line through 7, parallal to the diameter, jn 8. Lot the ondinate of 8 be df. Now we have (231) ath = OK wd ARH= OK, it y representa tho anglo of the swhesce mds 03, whens 446d = 4062, horefore 49 = 18 Ti the caso whore 4 and 3 li on opposite sides of the diameter ‘the proof undergoes an obvious modification, 5.84. Through the proats given the pre-Apollonion theory of co thes acquired the general coneopt of the diameters of an orthotorae ‘eing in alfine geometey equivalent to each other, each with the Uirection of the tangent at the intersetion with the section x8 corresponding direction of the ordinates. We have already reen, however, that even Archimedes does not yet fully drew this con- clusion; to him tho line of right aymmetry remains the diameter, tnd the ori of tho various posible oblique conjugations ere hot yet directly intarzelated, as they aro in Apollonins, but they troll corelated with the arthia of the diametar through the re Tation dorived in 2821. Fri all the more airing thas Archimedes, ‘when discussing aegments of the orthotome, figures bounded ”2.35-2.380 Dy the sootion and a chord, does ell the part of the straight Tine parallel to the dinmeter, which biscts the chord, diameter of the ‘seginent though he does not look upon the wholo of the straight lino an the diameter of the setion. in practice the genorl afins standpoint of oblique conjugation has thus leo been reachod in the terminology used in the tratment of the orhotome. We wll, for brevity’s sake, call the straight lines parallel to the diameter ‘also diameters, distinguishing tho diameter proper therefzom as Drincpal diamotes, whore necessary, 2.38. Since it i nowhere stad. in the formulations and proofs of ‘the propesitions mentioned in 2.1; 2.2-2.28 that the diction of the ordinate is at aight angles to the direction of the diameter, theto proporitons are truo without any modification for oblique conjugation. ‘In partioular we may now conser ae proved the following pro- positions on the thotome, which Archimedes quotes no proved in tho Blaments of Conies (Fig. here AB is always an orthotome with diameter 2). 2.251. OLP. 1. If AL, parallel tothe tangent to th scion at B, mect ‘he sroight line Ban, thon AAmAT. If inerely Am AD, then AD i paralel tothe tgent tothe scion at Ba met 2.802. QLP.2, If AT be parallel to the tangent af Band the straight Tine touching the section at P meet the ataight line BA in E, then Aba BE, 2.50. Finally the property of oblique conjugation ona now also be {ormolated ae follows (Fg. 14): 8 2 1 Som to points Aan Hof he scion te stugh ines Ad and Hb dren, othe tangent the melon a Bors ihe diomet, thon (Maa, THA = (4,22). enosrth we aa cll A also ondinat ad BA alo abenan. 2.4. Whores the exposition ofthe theory of the cetotome 2 I ‘res romhat sytematio i charctor, this wl wo longer bo he {neo in whet follows, becatne we intend to mention ony those ‘romaine which re quoted or proved by Archimedes as leninaa ES. 3. If from the tne etme to sent be ot of whch ace ual imre,the seeds ea to each er, ada are {he imeribl trons, ‘by the invcod triangle of + mgment ts hero understood the triangle which has the boundary chord (be) ofthe segment for tao nd tho vertex of ehich lt inthe pant where the diameter tthe wegment mesa the ection (elao tobe called vertex of the ret) in Pig 18 Ie BI be w angment with vertex B, the diameter ‘BH of which fal inthe pong daoeer ofthe rcton, and Tt ‘BEA bow wcond eqgamt with vertex and diameter AZ. Suppo- ‘tion: Bit=at Tet the ed of th principal diameter be NY, then (2.92) tho arte M of tho ameter 7 a datermined by the relation (at) = [H4z), TA). (0) 2 In vow of tho eymptom of the 5 4 rection we now have ‘Teem = OW, BE TA) = OL, A), ‘thon, beewnse Bit 2, x Fels ‘whence, hecanss BH = AZ, BOH~ A, AAZ, and consequently also A BOP =A AAB. “By the main proposition of the treatise Q.P. —to be proved ”28 ‘om p. 242, according to which the are of thesegment ofan orthotome Ji equal to four-thirds ofthe area of tho inscribed triangle, the areas of the sogments BPO and ABA now aleo are equal Ef the diameter of nathor sent falls on tho principal diameter of the setion, the equality of tho ara it proved hy compusing ‘oth of them with a sogment in which this is tho easo."That Archi- todos proceeds in this way, insted of divetly comparing any two segments, confirms our earlier impression that right conjugation to him is the primary thing after al, and that he i wot aaqualntod ‘with the general Apolonian proposition (QoniowT, 40) on the rela- iow between the othine of different diameter, 26. "Tho proposition II, 2 of tho trottieo PL.AE roads a8 follows: Tf in the sigment contained by «straight Hine and an orhatome a Ariawole be inscribed which has the soe Base a the segment cand ee eight, and triangles be again inscribed in the remaining copments, Pravin the same bases ath vegments and equ eight, and if in the ‘romining semente triangles be always inscribed Jn the azine manner, {et i be eid that the realing figure is incre im the sepment "in th eeconized manner” (roi) ‘This mow evident that inthe gare so inser the ines joining the anpaar point ehich ave nearest tothe trkse ofthe semen a the zt inorder willbe parallel to the base of the segment, and weil be sete by the diameter ofthe segment and that they will vide the ‘Binet i the proportions ofthe ewzzsie odd mumbers, the number one hang reference to the vertex ofthe sepment. These things wil be rowed in due time "The proof of this is missing. Kt may be conosived to have been 20 fornshed as followa, In Fig, 16 Tet the figure ABZ...B...1° bo inser in the roognizod manner in thesoginent ABT”. The tangent to the section at Z is thos poral to 24, that at 7 is parlil 0.B2, ee. It is known that tho lines drawn through the so defined ‘ertves of the segments, parallel to the dismeter, bist tho bases (2351). If now eg. 10 and ZIT bo produoed wntl they meet AT snucoarvely in 2 and 7, then A3'=A7. The ordinates of J and jn mspect of 14 are therefore eqtsl, and consequat 90 are tho thotiaae, The straight lines drawn through J and Z parallel to (AP therefore meet BA in one point. So 12. i parallel to AP: Tho temo prodf in tewe for tho pits of points @, H; KB; te. At the sae time iti plain that ioe all thes Line sogments. Tho fnlinatee of 6, 1, K, 1, ie. sucoessvely ON, 1M, Katy P4, re in the proportions of the suvessive numbers, tho absciase’ conse- ‘quenly in the proportions of the raseresive square numb, and the differences betwoen the abwciaeo, to which roforonce is mado in the propaitioa, vis. BN, NM, MA, 4, are Uherefore in the ‘roportions ofthe siecesive odd umber. 26, OUP. 4, (Hg. 17a, b) Let ABT be segment which ie contained ya straight Kine and am orthotome, lt BA be drawn through the middle Bp ern point of AP parallel to the diamuter, 7 Be diameter) itself and tet TB be drown and < sf necessary > produced. If now another straight line 28 be drawn parallel 1 BA, which meats the straight Kine BI’, 26 will bt 8H as AA to AZ, % Hos Archimedes agin expinly nade by Bator pn. pal eamate iin stat asso Proof: Lat the endinate of H met the stright tine Bin J, o (AK, 9K) = (AP, 4K) Bain K. Then = (19, 0K) = (PK, AK) (Tera, TerK)] = Wd. BK), ae (or 64) = (kA KP) whencs (PUA), Peay) ~ (BP, 82) eae BI (BI, BI 2.8, All orthotomes are similar to one another. or ITBN), TBO) = (YBN), OBI, BY), ‘On the strength of the sbove definition of similarity of two swhenoe ‘TH9) = OCB, BY cove (1.2) thin may be proved as flloms: . ie tar ‘Of two othotomes Ie the ordinate and able be msesvely wand 2,» and the orthiae N and. Thon wo have, ‘From this it fllows that Ty) ~ 00%, 2) ua, Tq) = Our, 8) @,er) Now establish botwoun the abscssae of the two curves the re o (He, 62) = (42, Ar), Anion aes therefore (02, 011) = (44, 24). the (Ey), Tiap} = (OW. 2), OM, 8) = (Te), TAD, therefore (yen) = (8,8) oF (2) = (8) 281. Too eegmente of orthtomes are called similar when the oss fare im the same proportion ae the diameter, while Both the angle Tetovon diameter and base ie the eam. 2.1. OLP.5, (Fig. 18) Let ABP be a sepmont contained Dy a abraight Tine and an orthtome, and Jrom A let AZ be drawn paral to the diameter ond from T'the Une TZ, which ouch the section at 1 If jn the triangle LAT straight line be now drawen paral to AZ, the laroigh line thae dren ill be dfided by the ortholome in the same proportions os AT by the aright Line drawn. The homologous lines ‘lb the part of AF having A for erirmity andthe part ofthe sri Tine drasom whieh i adjacent to AL’. “Te has therefore to be proved that if, drawn parallel to the lometer through any given point of the eegment bese AT, met