BRIDGMAN^

Qimplete Guide
to Drawing firom

Over 1000 Anatomical Drawings

EDITOR'S

For more than

NOTE

thousands of art students crowded into George

thirty years

Bridgman's classes at the Art Students' League in

hand the method of drawing from

to art educaticm

life

and v/bkh in his own

which was

lifetime

New York to learn at first

his personal contribution

had become famous. Many ot

the best

known names in contemporary painting and sculpture and ccmuncr-

cial art

were enrolled in those

classes.

Bridgman's vivid and articulate personality brought hvely interest to the

study of anatomy. His beautiful drawings of musculature and bone structure have provided

anatomical drawings

truly

made

specifically for the artist.

how

nate,

new

literature

on the subject. These were

not for the medical student or the doctor but

How the

body moves, bends, how

the hands clutch, pull, or push, are

movements be

illustrated

among

its

parts coordi-

the countless bodify

and anafyzed.

Great artuts have, in the past, illustrated the idiases at aitatomy that
related to one or another portion of the

bridoman"
figure

is

it is

human body.

clear that a// of the constructive

new "complete
anatexny of the humui
In the

gathered into one volume.

Bridgnian invented a terminology which graphically describes the twisting and turning of the

own;

it

describes

plifying foims

human

how one group

and giving

body. The term "Wedging" hkewise

of muscles integrates with another.

th^ increased definition, he makes his

is

By

his

sim-

particular

method an ea^ one to reniembw. In a smse these drawings of the human

figure are peopled with a special kind of

man,

essentially

Bridgman's own

creation. Like the great master of the Renaissance. Michelangelo,

Bridgman

closely studied)

immense knowledge of
foreshOTten the fonns

manner because
ally

he does not personalize or

structure

and to

is

put to work. In

articulate the limbs in

the reasons for change of

individualize.

this

book one

(whom
But

his

learns to

a direct comprehensible

fonn and shape aie diagrammatic-

and dramatically explained. Muscles actually change in shape as

they

How they move the structure by contraction and how fliey appeax from

react.

various points of view are explained with countless

other facts in precise
fashion.

George Bridgman's

life

was devoted to making

ments of human anatomy so that

artist, art

clear these

complex move-

student and teacher

may

tind

an

mine of information that touches every phase of their study.

The COMPLETE BRIDGMAN is meant to be used as well as read.
Nowhere can be found a more con^lcte analysis of the hand, for instance,
inexhaustible

than in these pages. Over two hundred drawings of the hand

vifh

mous

variety of

movement and

tions, as well, of its

position are shown.

And

its

enor-

there are explana-

muscles at every plane.

There are innumerable drawings both of structure and movement integrated with the text and a complete study of folds and draperies
as they
relate to the

human

In this book
his life

is

form.

the heart of Bridgman's system of constructive anatomy,

drawing and his work on the structure of head and

features.

The

entire work of his long lifetime in art instruction

It

and practice is included here.

was necessary up to the present to acquire a separate book on each

phase of Bridgman's art instruction. In the

presented for the

first

new complete bridgman

time a comprehensive volume that includes

specialized art instruction in

a form that can be

readily consulted

all

the

and

ail-inclusive.

Howard Simon

is

is

TABLE OF CONTENTS

-----

HOW TO DRAW THE FIGURE

PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE

12
17

MEASUREMENTS

2O
23

MovurAIe Masses

WEDGINO, PASSmO AND LOCKINO

25

BALANCE

33

------

RHYTHM

37

TURNING OR TWISTING
LIGHT AND SHADE
DISIRIBUIION OF THE MASSES
BUILDING THE HGURE
MOULDINGS
THE HUMAN HEAD

42
48

54
57

-------------74
----------

62

67
68

The Skull
Drawing the Head
Perspective of the

Head

-------86
-- -- ----------------------------

The Head in Profile

Above Eye Level
Below Eye Level
Round Forms of the Head
Round and Square Forms of
Cube Construction

93
94
96
98
\QQ
102

the

Head

105
106
110
112
113

Head

Muscles of the Face

Expression

The Chin
The Eye
The Ear

Oval Construction
The Head in Light and Shade
Comparative MeasuremattS of the Head
Child's

Head

Planes of the

The

76
81
g4

Head

Distribution of Masses of the

Construction oj the Head -

-114
117
120

The Nose
The Mouth
The Neck

Front of the Neck

Back of the Neck

THE TORSOFront View

Masses

Planes of the
Structure

TorsoFtoat View

TorwProfile
Rib Cage

122

-124

-------------_.
--------------

Planes of the Ear

125
130
133
134
135
146
148
151
153
155

160

-------------------------

THE TORSOBack

View

Mechanism of the Torso and Hips

ShouMer Girdle

THE SCAPULAMECHANISM OF THE SHOULDER BLADE

THE ARM
Mechanism of
The Forearm

Arm

the

Masses of the Shoulder and

Pronator and Supinator

Arms
-

Elbow

THE ARMPIT
THE HAND

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Hand
The Wrist and the Hand
Mechanism of the Hand and Arm
Anatomy of the Hand
Muscles of the Hand
Expressions of the

The

Hand Back

View

Hand
Thumb Side oj the Hand
Little Finger ^de of the Hand
Construction of the

The Fingers
The Fist -

Knuckles of the

Hand

of the

THE PELVIS
The Sip

Hand

Baby

THE LOWER LIMBS

The Thigh and the Leg

The Knee

THE FOOT

Abduction and Adduction

Bones and Muscles of the Foot
Toes -

DRAPING

Composition
Draping the Figure

Folds
Types of Folds
Diaper Pattern
Pipe or Cord Folds
Zigzag Folds
Spiral Folds
Half-Lock Folds
Inert Folds

Volume
Rhythm

INDEX

and

Styles

<KXSARY

161
167
168

172
176
193
194

200
205
207
212

214
218
223

226
228
230
232
240
242
248
260
272
277
280

282
286
288
289
302
308
311
314
315
318
320
322
324
328
330
333
334
336
340
342
345
349
350
351

^Cms is the story at the blo^ed human form where the bending,
or tunung of volume gives the smsation of movement

rhythm. The diffnent stages are arranged

Draw

together

1^

m their sequence from "How to

the Figure" to the "Balance of Light and Sukde." Its purpose

awaken
It is

hdd

twisting

is

to

and analysis of the structure hidden beneath.

the ideas conveyed in the drawing and text of this book may

the sense of research

hoped

that

enable the reader to carry

on

to independent

and

better ideas.