the curve in @ and JZ in A, (0, 64) = (AK, KP) ‘Proof: Tot PB and KA meet in I, Te fs known that B= a, 8. The onytome 30. We already saw (J.1) that the method of generation is the cutting of x right circular cono, tho meridian soation of which has an acute vertial angle, by 4 plane at right angles to a genorator; ‘the symptom was found tobe the relation between the distance of ‘plat of tho section to the axis of vight ryminetry and the two aeciasn dotermined by the foot ofthe ordinate on the lino segment ‘at off from tho axia of symmetry by the sider of the meridian section (Fig. 19): ‘whence AI~ IK. ‘Alno (2.0) [T(A), O(44, BA) = const (tworabsciasa form), (KI, 01) ~ (4, Kd), |The constant value ofthis rolation ie apparently whence (TK), TAK), (KI, 6K) = (44, 4K) when ZK Js tho ordinsto fling on the straight line bisecting AB se.01-3.02 ‘right angle; fom the symptom i lao readily follows that this sight line i leo an axivof right aymmnetry. As we already ex, ‘Archimedes call the Kine segments detarmined by the section on ‘the axex of symmetry, ic. AB and BZ, respectively the greater and ‘ha loser diameter (j yellwn ddyegos and ¥ Eidoay dere: "By dismoter, however, is sometimes alo understood the whole ‘of the straight line which i an axis of eymmotry. The symptom ix tho spplied in the form (TU), THCA)—TUCAY] = oonst. = (EBA), TUKA]- ‘201. In tight conjogation the symptom of the seation also holds {or the leper dmaeter, Indood i in Fig. 19 THT be ot right angles to BZ, then soconding to Euclid I, 6 0(44, Bd) = TAK)—TAK), EB Fe aH while pura) = TULK) ay 45 (KB) ~ OPH, ZH), Tho symptom a (mA), (44, BaD) (TR), THAN say now bo written [1H — OWH, 24, TAK) TARY] = [TKB), TAK, from which it follows pormatando and aeparando [OUEH, 2H), TARY = CT(KB), EAR) (TurHy, GBH, ZuM) = (TAK), TERY) ‘tho point of intersetion X of the diameters is called centre ‘xérous), exch of their points of Intersostion with the wction is ‘ale ort. 1402. When th Hine jain to point of the exylome pases through ‘he coi, i ia Bisacied i the entre ‘in Fig. 10 lot 76 be the straight lio in question, PA end OA ‘he omdinatas of ite extremities ‘On acoount of the aymptom of the sation we have i a (T(r), OLA, BAD} » (F(O.A), O14.4, B)) (NU, TAN] = (TVKA)~ TUK), TA) ~"TECAN rom which, in view of similarity of the triangles KAT and EAS, i follows that (TA), TAA) = (AY— TUK), TA) TCA and thence (rca), Tay) = (TA, THA), thenoe KA=KA, From: this i follows again that KI'= KO. 4:1. From what has been stated abovo it rdily follows that be- ‘hoon the ordinates with « common extremity of an oxytome aed ff tho circle having the greater diameter thereof for ite diameter ‘hore easta a constant ratio, which in equal to the ratio ofthe leer to tho sealer diameter, This in turned to account in the prope- sition: ‘CS. 4, Ay area contained by an czylome eas tothe circle having ‘he greater diameter of the section for its diameter the some ratio as ‘he laser dialer as to We greater or tthe diamter of the ciel. Beat "The proof of this proposition is furnished by considering in Fig 20 regular polygon AHK...I...2...A ingeribed in the circle tnd tho oorresponding polygon AB. vdf...0'...4...A inseribed in the oxytome, the required passage to tho limit being placed, in the Greve fashion, by an indirect proof, Sine the method here 8saaas to be applio is suflisontly familie fom Rusia XIE, wo will not Ihee dseusa this proof any further 8.11, Brom the result obtained it readily follows that the areas of ‘sn oxytome and a oirle are ax the rectangle contained by the dia- eters of the section to tho square on the diameter of the eral (C.S.5), and that the areas of two oxytomes are as the rectangles tontained by the diameters in ench of the ssctions (GS-8). 3.2, What sso far been sald about the oxytome fits in completely ‘with the eoneeption wo havo gainod of the original form of the thoory of conios.In the trative CS. however, Archimedes devotee tome elaborate propositions to the pasty of an exytome Iying fan an oblique oiretlar cons, apparently a problem nowly raised by him, which must have prepared the way for Apollonius’ wider conception of the generation of ones, CS.7, Gown an oxytome and a steight line drawn though the ‘enre a ight angles tthe plane in which the sation lee, sis posible fo find a cone whick hos the extromsty ofthe perpendicular for vertee ‘and on whose surface Kis the given anyon In Fig 21 let the plane of tho paper bo the plane through the ‘esse diameter 4B of the sation and the perpendionlar 4 erwcted ‘on its plane through its cent 4.1" is tho point whigh I to become vertex ofthe cone, 2V ia half of the graater diameter, Now construct ‘hrovgh da straight Une mecting TA produced in snd PB produced in Z, 90 that [o(a®, 2), TEE) rem, Tua. ay Archimedes horo comments that ‘this i posible beans z [o(aB, 82), T18)) Mga > (014d, 4B), TAN. (2) ‘We will rover to tho sgniticanen of this comment in 8.22. [Now draw through 4Z a plano ab right angles to the plane of the paper, and in thin describe the wile ou AZ ag diameter, this ‘reo i now the eurve forming the bare of the required cone with vertex I ry an Proof; Let @ bes point of the oxytome with ondinate OX in respect of AB, lot PA prodnced meet AZ. in 4, and let the perpen- Cicular erected through A on the plan of tho paper (towas the fame seas that whe @ Tice) meet the cielo on AZ ae diameter in I. Through A lot there algo bo drawn £0, through H TTP, both pocalicl fo 4B. It shall now be proved that 6 lias on TM. Ts foot, wo have (4B, AA) = (118, £4) (28, 24) = (PB, 04), {rom which it fellows that [014m 22), OUIB, PB = [O(AA, 24), O14, 049, "Tho ratio in tho fat mumbo a omponndd of (0148, 2m, TUR] and (TT), OWE, PEN, fe gu, TU] end (TM, 0144, 24)) sd i fore egul to [11N), 0144, BA), shane to (TOR), (4K, BEN. ‘Therefore {O(AA, 24), OFA, 04)] = 10K), OAK, BAY Also [O(EA, 04), THA) = 1OLAK, BHC, TK), swhenoe ex aopualy [O{dd, 24), TUM = (OR), TKD] “ (rea), TW) = OR), THR)) o (A.A) = (OK, TR), from which i follows that 7 8, and Mare on one stright ine. “Archimedes give tho proof euportluoualy inthe form of redutio ‘ad obourduoy, ic being initially aemmied thet 6 does not lio on the burface of the eon; rine this aaumption is nowhere made uve of ‘this wording i © pure formality. 2.81, ‘The posiility of drawing AZ in such a woy thot (law, Ray, TWH = (TO), TAY)aay sill have boon proved if it can be shown thst through line i possible which (Fg. 22) meste Fin Y and JF prodaoed in, ‘0 that [04 40), TErAy = EAM, THA), Indeed, the routed line through A is Lz then paralel thereto, he line 1% should ‘thoreforo bo eo drawn that 0(v4, 40) = 11) ® S,_Tnow 2 be ao taken thas mg. T (m) = 0144, 43), it is apparently noceesury and sulficiont for (3) hat AY be a velo quadllstoral, .e. 7 402 / YAA. "Thos is found on 15 produced aa vertex of triangle with ‘aso BE and a vertial ang oqual to /'AB. ‘For the construction of on I'B producod to be yonsible i ix thereforo noocosary and sulfcknt that ¥ shall ie on 42 produced, 1. that AX'> AB or '> Ad, This condition issatisied boconwe AA 5s Ind of tho lessor, 27 half of the grastardiamster. 8.92. Since Archimedes explicitly makes uso of the inequality (2) of 8.2, ib fs not likely that tho above eonstzuetion, in which this Inequality does aot play any part, was applied by hit. Tes rather to be assnied that, without suking the question aa to tho eon. steuetion of 47, he noted that (Fig. 21) for any straight lie AZ _psssing through a point Jon 4 produoed the relation (2) has bees satisfied, and that he then inferred the possibility of (1) from the Snoquelity (He, Tyra > (0144, Bay, THEA, hich amoants to TW)> O44, BA) oF to > Ad, ‘Formally this inference naturally woukd not be core, bessuso from the fact that o variable (In this one (O(AH, #7), T(E) is greater than a constant a (i this ease [O(44, BA), TWA) it cannot be derived thet it may become equal to anather con stant b (inthis caus [T(N), T(U'A]), which in aleo greater thon a. Materially, howover, it ia correct in tho present case when oo ‘inulty consideration are allowed, Tn fact, iA revolves about 8 from the position AB 40 the position parallel to 1°, tho ratio [O(AK, BZ), TUE) inorcases from the value [O{A4, BA), T(A)) Deyond any pre-eesignel limit, and then it must also ultimataly ttn the value [T(N}, "(7A)] Tt appears probable, in view of the froquoat woe that Arehimedos makes of continuity considerstions in his vedzvg constructions (TU; 9), that thi was tho mothod here spplied by him. 18.3 Tn GS. 8 the sumo question aa in CLS. 7 i dealt with, but thie time for tho case that AP'liee in plane through one of the dite rnoters