11

How

Before

to

you make a

line

want to draw. In your mind

to be

drawn

is

Draw

you must have a

it is

the Figure

clear

conc^tion of what you

necessary to have an idea of w^iat the figure

doing. Study the model from different angles. Sense the nature

and condition of the action, or inaction. This concq)tion is the real begmning
of your drawing.
12

Give due consideratioii to the pladng of your drawing

on the paper, for balance and arrangonent.

Make two maris

to in^cate Uie length of die drawing.

Block in with strai^t

lines the outline of the head.

it

carnally oa the neck, marking

line

its

center

fnn the Adam's apple to the

Turn

by drawing

between the

collar bones.

Frcan the pit

(rf

the neck

tion of tiie shoulders,

its

make one

line giving the direc-

keeping in mind the marking of

center, ^^lich should

be the

pit

between the collar

bones.

Indicate the general direction of the

to the hip

and

thigh, at

carries ibc weight.

its

body by outlining

outermost point, the side that

Fdlow

this

outlining

tlie

opposite inactive side ot die

body, comparing the widtii with the bead.

Then, crossing again to the action ade of the

line to the foot.

figure,

drc^

You now have d^exmiaed the balance,

or equilibrium ot the figure.

Carry the

upward

On

line of the inert side to the knee, over

to fbt middle Of the figure.

die outer side,

dn^

line to the odier foot.

and

and thinking of

Starting again with the head,

with front, sides, lop, back and base, draw

it

it

as a cube

on a

level

with the eye, foreshortened or in perspective.

Outline the neck and from the pit of the neck

down

At a
join,

draw a line

the center of the chest.

right angle to this Hne,

draw another

line

where stomach and chest

and then draw hnes

to indicate

the rib cage as a block, twisted, tilted or straight, accord-

ing to

its

position.

Now draw

the

thigh

and the

leg

which support the

greatest part of the weight of the body,

making

the thigh

round, the knee square, the calf of the leg triangular and
the ankle square.

Then draw

the anns.

These few simple Unes ptoce the

indicating

its

active

and

figure.

inactive sides,

They ^ve

its

its

general [n<^>ortioiis,

balance, unity and ihythm.

Bear in mind that the head, chest and pelvis are the three large masses
of the body. They are in themselves immovable. Think of them as blocks
having four sides, and as such they may be symmetrically placed and
balanced, one directly above the other. In this case, the figure would have

no movement. But when

twist, the shifting of ihem

these masses

bend backward, forward, turn or

gives action to the figure.

Whatever positions these three masses may assume, no matter how violently th^ may be drawn together on one side, there is a corresponding
gentlmess

d line

on the

harmony flowing through

16

(q;)posing, inert side

the whole, which

is

and a

subtle, illusive, living

the rhythm

d the figure.

Proportions of

The Human Figure

.^^LL measurements

human

of the

parts of given measurements.

scientific
If

and

ideal,

and they

figure are divisions of the

would

all differ.

result in

apply these so-called canons of

uprifi^t

and

rigid.

The

least

into

There are many conceptions of measuring,

given proportions were used, even though

ideal average, tliey

body

tliese

proportions were the

a drawing without character. Again, to

art,

the figure must be

bending at

tlte

on the

eye-level,

head or body would ch^^ge the

given proportf(MU visually, thougji not actualty.

17

Frcmi an anabxnical pcnnt ci tow, taking the

skull as

unit, horizontally, the

upper ann, the humerus,

half heads in length.

is

about one and one-

The bone on

side of the forearm, the radius,

head
the

in length.

little

bone of the

The forearm

is

the

thumb

about one

bone, the ulna, or

finger side, measures about one foot

from elbow to wrist The thigh bone, or femur,

measures about two beads, and the leg bone, or
tibia,

nearfy one and one-half heads.

The ilhistrations show

three different methods

of measurement; one by Dr. Paul Richer, one by

Dr. William

Rimmer and one by

AFTKR COtrSlH

18

Michelangelo.

Measurements

ou have

to measure,

of

first

all,

with your eye; and by studying the

model judge the comparative measurements of

several

its

masses.

When

measure mechanically.

Then

measur-

ing mechanically, hold your charcoal

or penal between the thumb and

fingers
tip of

and use

tiie first

taking.
its

and the

ma^

the ex-

your charcoal to

tremities of the

to

finger

measurement you are

Your arm should be extended

full

tilted that

length and your head so

your eye

is

as near as pos-

sible to tlie shoulder of the

arm you

are using in measuring.

From
tered

the model,

&e

space regis-

from the first finger to the end of

your charcoal or pencil

indi; but

may be one

on your drawing thu meas-

urement may possibly be two or more

inches. In other words,

all

your meas-

urements are comparative and

if

the

head spaces seven times into the length

of the figure and registers, say, one

indi on your charcoal or pencil, obviously the hei^t of seven heads dioUld

be marked off on your drawing regardless of the size of

size

you had,

determined

in

your drawing, which

a goieral way, pre-

and may be anywhere

from miniature

to mural.

The arm has

axis at its connection with ibc shoulder blade.

its

arm and more forward, has an

The

entirely different axis

eye, being

and radius; arms and

necks vary in length. Also, in measuring, as In target practice,

for

some

to close the left eye, others the right,

eyes open. So, with these varying conditions

fixed rules for the technique of measuring,

your

one or both eyes are such important

to use

it

and

above the

still

it

is

natural

others to keep both

is difficult

to set

down any

own physique and tendency

factors.

In any case, however,

you must keep your eye as close as possible to the shoulder, your arm
extended and

stiff.

On a figure, there

correct. Again, the

ments

may be used in proving your measuremodel may be far above the level of the eye,

no marks

are

that

causing violent perspective. Only at the eye level can the pencil be held
perpendicularly.

Above or below

some studied and given

take

some

requires

pole

practice.

seat yourself several feet

incline charcoal or
rectly
off.

angle,

To find

and upon it'mark

the eye level, the pencil or charcoal

and

to determine this angle accurately

this angle, take

a panelled wall or a vertical

off six or seven spaces

a foot or so

away and at arm's length, with eye

pNidl to

must

apart.

Then

close to shoulder,

register cor-

each of the spaces you have marked

As

in revolver practice,

come extremely accurate

in

you

will be-

judging the

angle at which the charcoal should be held

at different distances.

of angles

This same method

may then be applied to measuring

the figure.

21

MEASUREMENTS
22

MOVABLE MASSES

CAGE

a
HEAD
8 inches

High

12 indies High
8 inches Deep

10 inches Wide

PELVIS
8 inches

High

7Vi inches Deep

6 inches Deep

6 inches Wide

lOinchesWde

Wedging, Passing
and Locking

T.HE

upper and lower limbs arc held

in

place on the

cage and pelvis by mortise and icnon, called ball-andsocket joint and at elbow and knee by the ginglymus or

hinge joint

The sunounding

muscles,

by

their position,

shape and size are capable of moving these joints in any

manner

that the construction of the jdnts permits.

As movement
sumes a position

occurs, and the

body

suited to the taking of

instinctively as-

some

action, the

muscles, by contraction, produce the twisting and bending

of the masses. In so doing the muscles themselves ex-

pand, shorten and bulge, making smaller wedges or

varied forms connecting the larger and more soUd ma^es.

This sh(Hlening and bulging of die muscles bec(nes an

assemblage ai parts that pass

another, folding in

into,

and spreading

over and around oat

out. It

is

these parts

passing into or over each other that gives the sense of

wedging or

interlocking. This might be

folds in drapery:

compared

where the folds change,

to the

their outline

changes.

HEAD
CAGE

25

27

form

either passes around or enters into

the outline of the visible boundary of a figure.

It

should be an indication of what

it

really

is:

the outline of a form. Within this outline, for

the

same reason, forms pass

forms.

into

and over other

They wedge, mortise and

interlock.

The

outline of a figure

drawn that

it

gives

may be

no sense of

tiie

manifold smaller forms of which

is

so

it

composed. Again, the outline of'a

figure

may be

so

drawn

that

the

sense of the figure's depth, of tbc

wedging, interlocking and passing

of smaller forms within the larger

masses

conv^

pression ot

to the

mind an im-

volume and

solidity.

29

30

31

32

Balance

\^^HBN several objects are balanced at different

an|^ one above the other, th^ have a ccnnmon
centtt of gravity. In a drawing there must be a sense

of security, of balance between the opposite or countraacting forces, regardless of where the center line

may
may

This

fall.

be.

is

true

no matter what the posture

standing figure whether thrown back-

ward or forward, or

to

one side or the other,

is sta-

The

center of gravity, from the

pit of the nedc. passes

through the supporting foot

tionary or static.

or

or between the feet when

tbesy

are su[^>orting

In a way, the pendulum of a clock

when hanging

feet,

the

wei^t

straight,

equally.

or perpendicular,

movement.

figure without

the clock. But start the

scribes

an

arc,

represents

It is

static,

standing

stopped. So

pendulum swinging.

moving back and

It

is

de-

forth, but always

about a fixed center ot gravity. The position of the

pendulum when at one or the other extmne of its

swing or arc, from its center oi gravity, represents
the extent to which a figure may be thrown out of
balance.

And

this

podticm would also represent the

33

greatest rapidity of

figure in action.

there

motion in the drawing of a

Yet even in the most extreme motion

must be a sense of seouity, a feeUng that the

figure,

HIk the pendulum, could come back to a

fixed center of gravity. This feeling or sense of bal-

ance which must be recorded

a drawing

is

in the flow

continuity and rhythm.

or sweep

<rf

Rhythm

TX
to

HE consciousness or

any

artists

artist

or group of

idea of rhythm can not be traced to any period, or

artists.

We know

formed a society for the study of the chemistry of

matics of compositioii,

etc.,

and that among

But rhythm was not invented.

of motion.

It

the Univerae since the begining of time.

of the sea

down.

1349 a group of Florentine

that in

and

It is

tides, stars

a part of

all

and

these studies

mathe-

was the science

has been the measured motion ct

There

planets, trees

animal and plant

colors, the

is

and

rhythm in the movCTirat

grasses* clouds

life. It is

the

and

movement

thistle-

of uttered

words, expressed in their accented and unaccented syllables, and in the

grouping and pauses of speech. Both poetry and music are the embodiment,
in appropriate rhythmical sound, of beautiful thought, imagination or

emo-

37

tkm. Wtfaout rhythm there

painting there

is

couU be no

rity^mi in outline, color, light and shade.

The continuous slow-motion

picture has given us a

appreciation of

all visible

harmonious relation to the entire action of the

38

new

movement. In pictures of pole vault or steeplechase we

may follow with the eye the movement of every muscle and note its

rhythm in
actually

poetxy or music. In drawing and

man

or horse.