of the esction wt righé angles to ite plane without itso ‘being peependicuar to this plane m2 e ‘in Big. 23 let A bo the diametor in question, X the half of the ‘other diameter). Measure [/=1'B, and let the straight line drain through 4 poraliel to BB moot PA produeed in Z, 1 in I. Now ‘TUy) is either equal or unequal to OZ, AN). Tn the first case dvorbo ia plane through 2 at xight angles to tho plane of the paper a crelo on 1 as diameter, nthe second aes an oxytome of which EB is ono diamotar, whilo the square of the other diameter, wiz. , is determined hy (TWN), O24, A209) = (TE), TERRY 0 The eibor diameter 5 called dipergos eer, emjugte diameter ‘nhs tem home, doe nck gut have the npn connotation which 1 Ser iegein Aptian Sg ventions i ed ur 0a4 Now the perpendicular, erclod through tho middla point of 22 fon the plane of this socton, will puss through I Aveording to GS. 7 (42) may then be vertax of an oblique circular cono on tho suefaco of which this saction lie!), while in the case where a ‘rule on BB ag diameter has been desecibed, "is vertor of wright Circular cone which hne thie ciel for Hts bau. Te has to be proved. ‘halon the surlace ofthis cone lis tho givon oxytomo with diamoter AB. Tat: 8 bo» point of th section with ordinate OX in respect of ‘AB, Af the point of the oxytome with dlumetor EB, of which the foot A of the ordinate is on the same straight lino with [and K, TIP ting the stesight line through A peralel to B. Now by (4) we have [EUs OCA, ABs = [TA), O12, AI. [O(sA, AB), OLA, AP therefore ex acu (TAKA), OTA, APN = (TD, O144, AB = (10K), O(4K, BR)) (0124, am), 0144, 4B), Alo (OUI, AP), TA) ~ (OAK, BK), TK), ‘herofore ex aeuelé (rears), Tern = eR), TRY) (04, PA) = (9K, TK), from which it follows that I, 8, and AF aro on one straight tine, 80 ‘that @ log on tho susfaoo of tho cone constructed. Por tho eas0 where « circle hax boon deveribed on Ban diamater the peoot Tecones even somewhat simples, 34. In GS. 9 the problem of CS. is disoused ones again, Dut ‘this time forthe caso whore an ebliquo cireuae cylinder has to be °) Worth aplsation of tho sanersntion of CS. 7 (28) the plan of ‘the papar Boul vo to bo the heer damotce ofthe onytaie ot ; "Tyw) > ozs, 4). 1, nowover, HE bo the gratr dont he contrstion of C8. 7 ay ‘be pred inh lao bot gh ange ea 34 found with axis P° (Rig. 20) AZ therefor again let in the plane Grav through one of the diametors of the oxytome (4.8) stright fngles to th plano ofthe section, without ite being ab ight angles to that plane. Now the distanoe ZT between th two straight lines AZ snd BH, draw paraliel to AY, je either equal or unequal to ‘the other diameter of the oxytoaie. om plane drawn through 211 at right engl to the plane of AZ and [BHT Tho exytomo thon lise om the right cirulae eylinder which ‘has this cirei for ite base and AT" for it exis. Tn fact if © be point ofthe given axytome with ordinate OX in respect of 4, then (TOK), O(AK, BAY] ~ (TUE), O44, BA] = (TN), LAAN. thon KA IAP, we aleo have (OWA, Am), O(4K, KB) = (TN), M44). 0 that TOK) = OLE, AN) = T(MA). ‘Therefore Oa ia parallel o KA, wind consequently to PA, so that © lice on the exlinder B) MW 2>Zit, thea (Big. 24) 8 point If may bo found on BIE ssh that ZiT 3. Now deseibo as above a circle on ZIT as diame te, then it will be found in the ame way aa oub ) that tho given ‘onptome lee on the surface of the oblique eioslareylindee which thea thst ciel fr ite ben and A for axis ona8 7) It 2-21, then find (Pig. 26) on AY" produced a point 3 such anit, rs) = THN}~TEE) Mie 28 urd on the erpendiouas ete through on th plow ABET ‘arms lngth EN —42 Inthe pine 201 ela e now do> ert on 22 a lteter; this ele passthrough Then tho fren oxytome los on an ai cso lindo which has hie til for tu ave std AP fora Tay © bw a Di of tho oxytomn with onfinnte OK in root of 4, KA bo parle to APs at be tho ordinate of tho clo with foot, and 0 om 1A podonde the proton oF on te plane ABH, then (012A, #4), OAK, BR] = (TAN), TAA} (har, OAK, BR) = (HM, TAA, whence, bonnes ata), Tay] = (TACO), TOE, (Maro), O14, way = rer, TAA (= [T(@K), O(AK, BK), MO» 6K, from which i follows eain that te on the eld. 185. The propositions proved above are of importance nob only. for the actual import of the treatise C.S., but also at « means oe so theeofore 36 for the orstuation of the Archimedean theory of eonies. In fact ‘shen Architnedes proves at such length that any exytotne Js to be ‘conceived of inn infinite number of ways as a section generated Dy oultng an oblique eieslar eone by a plauo ab right angles to ‘t principel soctin, thie is apparently a result whiah didnot ooene in the Blononts of Conice aed thos contivuted w new contribution to tho theory. Te must neturally have been easy to prove, by an inversion of the argument, that a plane drawn at right angles ta the principal section of an oblique eireular cone gives, within contain limite ne to position, an oxytome as ection, which amownts to-a step in the daveton of tho Apolonian generation of eanice, Considering the main abject of his works (determination of volumes fand areas), it is understandable that Archimedes does nob go ‘tins far: tho thoory of conies to him always remains & means ‘to an end, and he therefore docs not develop it beyond what is required for his invortigations. That he know it quite well how- ‘over appours from remark In C.S. Defnitiones (Opera I, 268): ‘fa cone be out hy plane meting ol the sea ofthe como, te etn tel be itera cvle or am ong. In tho sume plac (1, 200) it is “hid that this property sao eae ofan (oblique) circular oylinde), 3.6. Two oxylomes are simslar, and only thon, when the tno pairs of diamtore form a proportion. Let the erdinates in the to soctions be called y and. re- spestively, the greater diameters a and a, the loser b and the ‘scisae (from ane of the vertices of the greater diameter) x and &. Establish botwoun the abscissa the relation (8) = a) (1) Is then darived without difficulty that also [0(, a2), Of, «= 8)) = (Te), THE. 0 [Now suppose thet m= OM) then (M0), Te) = (TW, Tod} and, in viow of the symptom of tho wotion (2.0), 7) ‘Thm i ra a ally mentioned in Bor, Phoenomae (Opera ‘VOT, tie ec atl oer to ight seule om ad eps. HO ‘Soe ol th oxyono tat seven gle, wo 2361-40 (TW), O48, e~2)) ~ (Ti), OF, 6-2), from which i follows in eonnoction with (1) that (My), Ten = (re), TEN) (und = 8) = (a). Teinyerssy it be given tht (y,»)=(@ 6), i found by inversion of the argument that (aa) = (0). 3.61. With the aid of 8.6 the Corellary of CS. 6 may be derived from the proposition mentioned in 8.11 (GS, 6}, rccording 10 which the areas af two oxytomey are x tho rectangles eonteined by their diameters, vis: th are of two eimilar arytomen are athe quares on the corresponding diameters 4 The anbiytome, 440, We already found (1.1) the method of generation to be the cutting of wright circular cone, the mesidian section of which has sn obtuse vertical angle, by » plan at rght angles to a genceator; tho eymptom was found to be the relation between the distance of 1 point of the seetion to tho axis af sight symmetry and the two ‘ciamo, determined by the font of the ordinate on the part cut ‘if from the axis of symmetry by tho sides of the meridian aeation. (Fig 265): (TWA), OFA, B4)] = const, (bwo-sbacines form), Ly a ‘Sinoe the discussion of the amblyéome before Apollonius remained ‘confined to ono of the two branches of which the hyperbola con nt, there is only ove line of right symmetry; nor ean the constant rato, se with the oxytome, be interproted an the ratio of the fares of tivo sous-diameters, "Tho symptom was also frequently ‘applied in the form (UT), THA) TAY] = eons, in which K isthe mide point of the lino sogment 4. This mide ‘int naturally it not called centre; i i referred to as the point, 4 which the Hiner nearat tothe section meet (x cquioy, aad” 8 a Byyuowe ede vo overt) "The existence and the postion of thes lies may be understood iu the following manner, which in principio resembles tho method ‘applied by Apollonia atthe beginning of the seaond book of the Conic 4.1, (cl, Conica TL, 1) If (in Fig. 27) om the line drawn trough the rics A of the ection at right angles to the diameter a segment Ad ( mezaured auch that (may, TCA soul to the constant ratio of the square on ar ordinate an the ‘etangle contained by the to coresponding abciias he ataight Kine KA weil not mutt the section, bt amy straight line through lying swithin the angie AKA wil do s. so %4a ©) Suppose that 4 met the sotion in e point B with ordinato BZ, thon wo should have [rwz, O(42, nay = (TAA), TAY ‘whence 0(4z, BE) = TKD, ‘which is impossible beauuse, in