So to express rhythm
a subordinatioii

(rf

in

drawing a figure we have in the balance of masses

the passive or inactive

angular side in action,

keying

of synunetiy^ni^boai.

si^

to the

constantly in tBind

tiie

more

forceful

and

hidden, subtle flow

RHYTHM

Turning or Twisting

In a human figure there are the masses of

head,

ch^

a cotain

and

pelvis.

Each

of these has

and

hragbt, Ineadtii

thickness.

Considered as blocks, these masses balance,

tilt

and

twist, held together in their different

movements by the
twist

&e

As

they

and turn, the spaces between them

become

We

spinal column.

long, short or spiral.

might liken these movements and

spaces between the masses or blocks,

to an accordion

when

it is

Here we have an angular,

being played.

virile,

active side,

the result of forcing the ends or forms

towards each other and by

pressing

and

bringing

this action

together

on

comthe

active side, the pleats of the accordion; the

opposite or inflated side describing gentle,

hjert curvK,

The bkxd or masses of the body iit

levers, moved by muscles, tradons and
42

The muscles are

ligaments.

paired,

one

pulling against the other. Like two

men

using a cross-cut saw, the pulling muscle

swollen and taut,

and

inert.

its

companion

is

is

flabby

When two or mom forms such as

the chest and the pelvis are

together, with cords

drawn violently

and muscles

tense

on

the active side, the inert, passive mass

opposite must follow. There

considered

this

affinity

is

of

always to be
angular

and

curved, objective and subjective, active and

passive muscles. Their association
table in every living thing.

is

inevi-

Between them,

in the twistings

there

is

and bendings of the body

a harmony of movement, a subtle

continuity of form, ever

changing and

elusive, that is the very essence of motion.

47

Light and Shade

you have
with the idea that light and shade are to aid the outline
before
drawn hi giving the impressicm of aoUdity. teeadtii and depth. Keep
few great
you <he conception of a soUd body of four sides composed of a
which take away
masses, and avoid all elaborate and unnecessary tones

Shade

be on
from the thought that the masses or planes on the sides must appear to
front of the body.
the sides while those on the front must appear to be on the
No two tones of equal size or intensity should appear direcHy above one

ahemate.
another or side by side; their arrangement should be shifting and

48

There should be a decided difference between the tones.

The number

tones

of

should be as few as possible. Avoid

elaborate or unnecessary tones and

malEefour tones or values

are needed. It

is

the log, sinq>le

ail

do not

vAta only three

inqxntant to keep in noind

masses and to

ke^

your

shading simple. f<x shading does not aoafce

adrawii^

50

52

53

Distribution

of the Masses

It is not granted many ctf us to rraumba

So in considering

complex forms.

human

figure

it is

better, at

first,

the

to think

only of those major forms of which

it

is

composed, and these may be thought of

and more

easily

remembered by a simple

formula such as the following:

Considering the Wedging and Pasang <^

The

Fonns from the Front of the Figure

square ankle passes into the triangular calf

of the leg and this in turn passes into the

square knee.

The square knee

passes into

the round thigh and the round thigh into

the mass of the hips, from the sides of

which a triangular wedge enters the

cage.

The

rib cage

is

rib

oval below, but

pToaches a square across die shoulders.

Into diis square mters the column of the

neck which is capped by the head. The head

when compaied with

is

square.

the form

<rf

the neck,

ROUND

ROUND

DISTRIBUTION OF
THE MASSES

55

Considering the Wedging and Passing of Fonns

from the Rear of the KgureThe head is square,

capping the round neck. The rib cage is square at
triangular
the shoulders, wedging into the neck, and
below, wedging into square hips. The square hips
knees are
rest on the round pillars of the thighs. The
square, the calves triangular and the ankles square.

56

Building the Figure

From

a piece of lath

and a few inches of copper or other

working model of the solid portions of the body

three pieces

the head,

from the lath to represent the three

may be
solid

flexible wire, a

constructed.

Cut

masses <d die body:

ch^ and hips. Approximate, die propoctism of the three blocks,

reduced nsn the skdetoii,shoidd

IVi inches

by

1^

inches; hips, 1

be^Head,

indit^

indies.

indi

% o{ aa indl; toaOt
57

Drive two paraBel holes petpraidicularly tiiroug^ the center of the thickness of each of these blocks, as closely together as practicable.

Wire the

blocks together by running a strand of flexible wire through each of these

holes, allowing

about half aa inch between the blocks, and twist the wires

together.

The wire

in a rough

way

composed oi a chain of

represents the

spme or backbone. The

firm, flexible joints, discs

(rf

spine

is

bone, with shock-

absOTbing cartilages between them. There are twenty-four bones in the spme,

each bending a

little

and twisting mostly

to

pm

tibe

required fleubility to the body, but turning

m e free spaces between the head and chest, and be-

tween the chest and hips.

The

apiot

is

the

bond of union between the

different parts of the body.

The portion of
neck.

On

this

wire between the head and chest blocks represents the

the neck the head has the

upward and downward, and

power

to turn.

vertela of the spine, to whidi

it is

to

bend backward and forward,

The head

tmited

rests

by a hinged

upon the uppermost

joint.

Upon

this

jomt

59

it

moves backward and forward

as far as the muscles

and KgaMents permit.

hinged joint has a projection or point resembling a

tooth. This enters a socket or hole in the bone above, and fortns a pivot or
axle upon which the upper bone and tiie head, whidi it supports, turn.

The bone beneath

So,

we

this

vbcn we nod, we use

the hinged joint, and wdsen

we

turn our heads,

use the pivot or axle.

The wire between the two lower blocks

represents that portion of the spine

which connects the cage or chest above with the basin or pelvis below. This
portion of the spine is called the lumbar region. It rests upon the pelvis or
basin into which
front.

On this

it

is

mortised.

Its

form

semicircular: concave from the

portion of the spine, the lumbar, depends the rotary

between the hips and the

torso.

As

movement

the spine passes upward, becoming part

of the cage or chest, the ribs arejoiiied to

60

is

it.

The masses of head,

in themselves

and

chest

and

pelvis, represented

unmoving. Think of these blocks

forget, at first,

by the three blocks, are

in their relation to

each other

any connecting portions other than the slender wire of

the spine.

In the

little tin

soldier at "attention"

we have an example

of the sym-

metrical balance of these blocks one directly over the other. But this balance

never exists

when

The blocks

in their relati<m to each oOier are limited to tiie three possible

the

planes of movement.

body

is

in acticm, seldom, indeed,

They may bend forward and back

twist in the horizontal plane or

tilt

in the

movements are present and they may be

twisting the three blocks in the

The

limitation to the

three masses or blocks.

little

movement

when

model of

in

r^se.

in the sagittal plane,

transverse plane.
closely

it is

As a

rule, all three

approximated by turning and

lath

and wire.

movements of the
Such movement as the spine allows the muscles also
of the spine limits the

aUow.

61

Mouldings

a
A

RCHiTECTURAL moulduigs

plane or curved surfaces, placed

means

decorative effects

The human

figure,

of altcmatc rounds and hollows, <rf

one beneath flie other to give varioua

coiisist

of li|^t

and shade.

whether standing erect or bent,

is

composed

of a few

ogee, and
masses that in outline are not unlike the astragal,
the back of the figure,
apophyge mouldings used in architecture. Looking at
head to neck, then an outward
there is the concave sweep of the mass from
cage to pelvis, ending
sweep to the shoulders, a double curve from rib
way down to the
abruptly where the thigh begins, a sUght undulation half
knee, another outflattened surface, where it enters the back of the

big, single

knee, a

ward sweep over the

calf

lating, varied forms.

And

the

same manner, a

The
62

distribution

and down to the

heel; the whole, a scries of undu-

the firont of the figure curves

series of

m and out in much

concave and convex curves, and planes.

^ light and shade brings out these forms.

63

64

65

The Human Head

lT

first

the study of heads should be in the abstract,

forget everything diat distmguishes

masses

common

to all heads.

tecturally conceived,

one head

fluit is.

&om another

Heads are about the same

should

and think of tbt

Each

size.

constructed and balanced; each

we

is

is

archi-

a monumental

structure.

By

first

mentally conceiving of a head as a cube, rather than as an oval

or egg-shaped form,

The cube

we

are able to

make

simple, definite calculations.

of the head measures about six inches wide, eight inches high

and seven and a

from front to

half inches

hack. These measurements are obtained by

squaring a skull on

two

sue ddes: face, bade,

sides or cheeks, top

border, whidi

but

its

is

is

and base or lovm

partly hidden

flic

neck

exposed under the chin and jaw, and

again at the back where

lower border of the

base of this cube

is

it

skull.

is

seen as the

Therefore the

about seven and a half

inches deep and six inches wide, and on

this

"ground plan" as on that of a square,

any form may be constructed.

This cube may be tilted to any angle,~also
foreshortened,

and

it

may be phwed

perspective.

in

THE SKULL
The skeleton of the head, like the cube, has six surfaces:
or cheeks, front and back. Its

bony framework

lower jaw, which articulates.

There are twenty-two bones

in the

the brain case and fourteen bones

bounded

in front

is

top, base,

two

sides

immovable, except the

head. Eight of these bones compose

compose

(he face.

The

brain case

is

extends from the

by the frontal bone or forehead, which

root of the nose to the

crown

of the

head and lateraUy to the

sides of the

united
bones, or cheek bones, are facial bones, each
the zygomatic arch which spans the
to four other bones forming a part
bone joins the forehead
space from cheek to ear. Above, the malar or cheek
superior maxillary or upper jawbones.
at its outer angle; below, it joins the
upper jaw and cyHnder that
superior maxillary bones constitute the
temples.

The two malar

The two

above to the cheek bones and

hold the upper row of teeth. They are attached
bridge of the nose.
eye cavities. The nasal bones form the

FRONTAL

TEMPORAL

ZYGOMATIC
ARCH

MALAR

SUPERIOR

MAXILLARY
6

INFERIOR

MAXILLARY
7

NASAL

The
is

inferior maxillary or lower

the lower border of the face.

It is

like a horseshoe, its extremities

to

fit

It is

of

jawbone
shaped

ascending

into the temporal portion of the ear.

a mandible, working on the principle

a hinge moving down or up as the mouth

opens or

closes,

but with a certain amount

of play, sideways and forward, so that

when worked by
food

the masseicr muscles the

not simply

is

hammered

or flattened,

but ground by the molar or grinding teeth.

The masseler muscle extends from under

the span

erf

the zygomatic arch to the lower

edge and ascending angle of the lower jaw.

It is the large

muscle raising the lower jaw,

used in mastication.

It fills

out

tihe

side of

the face, marking the plane which extends

from the cheek bone to the angle of the jaw.

1

TEMPORAL

MASSETER

Muscles of Mastication;
1

Temporal

2 Masseter
3 Buccinator (cheek muscle)

4 and 5 Lesser and greater

zygomaticus (muscles of

DRAWING THE HEAD

>^

Begin by drawing with straight

lines the general outline of

the head.

Then draw
just

the general direction of the neck from

above the Adam's apple, to the

collar bones.

Now

pit, at

its

center,

the junction of the

outline the neck, comparing

width and

its

length with the head.