view of Hutid IL, 6, (az, Ba) = T1KZ)—T1KA. ) Lat KH be a straight line through X within the angle AIA. ‘Draw through A 1 straight line parallol to K4, which shall mect ‘KH in a point @. Tho perpendicalar through © to the diameter Ineets Ka in 5, the diameter in Z, tho straight line KA, which les ‘with KA syonmetscally in respect of 4B, in Bf. When KH does ‘hot mice the sation, Hes withont the eostion; therefore a pont 1 of the ootion most le between 6 and Z. Now rrwway, O¢4z, Ray) = (TIAA), TAY “From thie it follows that (mz), T4"2)) = (TUKA)—TUKA), TRE) and then [x (wA)—TaVA, TERA) = (TaeA), TZ, Tz), TKN. rrwsa, EKA). swhenoe [OumN, atm), TucAy) = (TIA), TURAN, ‘hecefore (EN, MN) = Tid). But thie is imposible boosuse B17 > BO= A and MN> 4. Tn view of the proved property the stright lines KA and Ka. aro called the sraight lines mene fo the section. Wo shall farther ‘esignate them by the Apolonian torm asymptote, while we shal ‘abo, for brevity anke, already’ call tholr point of intersection, though improperly, cer. 42. Teo amblyiomes are similar, and only then, aiken the ratio of ‘the square om the arinate ad the rectangle om the to abcess és the sama for bth sstione. “tho prof can be furnished in the same way as that of 3.5, pro- vided we refrain from interpreting tho constant ratio existing in 6 49-51 cach station between the square on tho ordinata and the rectangle fon the two abscisne es ratio of squares of line segmenta, 43. Matis msdandis the propositions formulated in 2.01-2.08 {or tho exthotome srw also truo for the amblytome, 4. Onytome and ambiyioms, © '50, Tn the following parsgraphe wo will discus » numberof peo: pertce whish oxytomo and amblytome havo in oommon. The {proofs for the two sections azo entirely analogous; whore they. ‘ifr, the difference generally concerns no more thn the sign of ‘an oxpratsion, In the following paragraphs by ection is understood, ‘ther of th said conio sections, by diameter the greater ameter ‘of the oxytome, and the singlo diameter of the amblytome; the ‘word designator the part of the diameter determined om the axe ‘of symmetry by tho sides of tho meridian soction as wall as tho ‘whole ofthe straight line vontlning this segment, Whats called. ‘urtor in both sections is a point of intosection of diameter and ‘tho action. The straight lin determined ly tho eentre of eation and any given point thoreot ie call radiue wecor of that point; tho word denotes this traght line at well ax the part of it bounded Dy the two points. 15.1, Wo ove alemady amen (1.62) that tho stesight Hine drawn through the vertex in the dirotion of an ordinate touches the rection. For the supplementary peoporiton stating that no other ‘aight line can fall botweon the rection and the tangent we omn- not, at for the orthotome (21), éake the proof from Apollonius’ Conies, oosuso there use is made of w symptom for oxytome and o‘cublytome not yot ooauring iu Arshimedea. With pre-Apollonian tmaana the proof may bo furnished as follows in Big. 26, b lt, for ona of the two sections, Ai? be the dia rotor, tho vertex a, the tangent at the vertex AT’ Let Ad, drawn ‘hough Aon thes side of AT? where the coction lies, not meet tho fection. Let the stright Tine drwmn through any point 4 of this ‘aight lino in the direction of che ordinate moot the seotion in Hl, tho diameter in 2, Thea the folowing inequality applies: (Team), O(4#, BAN] > (TUM, OLB, BE ~ constant. For tho oxytome the constant is the ratio (TK), TUX)}, it LX bo the conte of the section snd KZ tho half of tho other dia tmetor; for the asiblytome KZ, oan be so chosen that the same Snequality applies, Now let AZ moot the straight line 4 in a. ‘Then we have (rian, O(a, Bay] > (TAB), TAB], ‘whenee (T(Aa, TARY > (BH, Az). [Now find on AB a point 6 euch that (r\am, TAB) = (86, 46), then, (B0, 40) > (BE, AB). from which ib i dave (042) that (49, 4B) < (48, 4D), thorefore 40 < AR. [Now let the straight tie dawn through @ ia the direction of the ordineto meat the stenight Ino AA and AZ wuceesively in and in Pe "Thea (Be, 40) = (TAB), TAR] (0), T1PO) whence [0(Be, 6), (40) = (Tw"e, TPO). whens [Twe), 0148, ney o* (TPE), Ti49] = TKD), THAN, 52. from which it Sllows that N How on the section. ‘The stright ine “AA toa therefore most the section. 52. A condition which gulfios in order that » atelght line shel tooch aba pont other thea the vert is enunciated inthe following ‘proposition (ef. Conia 1, $4) (Fig. 2, b) IFT be a point of the section with ordinate TA and abuses AA cand Bi, ond if om the diameter a point K be found suc that (44, BA) = (AB, BE) ony poine of the straight tine BY other than T° will fold without the section. The sraght line BY wil therefore touch the serton at T. ‘Apollonius proves thie proposition synthetically and indisectly, ‘which does not mako the axgument vary teansparent; for cleanest soko we will formulate i¢ analytically and dineetly by requiring any point Z of BT to lie without the section. That ia to aay: if the Perpendicular from Z to AB meet the section in ©, snd the liamoter in Hi is required that ZT > OH ‘Now on account of cnilaity of teanglee we have (ree, Tay) = preEH), TAY) and in viw of the aymplom ofthe wetion (MOM, Tura = [O(4zz, BE, O44, BA). "Thoreforoi¢ mart bo troe that (rare, THEA)) > [O(AH, BH), OLA, Ba), oe 0 (44, 2), TYHA)) > (OAH, BH, TIRE). a) Tala wea, e200,oan We will now prosoed co to transform the ratios of lin segments of which the two membecs aro composod that the consequenta in {ho byo tember are equal. Ad inequality between ratig of line eqn thus roslts, For this, dew through a struight line (parallel to AP nesting [' iu 8 and 'B in 3, through B o straight Fine parallel to BT meeting 7 in further lt PTZ neat che stenight lines A.V and Bl stosuvely in O and A. "Then (44,84) = (AN, BP) (AH, BH) ~ (40,21) (BA, ba) = UA, BP) (BH, BID) = (BAK, BP). Tin view of this the Saequality (1) may be written [O(AN, BA), TUB] > (0140, BM), TUPI oe (AN, BA) > O40, BA) o (Aw, 40) > (BM, BA) or (AW, 40) > (0, 88) o (0(42¥, 237) > 0140, £0) When 1 ie fixed and 0 variable pont of the line segment AB, this will apply then, and only then, for any point O, when 27 ‘the mile point of A. This condition is equivalent 0 (AN, AB) = (88, AB) ‘nd consequently to (Ad, Ba) = (FE, 1B) = (BA, HB). ‘Sinoo all the stages of tho argument can also be reversed, the condition derived ip aloo eficient. Of comes the aynthonis may lo bo given directly, instead of indivety, ax Apollonins dost. Starting from the eoadition (4d, B4)~(AE, BE), be shows the Sbaundity of tho supposition ZH< OH; it may jusb as well bo proved that if tho condition i tified, wo always find 27 > 6 ‘Hore agin we ment with one of the numerous examples of the reel eomoteet peferenee for a reductio ad abeurduon, 5.21. In Apollouins the theorem that the condition desived is ttoossary consittes a asperate proposition (I, 80), which is oom- plotely analogous to the doresponding propesition for the ortho- tome (223). 100 22-532 15.28, Phe tangent property darived in 6.2 may also be transformed 1 follows (ef. Conia J, 37): om (44, Ba) = (a, BB) it follows forthe oxytome (AB, Ad) = (AB+BB, AB), hence, f be tho oanteo, (OKA, 44) = (2K, AB) (KA, KA) = (KB, KA), therefore (KA) = OKA, KB) 1528, Another form of tho property arias as follows: (44, 24) = UA) TAA) = OUCA, KE) TEA) = O(K4, AB) {5a Tho object of the eubwoquent propositions consists, just ax ‘with the orthotome, in deriving the symptom of the section in oblique conjugation 5. If tgente to a suction be drawn at the vert and at ny given point, these straight Vines together with the diametor and the radius (rotor ofthe point wdect inclu to triangles of ual area ‘In Fig. 06, b lot AZ be tangent at tho verter, T'S tangent at ‘the point *( lying on the diameter), K the conte of tho soction, 1 bas to be proved that AKTE= KAZ. for tho amblytome (AB, Ad) = (BE-AB, AB), roots By 532 TUKA) = UKE, KA), whence (TY), TAY) = (CH, Hd), whence (A KAZ, KAT) = (A KTR, & KA), ‘whence A KAG ~ 4 KTR. 15.2, Prom the proposition proved it fllowa that ABAD =()A4r2 nd \ BA = A 20% ao.523 5.38. If through a eariable point of «suction straight Hines be drawn aval euccsseay tothe tangents a the verte and a any fed ovat ig. toa. Of the section, these tuo sraight Hines tgeer with the diameter én lade triangle, the aren of which epual to the digerence of the areas of the triangles included by the diameter and the radius seston ofthe fa point successively with the tangent atthe vertex avd with, ‘the ordinate of the varias is ‘in Fig. 30, b lot bo tho vatiablo point of the ssction, through which bo drawn O77 perallel to the tangent at the vertex 4, O14 ‘valle to the tangont at 7. 