Draw
it

a straight line through the length of the face, passing

through the root of the nose, which

is

between the eyes, and

through the bftse of the nose where the nose centers in the

upper

Draw
to the

another

lip.

from the base of the ear at a

line

one you have

On

just

tlie

drawn.

line passing

through the center of the face, measure

moudi and chin. A line drawn

throu^ these will parallel a line drawn from ear to ear, intersecting, at ri^t angles, the Uas (kawn throu^ the vertical
center ctftbefoce.

74

off the position of the eyes,

^^/^^

right angle

With
its

straight hnes.

draw

the boundaries of the forehead,

top and sides, and the upper border of the eye sockets.

draw a
chin,

line

from each cheek bone

on the corresponding

Then

at its widest part, to the

side, at its hlj^est

and widest

part.

head you are drawing is on a level with your ^es, the lines you
have just drawn will intersect at right angles at the base of the nose and if
If the

both ears are visible and the Une from the ear extended across the head,
will

it

touch the base of both ears.

Consider the head as a cube, the ears opposite each other on

cheeks and the line from ear to ear as a

spil

its

sides or

or skewer running through

rather than around the head.

K the head is above the eye level, or tilted backward, the base of the nose
will

be above

this line

from ear to

level or tilted forward, the

ear. In either case, the

the case

may

ear.

Or

diould

tiie

h^ be bdow the eye

base of the nose will be below the line from ear to

head

will

be foreshortened upward or downward as

be and the greater the distance the head

is

above or below the

eye level the greater the distance between the line from ear to ear and the

base of the nose.

You now have the boundaries of the

The features may now be drawn in.

face

and

the front plane of the cube.

PERSPECTIVE OF THE HEAD

P ERSPECTivE refers to the effect of distance upon the appearance of objects

and planes. There are

Parallel lines

whidi do not

retreat

do not appear

it is

tive, all

eye and meet at a pcmit. This point

is

called the center of vision,

also the vanishing point in parallel perspective. In parallel perspec-

proportions, measurements and locations are

faces you. So in drawing a square, a cube or a head,

76

to converge. Retreating

whether they are above or below the eye, take a direction toward the

level of the

and

be considered parallel perspective, angular per-

and oblique perspective.

spective

lines,

to

made on

draw

the plane that

the nearest side

first.

When an

object

is

turned to right or

1^ so that the lines do not run to the

center of vision, then the center of vision

object

is

said to be in angular perspective.

When an
is

not their vanishing point and the

is

object, such as

a cube,

is tilted

or turned from the horizontal

it

said to be in the oblique perspective.

Take a

circle for

an

illustration.

then a line at right angles.

Draw a horizontal line through its

Where they

intersect place a point of sight.

center,

Should

a head be placed directly in the center of this circle the center of the face

would correspond
border of the eyes.

to the root of the nose,

The

horizontal line

level at the height of the eye.

The

is

on a

line level with the

called the horizon

and

is

lower
at eye

features will parallel the horizontal Une.

77

If the

head remains

the side of the head

tions of the

portions.

in the

same position and

the observer steps to

comes within the range of vision and the

one

side,

relative posi-

head and features are perspcctively changed, but not Ihc pro-

The

distance

away

is

the same.

toward the comer of a head at close range, it would be

the
lucessary to change the point of sight. The lines that were parallel with
horizon are no longer parallel, but drop or rise to meet the horizon at some

Looking

directly

point to form vanishing points.

Unless a head
a head

is

is

at

eye level

it

must necessarily be

above the spectator, obviously he

is

looking up. Not only

head in perspective, but every feature of the face;

eyes, nose,

that

is

secondary.

The

features

Perspective must have

lift.

the

ears.

In the

trend, or its reverse. Everything to

travel with the

mass of the head.

some concrete shape, form or mass as a

cube or a head seen directly

vertical

must

is

mouth,

Like the barnacles on the hull of a ship, the feature follow the

same manner they follow the upward

Wlien

in perspective.

in front will

basis.

be bordered by parallel lines; two

and two horizontal. These hnos do not

retreat,

and therefore,

in

appearance remain parallel As snon however, as they are placed so that

they are seen from beneath, on lop or from either side, they appear to converge. This convo-gence causes the further side of the object to appear

smaller than the nearer side.

The rules are:

Retreating
Second

First

lines

whether above or below the eye tend toward

the level of the eye.

Parallel retreating lines

where parallel retreating

As

lines

meet

is

meet

at the level of the eye.

objects retire or recede they appear smaller. It

spective

on

this, the

The

point

called the vanishing point.

science of perspective

is

the

first

rule of per-

is built.

79

DISTRIBUTION OF MASSES
OF THE HEAD

Four
1

distinct

forms compose the masses of the

The forehead, square and passing

2.

The cheek-bone region which

3.

An erect,

cylindrical

into the

face.

They

are:

cranium at the

top.

is flat.

fonn on which are placed the base oS the nose and

the mouth.
4.

The

triangular

fonn

(rf

the lower jaw.

81

From forehead

to chin a face that is not flat rather protrudes or recedes,

curving outward or inward, alternating as to curves and squares of varied

forms. In this respect a face

in. profile

i^sembles architectural n^ouldittgs.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HEAD

First

draw an

four lines.

and four

outline of the head, then check to see that

Number one
to

be drawn

the ear at a right angle to

its

this line crosses.

four Uoe.

84

Number two

Number

three line is

greatest width to the outer border

head

but

first,

number one, with no

intorsect. start the fourth line

the

will take

number two line next, three

follow numerically. Number one line is drawn down the face
line is to

touching the root and base of the nose.

where

it

and carry

from the base of

relation to the face as to

drawn from

the diin.
it

line

the cheek bone at

Where two and

to the base of the nose.

three

Whether

k aee from above or below, tt fesmies will follow the number

PLANES OF THE HEAD

N considering the distribution of the masses of the head, the thought of the

masses must come

tirst;

that of planes, second. Planes are the front, top

and

sides of the masses.