1¢ now ae to bo proved that 2m Fig 300 the ltr has boon omitted a th pat ing 8 AB. produced so theb = a 102 54 for the oxytome for tho amblytome A OHA= A KALA KUM 4 OHA = 4 KUM KAD. Proof: (4 OHA, 4 PAB) = (10H), THA), = [OAH BEY, 0144, B4)] ITIKA)=TUKE, THEA) | (TCH) ~TUCA), "raKA)— (KA) = 1a KAB— TKay] = [4 KEM AKAM, 4 KAZ=0 KAT] 4 KAS, 0 RAP—p KAZ}. But we have (6:2) ATAB = \ KALA KAP, | A T8B = A KAT—4 KAB, whence 4 OWA = 4 KAZ— KIM. | & OWA = 4 KUM KAZ. 5.34, We will now prove the validity ofthe symptom ofthe section in oblique conjugation. Sine from the proof for the oxytome that for the amblytome ean be obtained in the same manner asin 6.33, ‘we wil confine ouranives to the oxytome (Fig 20), Te is known (6.88) that old = 9 kaa—2 Kae ete) eulava.xuat~a xr ore etn OKA tometer mente 00M = A KD=5 KOA. Mow ibe te prt of Intention Pw he set, eae “ OO, 20) = TKP}—T(KO) , te PRU) —TUKO), TUT) = [A KPB—A KOA, A KIB), whenes [O(T0, #0), TYKI)] = [A 60M, AKTE) a 1K the straight ine through X parallel to AZ mot the line BP in ¥, wo lao havo 10836-65 (TWN), TOO) = [4 FEF, 4 eMOI, % 0 that the ratio [A AIY, 6 KPH), é2. (L.ED) of (TEN, OWT, BTY), is componnded (eide (2) and (1) of (TIT, TO) end [O(FV, 80}, HAT} Sinoe the ratio (F(T), O(YT, #0} is also compounded ot (TET, TIO) and (1190), OWT, BT), 1 follows from thie that (T(60), OY, 1B)] = [OFO, 60), TERT, [T(@0), (7, 80) = [O(TY, 7H), TKT)] ~ const, bby which the symptom has boon dacived in oblique eanjugution, 5.30, Tho ditoussion of the seetions in oblique conjugation is not ‘completo until it has also boen shown that any straight line chrowgh ‘the centr is line of oblique eymmetzy for a eonjugate direction cof tho crdinat, in the eae the ditetion of the tangent uta point ‘ot intersection with the soction. This property is enunciated in tho following proposition (f. Conia I, 42) ‘The dina octr of any pis ofthe section bisects the chord parallel to th tengent at that point. ‘The proot forthe amblytome is as follows (Pig. 30a): Let 0% bo a chord parallol to the tangent at V7, which meets te radive velar Kin O, Now we have (5.38) AHA = \ KHM—p KAZ Bond = 0 Kp KAZ whens A KHM—A OHA ~ & Kye Od or, by subtraction of ether member from A AOK, 560M = 004, therefore 08 ~ 06 1538, Now that the symptom of the section as been proved in ‘oblique eonjuguton, all the propertioe from 6.1 onwards may be 108 5a comidered aa proved, when the diameter with perpendicular di- feotion of the ordinate there mentioned ie mplaced by the radius teolar of any given point with oblique conjugate direction of the tndinate. Tho property 8.38 may therefore bo formulated in a gen- feral way a follows: ‘The svaipht nee, throwph a variable point of a eetion poral fo the tomgonte abt ead points, togetior withthe rats vector of ome of these tao pons include triangle he area of whizh is aqual to the Utifference of te areas of the triangle incuded by ths radius eects of the tc point euteaively withthe tangent tthe point selected and {eth the aright line dram parallel WevtoUrowgh tke earable point. Me ‘Thos, for example, in Fig. $1, whore on an oxytome are taken the fixed points A and 1 nnd the variable point @, we have A OAH = \KAZ—) KUM A OOM = \ KIB-A KAO 537, A more symmetrical form of tho proposition of 5.96 is the following: Uf though any tuo points of the coton there be drawn pairs of raight tines poral oe tangents at tuo fiaed pointe, the pair of roight Tinea parallel to the fret tangent, toguher with one of he ioight lines 0f the aecond pair and the radiue vitor of the send ‘point of contact, include 0 quadrilatra te aro of which ie apal to ‘ha of the quadrilateral included by the pair of straight ines paral 105a8 4 the second tangent, together ith ome af the straight ies of th fr mir and the radius vector of the frat point of contact, providd the ‘0 trig linen which sn etc of the quadrilateral coat wide sahichie-not parallel to anater side do not met im any Poin of the Let and Ibe tho two fixed points, @ and & tbe two arbitrzly selected points, then we have Cezar = esas 8) Dey = 2 Guta Indeod, by 5.86 we have A@AM = KaZ—~A KAM AO = 6 KALA Kop, thorofore ONT A KEM A Bins Kip Subtract from either momber Q\AZiy+ é Kine, ‘then eg = Oona 5.8. At the sume time itis now possible to prove a property of all ‘thro kinds of conics, which is quoted by Archimedes in G.8. 3 and forms the extension to eons ofthe property of tho zostanglos under ‘segments of interonctng chords in a cil If from a point tangents be drawn to any comie section end inside the conic scion straigt kines be alo drawn, pasa tothe tangents and intersecting one another, the rectangles contained by the parts “< into which the point of interaction of the chords divides the later > sell bo one anther ae the aguares om Ye tangenta < paral othe chonte > ‘We will hore stats the proof for the xytome; fr the amblytome it prooceds on entiraly identical lines, apart from some changes of ‘ign. Por the orthotome the principle main the sam; the pro- ‘Psitions 2.31 fg. ate thea ed. in Fig. 31 consider tho chords 62 and do (suconsively parallel ‘to the tangents at "and at A), which intersect cach other in, Now (0(82, 02) = 108) —T102) Also bxo0) 1102), 106) = (a 6M =A Op, 4 O83, sa-o4a and (N(09), TU] = [9 08M, 4 177), whence equal (106) TION}, TITY = [4 OOM - A OF, TTA) [0(@5, 25), TUT)] = (1. BOMe, ATTA). Likewise [0(02, 02), T174)) = (CD04, 0 TAI) By 5.87 and 6.32 the sovond mombors aro oqual, fom which follows the equality of the fink mombers, and conmeauently the correctness of the proposition, 45.4, With the nid of the properties of oblique conjugation, some ‘more properti of oxytome and amblytome used by Archimedes ‘re easily understood. 5.4L, The Hine joining the pointe of contact of two parallel tangents to ‘an aryome passce trough the cee, Fy B. n x “4 ie a 8 Wes If in Vig. 32 A and B bo tho points of contact of tho parallel tangents and K bo tho centre, the straight line AA as well as the stright lino KI bigots all chords paraliol to tho povallel tangents, 40 that thee straight lines cane. 5.2. If though the conte of a onylome a sais wetor be drawn ‘parallel to seo parallel tangents, the tangent at the extremity of the dine vector in pall tote line joining th points of contact of the ‘poral! tangents Tin Fig 3 lot tho straight lino Uhrough X, parallel to the tangents st and #2, moot tho ection in PTE now the tangent ab I” were 15.49-00 not parallel to 4, it woud moet AB in a point and thea wo should have (62, far oblique conjugation) (AB, BE) ~ (AK, BE), therefore AZ would have to be equal bo BA, which isnot posible, 5.43. A tangent fo an amblytome intersects te asympotes in to ints which are equidistant from th point of contac. ‘The proposition 4.1, when applied fo oblique conjugation, shows at onco (Fig. 88) that the aeyiaptots are the lines joining the oantre ‘with pointe Band [which i on tho tangont at 4st equal dstanoee from A. 5.481, From 5.43 and 5.85 it aleo follows that when a straight line moat the section in Z and H, wad the arymptoteswiconeively in and 0, 28 ~H8. 6. Cones, Calinders, Conde, and Spherida. 60. The Cone and Its Parts, No definition of m cone isto be found anywhere in Archimedes; thi, however, docs nob imply that he ‘conformed to Huelidean asage, according to which by © eon i ‘unueestood figure (XI, Def 18) genersiod by the rotation of right-anglod teiunglo about ono of th sides containing the right sngle, Tn the treatise On the Spee and Cylinder, in which only Tight ciroular conse coeur, he ealls—at any rate in the proposition tnd expositions tho Kclidean cone isowrles (acres lari), by ‘hich ho apparently wishos to denote that th sido (ie. the ap0- ‘them, called xdeogd by him) is constant. Another term found it ight cone (wns dp). In tho treats On Comoide and Spheroide the word cone, wied without any adjective, denotes a—gonerally oblique—sirular cone Th other teria toed ere: vertex Goeup base (8a) for the baaie cielo and for the plane in which i Hes; ‘axe (Gor) for th stexigh line Unrough the vertex of the cone and ‘the contr of the base, a6 alo for the line mgment Bounded by ‘tow two points. A sepment of «cone (duh xin, CS. Defini= ones. I 268) ia tho portion cutoff from n come on the side of the veriex by a phine which yields an oxytome at section, This plane, jt liko the seotion ita sealed base of the segment aie of the {sepmentis the line segment bounded hy the Yertex ofthe conan the ‘entre ofthe section; height the distanoe from the vertex tothe bas 108 freer 1 ia not expliitly stated that on an oblique cteular cone these sare also sere of ceealarsetions lying in planos not parallel to ‘the base; the way in which, howover, reference is mado (G.S. [Definiionz) to the possiblity of» plano euting a cone in a oirele {prthout tt being satel thud this plane wil he parallel to tho base) Inaes it probable that Archimedes was thoroughly aware of this (vide 3.5), al, The Cylinder and Ite Part, Por this, the same things as aid wrth regard to the eone apply mutatis mutandis. Oplnder (ier foes) menas an oblique eiculareylindar; the right siroular eylinder {a tormed right in the propositions and expositions Gbps 6). 1A futur. of epinder (whtos wotedgo) is the poction out off fiom « oplinder by to parallal planes which have oxytomes as teations (GS. Definitions). Ai ofthe frastum isthe line wegment pounded by tho cents of the two sootian; Tt los on the axis of the eylinder, Height i the dntanco hetwoon the boundary wurfaces, 6,11. GS. 10, On the ground of the sine arguments as in Buolid TXIT itis e0on tat the nitio of two sepments of a cone ix com: pound of the ratio oftheir bases and the rato of thoi height, fand that any frustun of a eylinder is equal to Uhre times » seg: ‘ment ofa cone with the samo buso and the same height. 1.2, In tho loter to Dosithens srving as introduction tothe treatise (On Convide and Splervids, the folowing figures are defined: {She tantd yertecont), When pre any tnt lass {2 tinge cling plane i drawn, in yan togetier with ho Struc dermines tstmant of ecm (ca to more fetal the Paiste ston f th ettng plane withthe 2 sti tho seer the plo of sick withthe tangent plane, hn {par eut fy th vo nao he tag in tough {te ere ofthe gent prt ha ae frst "Tho orton aptly a porto of revolution. b., Tisugh ration ofan smbytme aboot the dinate an Sistcgled eld (Unleash toe Veatated by cratjouai) in genetied. hie Wore ono abet of 8 tro ‘Sha hyperbnld of rovolton, The armpits of he eto 10020-68 ‘uring tho rotation genorato the eneloping cone (irae aseiézen, (Of segment as defined above (0.21) tho ax isthe pact aut off by ‘the cutting plane and the tangoat pape parallel thereto from the stesight line joining the vertex of the enveloping cone with the veriax ofthe sogment, Tho part of this straight line between these ‘two pointe thomsolvesieealled the axie produced (nose i Afon = aijncont tthe ais) 6.28. Through rotation of the oxytomo about a dnmneteris generated ‘the mpkeroid (elipsid of revolution), whih i call prolate (maya ines pegoebic) oF oblate (Exar) apagord), according aa the section has rotated about the grestar oF aboat tho lawer diameter. ‘Anis and vertex sro definod at above, cord it the eantre of the rotating seotion, diameter the diameter of the sation at ight angles to tho axis of sotution. A cutting plane togethor with the spherid determines two sagment, the serio of which aw the polnts where ‘tho tangent planes parallel to the cutting plane touch the surface, ‘tho parts determined by the cutting plano on the Hine agient. be. ‘oreen the points of contact being ellad the aus, 8.3. The Orthoconi. GS. La. If as orthoconoid be ext by a plane rough, or parle to, the axis, he sein will be the same ortkotoms a8 thas containg the < rotating > figure, and its diameter wil beth common section ofthe plane intersecting the Figure atu the plone erected though the Aiea right angles to the uitng plane. "Tho proof, which by mising in Archimedes {it is required only {ora plano paca to tho exis), may bo furiahod ws follows (Fig. Ey M sZt Meat, mem no oa1-622 ot AB be the axis, 74 the inteetion babes the plane of the poper and the euiing plane at ight angler thereto Lt ho straight line devs throngh d perpendiovas to tho plan of the ‘ape inte enting plane) tthe mfae in 6 Theo, he Wikis of th meridian mation be, we have 6d) = O14, ZA) = T1RB)—T24) = 07, AB)=TU') = OWN, AB)~OWW, AI) = OWN, Bi) = OW, 14), ‘The aetlon therefor is on orthotome with vertex 7, dlameter PA, aod tho same ovtia ns BAZ, Sa. equal sod smile thet, O31, CS, 1, 1f am ethocmaid be ok by @ plane neither pasting Brow the eis, no porated to th exit, wor perpendicaar tothe cet the ston tl bo an cna; fhe retro the tor SEU be the port en ff wtb th ono from th nee Bon Tie euting pane and the ple through the ino righ angles the ‘ting plane, he ewer tere be ua othe snc ben fhe avlght linea drum from the erotics of he grer amt, ported tthe i ool: In Pig 30 lt AI” bo the intersection betwen the meiian ‘Pho, whih in the plano af the papers ard tho exting plane at Fight angles theo, As pont of to interaction botwoon Ui ‘iting pmo an th figure, KO tho perpeadionse from K to AT? [Fz the tntersction bebwecn the plane O€ the paper and » plano ‘rece trough 8a tght ange othe axa; hi plan hs {oot the conoid fe cre on BY au datntee, Now KO) = 01%, 26) on acoontf the propaition quoted in GS. (de 628) we now M6 o(6, 20), O(40,79}] = (MBN, TNT ‘when the tangont I parallel to A” meta the tangent ab he Tertax (pred to 22) in? Boeawe NP=A17 (whlch follows rn PH= BM, 2.33), we lo bow (KO), O(49, P6)) = (TUEN), TER) = (HAM, TAM, Ahereforo 4A and AP are reepestvely the len and the ges Glanoter ofthe oxytome which athe loo of K. 432, (8, Ve Of the aeoigh Hines dan from the pnt of om m2-840 orthozmoid paral to the axis, the parts rehich ave in the same di- retin a the convsity (x8 gr) of the urface wil all ith the concid the part which are inthe other diration within it. "This i edaced with the aid of C.S. 11x (8.8) to the eoereepond- ing proposition en the orthotore (2.03). 633, GS. Definitiones. AI orthoconoide are siilar, What ‘his rmeons, is not mentioned any forther. Probably tho rvforance is imply to similarity of the seotions generating the erthoconoide, hich are already known to be simile (28), 8.94, GS. Loy. Af a plane meet a conoid witht cultng si will ‘meet it atone point omy, and the plane drawn through the point of cantatand the as wil eat right angles othe plane which touche, ‘Suproan the plane to touch the miriaon at two points tnd 2, ‘Draw through cach of Uhose points a straight lino paral! to the ‘is, and draw a plane through those two straight lines. This plane juts tho conoid in an orthotome an whic lo the two point 4 and. 5B. The pointe of the line segment A thea fall within the seston. (1a), ce within the conoid. "The second part of the proportion ie evident for the tangent plano st the vertex. In fac, tho tangents at the vertios: to two, Sections of the eonoids in panos through the axe are perpendicular to that axis, and eonsoquently wo is th tengent plane (hare theeo- foro it is taken into oonslderation that the tangent plane is do- termined by bro tangents to eurvee on tho surface through the poiat under review). IF the plane touch te conoid at another point, the ‘proposition is understood by noting that the plano contains tho ‘tangent to the paral eizelo and ie consequently at right angle to ‘the meridian weotion throug the point of contact. 640, The Amblyeonaid ‘CS. 118. If an amblyconoid be cut by a plane through the azis, or ‘parallel to the axis, or Bough the wet af the cone eneloping the ‘conoid the scton il been emblyiona, es ifthe plane pass though ‘the wis, the some as that containing the < rating > Figures if i ‘be pale tothe axe, one similar thereto; if pas through he vetez Af the come eneeloping the conoid, ona which in nt similar threo; ‘and the diameter ofthe serton wil be th common section of the plane ‘ulting the rarfce and the lane through the asia a right amples to the outing plane, ne 640 ‘The proof, whioh ie mining in Archimedes, may be furnish as follows: 's) The proposition is evident for a plane through the asi 2 In Wig. 30 lot P'4 bo the intorvetion af « plane parallel tothe ait Bd with © moridian plano choeoa ea the plane of the paper, it ight angles to that plane, © any point of the section, OF the perpendicular from @ to 1. Now TOR) = OLA, WE) = TEM) ~TUTR rq rom, (0m seovnt of the symptom of th wation we Further have (HM), O(AH, BH) ~ (1182), OLA, BA), therctore (THAN), Tat) = (TURH) TA, TZ) —T LAY] on (040) [R@m), TUE) = [TUK -TUKM, TATRA), horofore (EVO), TUB) —TUCA)) = (EER), TUE) —TKA)] ‘The lous of 6 therfor isan amblytonie which is similar to ‘he meridian nection (42) 1) Now in Fig, 37 lt KI bo the iterertion with the extting line throogh the vertex of the enveloping cone (emir of the Ioeridian sation). Wo now have (OH = OLB, NH) ~ TEA TUE) . Alo, i 84 1.44, esi aa(ae, TCH) TRAY] = [Tae TKZ)— TAN = (mem, TH) TERA), ‘horofone [T(APH), "TYBED] = (TUM) ~TUKA, TRE TRAY, fam which it follows that (TUM) TEN), TRAD} = [TUKA)~TUCA), THK) ~TKAN, ‘hovefone [T(@B), TUd)~TUCA)) = (RIN, TH) —TKAN. feel (TOR), TKE)—T(KA}] ‘horefore it compounded of the constant retioe (REA, TECH) —TUCAY) and (TUK A) — TU), TC) — TAY) {ce of the rato of the nquare on Uhe ordinate and the rectangle on ‘ho absciaae of tho meridian motion and the ratio[ (KA), T(K4)], ‘which i not the ratio (1,1). se > em meas, ‘To loous of 6 therefore ean amblptome, bu hie snot enilar to the meridian sotion (4.2). Al, G5. 