It is

and

the placing and locking ot these planes or fxxnm that gives solidi^

structural

symmetry to the

face,

well as the degree to y/luch each

recede

that

and

tilts

makes the more obvious

it is

their relative

pn^xntion as

forward or backward, protnules or

differoices in faces.

Heads in general diouM be neidm^ too touikI nor too square. All heads,
round or oval or square, would be without contrast in form.
In drawing, one must look for or su^ect that there
seen.

The

There

is

difference in drawing

other than that which

lies

is

in

is

more than

is

casually

what you sense, not what you

on the

see.

surface.

87

The
plane.

a face

front of

The

ear side

is

another plane.

Spectacles are hinged to

the front

and

sides of

The square or

the front

is

conform to

a face.

triangular forehead

must have a front and two

mak-

sides,

ing three planes.

The

face turns at a line from each

chedc bone downward to the outer side

of the chin. There

also a triangular

is

plane on eadi side of the nose;

from

tip to

its

base

wings forms another

angular plane. There

tri-

also the square

is

or rounded chin with planes running

back from each

Border

side.

lines separate the front

sides of the

and

forehead above, and cheek

bones and chin below. Across firom

ear to cheek bone

is

'

a ridge separating

two more planes wiack sk>pe upward

toward the forehead and downward to
the chin.

Considering the masses of the head,

the thought of the

masses comes

first,

then the planes; after that the rounded

parts

(rf

There are four

the head.

roimded forms on the

the fordiead.

skull.

two on the

One on

sides

ctf

head, just above each ear. and one

the front of the face, extending

nose to chin,

On

each

side,

the

on

from

at

the

upper part of the forehead, are two

rounded elevations termed the frontal

eminences.

These

eminences

often

merge into one and are referred to as

the frontfid raninence.

89

90

The plane

of the forehead slopes

upward and backward

to

become the

cranium; and the sides turn sharply to the plane of the temples.

The plane

of the face, divided by the nose,

is

broken on each side by a

from the outer corner of the cheek bone to the center of the upper

lip,

line

making

two smaller planes.

The outer
again divided

of these turns to

by

become

the plane of the jaw, which also

is

a line mariring the edge of the masseter muscle, running

from the outer border of the chedc hoae to the comet of the jaw, and again

making two secondary planes, one toward the cheek and one toward the ear.
The relations of these masses and planes is to the moulding of a head
what architecture

is

to a house.

They vary

in

proportion with each individual,

and must be carefully compared with a mental standard.

91

92

THE HEAD
IN PROFILE
In

profile the

Hbe

same

masses of the head are

the cranium, the skeleton

of the face, and the jaw.

The

front border of the traiple

is

seen to be a long curve, ahnost parallel

to the curve of the cranium.

The top

of the cheek bone

to be prolonged

is

seen

backward toward the

(zygoma or yoke) which

ear as a ridge

also maf'ks the base of the temple. It

idopes slightly

down

in firont

FnHn dieek bone and zygoma,

where they nwet, a

rising
orbit,

lesser ridge is seen

between the temple and the

marking the back of the

and the

first

orbit

part of the long line of

the temple.

Assume a
measures

Directly in

ei^t.

At

fnmt or from

Ae ba^

three-quarters view

it

profile

eight

by

view of a head
eight

tdstive proportions would be

inches.

ox by

liMoId be ftnievritMxe between the tw9

measnronents.

->1

2j

\p^"r^ij
93

ABOVE EYE LEVEL

When
way

a cube

that the spectator

neath,

is

seeing

in such a

from be-

it

above the horizon or height of

it is

the eye.

upward

is tilted

more

If

of one side of the cube

is

seen than the other, the broader side will be

less in perspective

than the narrower

side.

The nairowest side ol a cube presents the

more acute angle and will have its vanishing pdnt nearest

When an

object

is

above eye

lines of perspective are

level of the eye
will

level, the

coming down to the

and the vanishing points

be near or far apart according to the

angles.

The nearer

the object the nearer

together are the vanishing points.

When^ head is to be drawn in profile

is

is

well to

it

determine whether the head

first

above or below eye

level.

Hus can

done by holding a pencil or rule

be

at arm's

length at a right angle to the face from

the base of the ear. If the base of the nose

shows below the

up underneath
is

above

If the

&e

^e

head

line

is

ruler, then

the head; therefore the

level

or

tilted

head

backward.

three-quarters view or front,

from ear to ear

nose as in

you are looking

will cut

below the

pn^k when seen from beneath.

In looking down on an object you will

more or

see

object

less the

top of the object.

If

the

a head, you will see the top of the

is

The higher above the head you are,

the more top you see, the lower you arc, the
head.

tess

you

Bee.

The top
and

nearest the level

is

the lower part further away. In profile

at eye level the center of

will

the

ctf

be a

little

an

adult's

head

below where the hook of a

pair of spectacles curl around the top of the

were continuous,

ears. If this line

it

would

pass through the eye, dividing the head

into

two

parts.

The base

of the ear

base of the nose.

level with the

is

<m a
line

passing around the head from ear to ear

would

parallel the spectacles.

When the
looking

view

down and

below eye

level

you are

therefore see a portion

means

of the top. This

tom and

is

the head, top, bot-

sides are rising to the level of the

eye.

From

the lower

com^ of the fOTehead,

mai^ the b^inning of a

plane descending downward in a long curve
the cheek btmes

to the

wid^

part of the chin. This curve

marks the corner

the face, front

of the two great planes of

and

side.

Hero the spec-

tacles turn in perspective as well as the line

passing from ear to ear.