15. If om anblgomoid be eu yo plane mating al he oncrtrs of tke cone eneclping Ue conoid and nt eng at ight {gs othe a, he ation wil be am orytome, andthe greater da Iter here wile he part cu ff win the ona from Be fr ection ofthe cing plane end he plane tog te a el ight angie othe eating plane. am 642-691 Jost aa in 6.31 wo find (Fig. $5) (T(K6), 0(40, Oy} = (THN), TUT) from which i seeody follows that the locus of X is an oxytome. ‘Now (52) BP> Bi, whence 2" >7M > 20, whence BT figure; sf it be parallel to the axis, one which ie similar Berto; ad the dizmetr of the section wil be he common ection of th plane cutting the eurface an the plane drawn through the axe at ight angles to the extn plane. "Dho proof, which is missing in Archimedes, ean bo furnished in ‘the tame way aa was done forthe amblyeonoid in 6.40. 8.51, CS. 14a. If a prolate aphoroid be cut by 0 plane not a right angla tothe aris, the section will beam axylome, ond the groatr dia meter thro wil be the prt ut off within the aperoid fre the com ‘mon sition of the plane citing the surface and the plane Urough the ‘ane at right angie to the enting lane. us652-655, ‘The proot is entirely ideation with that of CS. 18 (6.41), except {or the manner i which the conclosion PB -< TN ix drawn. ‘This follows here (Fig. 39) from the application of the property (5.88) to tho pair of chonds O17, AZ through the ont, Ta fat, from this it follows that (rena), TEND] = (TKO), THAD] and conoquently, in view of KO that (4, 8) = (11,0); (B,P) — (8,1) o nd the series ue120 um. WEours WW, rroxwa, sethat (a, 8) = HT); (B, 5) = (8,7) ote ° {den thn to bo proved thas Abe AL oA Z) lle AMT 40) Proof: From (WA) = (2,2) (4,8) = (6) (2.3) = 0.) ‘it fltowa ce equi that 5) =.) ® We thew find 0) = (1,0) we. ‘We therefore have on tho ono hand, by (1): (4H) = (BO) = (Dy Doeem AEB BOM) ‘onthe other hand, by (2) and (3): (AH) 4 2) = (BY) = 0,0). = WH BP. 42), ‘rom which follows that which it was rogulred to prove, {8) Concsive as given the eriee L ABPSEL 1 HOIKAM swith the relations (1) snd the sree mL vsonP Ww. rroxw with, as far as pomibl, the zelations (2) Following tho came line of thought az sub, we now Find (Ab EM AP) Eb AMPH De ‘In algebraic xymbolisa the proposition is evident. Conceive 130 1 Aa AeA m iyi tly m tice Iv. bra dite I wah be a ced fm ne i, stig a tanya of theo cen Tow te pation dae a Bide Zi mAy Ba Hindy In effect both members ar equal to ‘The cau dealt with by Archimedes reer to 2=n—1 and 2mm. 4 the proof it has hoon atasimed that the magnitudes of the four series aro all homogoncous; in fact, rferenoo is made to the ratios (4,1), (A, 1, and (0,7), and this inplies that is homo- ‘genoous with V and with 2, ¥ with 7, and consequently also vith 7. (f this esteetion, howover, Arciunedes doesnot take tho alight- ‘ot notion in the applications. We aball find him uring the propo: sition inthe ona where the magnitndes of the series Land IT see ‘volume, those of the saret TLand TV lengths, in which ease tho satio (4, 72) makes no renee. It seems probable that this is sign ‘of slackening in the stictnoss of the Buoliean theory of pro- portions, duo to the foot that in applying tho propositions of the ‘theory af proportions it waa never nocabeary to lake account of the Asfnition of proportion (which explicitly stipulates homogeneity a= ondition for bwo magnitudes being in any ratio to each other) and (of tho way in whieh thowo propositions had been derived from the Aefinition, Tn addition, tho eustom of representing any magnitudes, of whatever natur, diagrammatically by line segments was bound to conduoe to an inerensing neglect of the dfferenos in dnaenson betwen volumes, areas, and lengths, and to the gradual reching of conception which was equivalent 10 that of positive real numbers, aarato or the rest ib i eany to r60 that according to the strict con- ‘ception of the theory of proportions the proposition retains tras for tho cago whore tho magaitudee of serns T ae hotioyenoous only ‘with those of sorles TIL, thove of seriea IT oily with thos of serios wv. In fact, from (4, 2) = (Hf, 8); (B, 1) =(0, 1) te, it follows, by ‘application ofthe definition of proportion, tint (ANB. 42, A) = U4. H). From (3) it follows likewise that NHS 4.2) THY + ..0), from which, wa (Aa) = 1), it follows ex acqual that (AGB AB NEE bE) = Wb AMT 40). 7.21. A case of frequent occurrence, in which the proposition 7.20 is plied, consists in that the magnitudes of series IIT aro equal to one another aud likewisothogo of serce IV. The proportions (2 eres _roportions (3) (AN) = 1,7); (BN) = (0,7) eto, ‘while the proportions (1) now result therefrom; i faot, oom (4. (H.2) and (, B)=(T, 0) it follows ex aequalé thet (4,2)=42, @) ste. "The conclusion now ie (ABE WHE ‘or alo rene 6+ (AFB HM = 404...) 7.90, Spit. 10. If a series of any numberof lines be given, which exc one anotor by an equal amend, and the difference be epea to he leat, and if other Hines be given equal in number to teas and in ‘quantity tothe greatest, the spares onthe lines equal to the grate, lus the epuare on the gveatet and the rectangle contained by the Teast land the sum of al those eazeding ome anther by an equal arcrnt wll be the triplicate of all the aguas om the lines extern ome another by an ual amt 12 ra ‘Proof: In Fig 42 conesive a number of line sagments "A, B,D, A,B, fH, 0 forming an arithmetical progression, the common difference of whioh is equal to the lest, iz. Proiueo tho segments 0, 17, ..2 with tho seymente O=B, BAP, N od... 1=6, oil they are equal to A. ‘Then it hae to be proved that TA) ATED. +TO+0)4 TA) +08, A+ Bs -..8) = NTA) + # TION 0 Broat: 374) ~ 2714) TB +1) = TWH) +TW) +208, 1) T(9+0) = T10)+T10) +206, 0) TAETB HD+ -.-TIO+0)4 Td) = ATA) + TU) +... TG) + 00, BB+ Ars ...148). 1 has therefore sill to bo provod that: 016, A4 BY... 48) 018, 28-444. .146) = TMA)+...T16) 00, 44981574. 158) = TA)... TO) Now Tid) = 0186, 4) ~ (00, AF BET + ...0)) YB) = 0116, B) = [08, B42U"+4+...6)) (026, 1) = 010, 11420} 016, 61 TUN Te) Tid) + 116) ~ O10, A+3B+...150). ‘The numeroal example disused by Archimedes shows the trend ‘of the argument plainly enough; the formulation for arias of terms is obviows ‘Tl, Tn a Corollary the folowing inequaliies ar inferred: SIT) + ..-1(0)] < sum ofthe squazes TA) < ATU)... +716), + 133raat ‘of which the one on the right follows at onc fom (1), while the me ‘on the left is derived from (1) by noting that 08, A+... +8) < Of, A+2U2...6)] = TA). 7.32, In moder formulation the results obtained aze at follows ‘Ff the arithmetical progeeeion lot the common difference w be equal o the fit teem a, then, (ne Djnayt tala 0. nt) = SfoP (2a) (na), is equivalont to ERE cont = ante) whi urther: SUI RDF) ms AE] 7.33. In tho Corollary moationod sb 7.31 i ie nlm observed that if on the line segments, referred to in Prop. 7.80, a8 sides there bo Alorribed similar figures Sid), S¢B)...8(6), ‘tho inoqualitice of 7.81 wil apply forthe areas of thes figures: S{S(B) +... +8(@)] < Sum of the figures S(4) < HSI). +8(0)] ‘This follows at onoe from Bueid VI, 20, TA, GS. 2 If there be liner equal to one ancter, i any number, and to ach af theae there be appliod an area twith a quadratic vase, andthe sides of the excesses excel one amathey by an equal ammount tubioh és equal tothe oat, and if there be other aren, equal in mumber 10 the first mentioned and sm quantity exch eal tothe grate, thee teil foal the other arene ina les rato than that of the am of the ‘side ofthe grata een ad ome of the eal lines to the sum of one= ‘third ofthe ide ofthe greatest eae and one-half of ome of the equa Tinus, and to Whe oer areas exept the greatest i wil be in @ greater ‘ata tham thin same ratio, In Fig. 43 lob the line segments A be the equal ine segment, to which are hyperbolically spplied with quratic excess the aroas 0=X,, =X, ete,, 30 that the sides of tho exousses 8,1... form an arithmetiea! progression with common diferenco Te has now to be proved that (Xp MN $y) < BA, BH EA) < (0X Xp ea) ae 14 Proof: Tho rectangles My, My.-. form an acithmetical pro- aression with common diflertse £7, thence by 7.1 we have: QlTy + lg) < mT < UT + ly) a or the squares 7,4... by 7.81 the following applies: MMT) jnaap > ap+2ap +... bn Dap PEO Gopi > Aad > BEEP). Alm p from which i follows that Plat). tmpletnp) > w.neldnp ta) > plasty)... (6—Upla+(m— 2p) What was required to bo proved follows when x.xp(a-+np) divided by the members of this inequality. Tho wording of this is already entirely adapted to the application in G.S. 26. ‘Tho real, contents of the proposition, however, aro expretod by the in- ‘quality (2), Poe p=a=1 tho latter ie a fellows: L423. blot) > aE bin) > 1248.94... ¢(0—De Ic is noteworthy that the proposition proved above cannot be formulated more simply in an algebraial form than in the goo- rotrica! wording in which Archimedes give 7.50. Spit. 11 If « sree of any number of lnce be gicen which ace one anctler by an equal amrns and aloo ater lines, one fer Sn wumber and in quantity each eual tthe gents, all he spuares om ‘he tines equa tothe greatest are to the wquaree ow he Kes which ceed ‘one anater by an equal amoust, ezopt te eat, in len ratio tha that of the aguare on the greatest tothe sum of the recngle contained ‘by the gratnt andthe loos and one-third ofthe ware on the difference in Ty Wetton the greatest and the lent to the apres, hsover, om the Kine Al 4 Pt wl we which tzcend one another by an equal mont, except the square om (ke grenet they weil De ina grater ‘aio tha this ratio, Tn Fig. 44 let these be given ‘the aries of lino segments 2, 7%. ..NE forming an arithmetical progression. Archimedes suppovet In his proof tha the oommon dif- erence is equal to the least term, LB, batho applic the proposition Mt jn oases where this edition is 10 ot ratited. We will retain his supposition, bot will show mab- eaimently that i i not exsontia to the validity ofthe proposition. Produce all the given line segments by addition of TO=NE, ‘BIL =2. NE ot, until they arv equal to AB, Tonow has tobe proved that [T(04) +... TYE), TAB) +... 4 TAIN) < (TAB, (4B, N5)+ ITI] < [T04) +... +7172), TWAS). $7. If wo make B= XA= NS, then (TAB), O1AB, OB) + sTUA)] = (TOA), 0104, XA)+4T(OX)] = ete, from which i follows that: [104 +TUI2) +... TVS), ONS, O4-+112-+...+¥5) +HTON)+TUTP) +... #TONYT) = MAB, 0¢4B, NB)+ ITN) 1f we compare this with what ie roqured to bo proved, we find ‘that the proposition will have beon proved if we ean show that TU) +... 4TWE) < OWE, O44... +75) $HORT) < TAB). TUM). (1) [Now in the seoond member of thi inequality (ONS, 04. .¥5) = OLE, (OX XA)... +(TN+NE)) = OWE, OX +... +YN)+ TA) +... TVS) in the fines member: TA). #TWVE) = TUK)... TAP) 420004, PN 4... HPA ATA) +. TOS) {in the third member: TAB)... +TUAM) = TAD) +. TAP) + 20(08, ADS... HAP) + TOR) +. TPA) Omiting in all choo mennbers the underlined wasn, we still have ‘0 prove thatTot TU) +. + TUAP) $2014, PX 4... +AP) < HTIOX) 4p STPN) FONE, OF +. HFN) < TAO) po HTAP) 420002, 40+. AP) 1 we frst compare the sums of aguares ovearting in the thre members, by 731 the following applies thoroto: TUN) +. ATUP) « HTD)... TIP) < TAO) eTUr), ° Jn whioh the second member is equivalent to TION)... TOMI] ‘A compariton of the reetangls in the three members yields 20(K4, TX 4... +P) = OWE, TE... AP ETA... H10)= (OWE, OX...-TP) < ONE, ON... + YN) < OR, OF SPE. TASAPA2YN) ~ OB, 2404...API- (8) From sedition of the inequalities (2) and (3) follows the validity of "The following formulation ofthe proof in algebrafe symbols, which no eevental modifieation has boon made in the trend of ‘the argument, may eldnidate the demonstration a litle bottar for the present-day reader. At the same timo we will abandon the suppo- sition that the common aiference of the arithmetical progression iv equsl to the fit tm, so that the use that Archimedes will be found to make of the proposition wil find is justification. Suppo NE = t= 0; AM = hw ade; ol We have to prove the inoguaity (1) Bache PGES amt, Flav)? < GE te. In feat: Cathet = mate. enh) FAL 2.0) < nat Pst ea malate) + a? = amt, + bain? or Bek, ‘Case I. Suppove 2°> K. Now find » wo that G- A ornek. ‘Case L. Suppone 2>K. Now find m so that BOB, HEHw) Zotyte) > a > I-40), ote. ‘which naturally haa to be realized geometrically. “That 0, can, by the choive of n, bo made lees than ¢ becomes ‘spparent when its proved thatthe common rato of the geometrical progression is leas than 4; in Ui way Wueti’e lemme becomes Applicable to the suoesive terms of the goometricel progression. ‘That 2, TA ‘wonld nat be snfficont to conslade slo that F'V>T'A, and eenen- 13593. ‘quently thst FY ean bo constructed. Such continuity consider. ations, however ld not appene inthe oil mathematics of reek. publictions; that is why oro a wall as in come other similar essa there is a gap in the proof 93. Splr.7 (Rig 47) "Tho only difference from 0.2 is that now has to lion AI? -odued, and that (Z, #2) now has to full the eondition 1) > (70, KO) Neuss: Tosort between the cece and the diameter KP line segmont BN einoatod st 1° and satifying the nation 1) = (BK, BN), Dy which relation BA ts defined ‘Now apparently (BB, BY) ~ (BK, BN) = (@.). ‘Aa nocatsary conuition for (Z, Hf) we find (2M) = (BK, BN) I, inversely, thie condition be sti, then BN’ < 7A, That this 4a glint, was probably seen again onthe ground of the conser tion thet 207 approximates to Of B epprosiniate to P, and to TAI approximate to F. (KP, BN) > (KITA) = (70, 0). N Met Pets 136 0 9.4. Spl. 8 (ig. 4). ‘Now hus to be found on the chord 41" that when KE mesta ‘the tangent to the cicle at Pin J, (BEIT) = 4), while (PK, A) GM) < (10, 6K) [Now construct point auch that (2H) = (PK.T8) ‘Brom this follows that Ta>74 [Now deseribo a ciclo through 4, K, 2. KI" will moot this eicle gain in 2 ‘Neuss: Insert between A and the eto KAS line vgement 13F qual ¢o PM and dieeotod at K. Thon KI is the required stmight Tino through X- Prot UcB, PA) = (IK, TA) ~ (18,18) = 05,79), swhense (KB, 12) = (PA, TPM) ~ (TK, 15) = (KB,T=), swhenes (KE, KB) = (18, PS), therefore (BM, KB) = (17,15) (we, Ir) = (Kr, TE) ~ 7). (OUr, 1¥) > O(KT.LM), whence OS, 14}> 01S, PA). If thorefors 0 be the mile point of EA, thon TOA) -T(01)>"10A)~T(01), therefore OF'> OF ‘The middle point O therfore lea on the same side of Pas J, ‘and ineo Flee on the opposite side of I"to A, TS > TA, whenve (2, H) = (KTS) < (CK, TA) (19, 6). ry95-06 9.5. Spir. 9 Pg. 0) ‘This proposition is entirely analogous to 84. The only difference fs that 2 now haa to Ho on AP” produced. This ie the ease when ‘T8 (19, Ke) = 8.6, ‘The commentators not infrequently speculate on the question how Archimedes ean have performed the nets in question. The most obvious answer stems to be: as nevsel. The imerion of ine segments of a given length botwoon two given curves dots 10 ine ocd fit im veey well with the traditional proserpt that in pani tetrical consicuetion only straight lines and srcles are to be used, Dut there isnot the alightortevidenoo that thin restriction wpplied Jn Gresk mathematics fo non-lamentary problems there are sven ‘many indications vo the vontrary Such indieations are to be found. ‘in tho numerous solutions ofthe problems of duplication of the cube, ‘nd trsotion of an angle in which nowcia are aplied or points ero ‘constructed as intersections of conie, without any evidence to the effect thet tho writer doce not look npom his alation as a eoreect onstruction, For tho practical porformanoe of neal, beidee the primitive insrting ruler deearlbesl above, there were even avail able the conchoidal compacses of Neon 94 wel, And to what ‘extent, evon apart from practi! drawing considerations, mentally performed insertion was nccoptod ea a means of eonstrnotion ia proofs is moet eleaely apparent from the proposition 9.1 divciased ‘shove, where, in contrast with tho ethor properitions, the oon- struction ofthe lin sogment BE by means of compasses and alee In on i possible. That Archimedee nevertheless oven inthis enzo has ro course to a newbs, obliges us to reject the view that w news was hothing bat » eobsiiate for construction i problems awhere the lution by means of compasses and ruler was not possible, 91 As wil be seen in the treatise On Sprais, tho nowsia eonstract- jon diacutaed aro used by Archimodes in the prools of indirect pangs 10 limit, Ths based on the eireumetanoe thet they aro ‘oquivslent to cartain propositions on limite; this may be understood ts follows In 0.1 it proved that 2 con bo so chocon that (BE, axoBP) < (2, given circumference ofa circle) ‘ie that, when e be any amigned magnitude, B can bo ao chosen that In which 4 BET=9, ‘Whereas ave nowadays show hy esleulsion that, by the ehoias _geomotically hy means of hie nousis that the ratio (RB, are 22) say take on any value. When in 9.2 we eall 27K@=x and EKO, wo read for the ‘ase where approsimates to «fom below 1 9.8.8 on th ne wy ha on? Hine hte seo a om hos, »