BELOW EYE LEVEL

ROUND FORMS OF THE HEAD

on a Une above
The skuU is rounded on both sides of the head directiy
two

ears. Part of this

formation

is

t^^

the parietal bone, a thick spongy shock

and most exposed portion.

absorber at the side of the head, at its widest
rounded portion of the face.
Below this, cyUndrical in shape, comes the
lower portion of the face inasmuch
This rounded portion corresponds to the
upper portion, known as the superior
as it has front and receding sides. The
socket
shape and descends from the base of the eye
maxillary,
to the

takes

is

irregular in

inferior maxillary,
mouth. The lower portion, known as the lower or
the angular jaw b<me.
the same curve as the mouth and U part of

The nose

lies

on the center of

this cyUndrical formation.

part of the rounded

Below the nose, the lips follow the contour of this

the teeth.
form, which as a tovering, takes the shape of

which
plane against plane, adjusted at different angles,
mathematical proportion, but
forms the shape of the head. There is no exact
are forced to balance truly one side
in perspective or from any angle, we
It is in reality,

with the other.

98

99

ROUND AND SQUARE FORMS

OF THE HEAD
A square line naturally
a square form.

of a round form.

drawing

is

round

The

is

line

classic

the outline of
is

the outline

beauty of

all

a happy combination or contrast

of both these

fcmm.

partially

rounded

square form or a partially square rounded

form adjacent to each otiier do not produce

pownor s^le.

100

101

CUBE CONSTRUCTION
cm a cube there is a sense of mass, a basis of measur^nent and comiraiison. The eye has a fixed point upon which to rest. A

When

vertical

a head

is built

Kne divides the head into two

parts.

These are equal, opposite, and

an exact duplicate of the other. A horizontal line

drawn through the lower eyehds divides the head in half. The lower portion
balanced.

Each

side

is

again divided in the middle gives the base of the nose.

two-thirds up from the chin. Buiii
of bulk

102

and

on

the

The mouth

is

placed

form of a cube, the head has a sense

solidity that easily lends itself to foreshortening

and perspective.

103

OVAL CONSTRUCTION
When

heads are

bade idea

is

tures

oval, the

that the shape is rather like

The main

egg.

on an

built

through the fea-

line losses

horn top of head to

chin. This is

The

divided into three parts.

an

oraniiim

and

forehead of the adult occupy the top half,

the lower half divided again in the middle
gives the base of the nose.

The mouth

is

placed two-thirds the distance up from chin

to nose.
tiie

When

main

the head

is tilted

or turned,

drawn down the face

The divisions follow the

axis that is

follows the ovaL

divisions as before mentioned.

In the oval constructi<m the eye and ear

are taken as the
line

is

medium

line.

Above

this

the top of the head, while below

is

the face.

line

drawn

at a right angle to the line

already drawn, gives another median or

facial line.

On this the features are marked

off to give their relative positicms.

riage of the

head

rests

upon

its

The

car-

placing or

upon the neck. When the head tips

or leans forward, back or toward the sides,
poise

the head

and neck must be

to the other

in relation

one

both in movement aiul rhythm.

THE HEAD
There
light,

is

light

LIGHT AND SHADE

IN

and shade on any object on which Hght

The hght blends

shade, and cast shadows.

some

object falling

on some other

a memblance to the object from which

it is

In the parlance of Art the variations of

There are

into half light which again

blends into a halftone, which again blends into a shadow.

the shadow of

falls.

A cast shadow

is

object or f<mn and bears

cast
light

and shade

are in a sense

numbered, catalogued and called values. Light, halftone and shade, making
three values, are said to be all that one can keep track of. The grading,
passing,

and mingling of

through or into one another, gives the sug-

these,

gestion of other values, but they

become more

subtle and less definable.

There arc many methods, mannerisms and approaches to handling

and shade. One

is

that

form

is

buih by

light

and shade, that the

light

outline does

not exist; the edges of the object are given pnmiinence by light and shade.
Another approadi is that an outline drawing is solidified by light and shade,
that the outline itself should

enough

M^gest

dc^,

vblsmft

and &uBc with only

sh^ to give it solidity.

Values are comparative and depend upoa thr surroundiii^

106

THE MASSES
OF THE HEAD

WHEN the: head

IS TURNED

ARE REPRESENTED
BY PUMiES

THE DIVISIONS
OF PUME5ARE

THE SAME

HOWEVER.

TURNED

THE MASSES OFTHE

HEAD REMAtri THE5AME

PLANES ARf.
FRONT TOP AND
SIDES

107

108

HAVE

NO

NEARTOHES

OF A

OF EQUAL SirE
oa miEIHSlTY

109

COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS
In an adult, from the extreme top to
the bottom, the eyes, roughly speaking, are in the middle.

face of an infant

The head and

may be

divided in

three parts, the eyes placed on the line

marking the upper

up. In

all

third,

from the chin

heads the base of the nose

is

placed half way between the eyes and

chin; the

mouth

two-thirds the distance

from chin to nose. Ages between these

two

necessarily range

somewhere be-

twem.

Thne is also a marked di^erenoe in

the formation of the head with varying

The forehead of an adult recedes,

cheek bones become more prom-

ages.

the

inent, the

jaw bone more angular, the

whole head

Infancy the head

is

and somewhat oval

head

more

in fact

is full, it

square. In

more elongated

The foredown and back

in form.

recedes

toward ibs brows; the jaw bones and

other bones of the face are diminutive;
the neck

is

small compared to thp

head.
In youth the face
is

less

round than

is

lengthened and

in the infant.

head above the brows however,

is

The
not

enlarged in prc^ortion to the increase

oi

&e lown part of the face.

Ill

THE CHILD'S HEAD

of a child's head differs from an adult in shape, solely as a
greatest
means of protection. The head is <rf an elongated and oval form, its
its widest
length being in the direction from forehead to the back of the head;
to a
portion lies just above the ears. The forehead is full, and protrudes
the
marked degree, receding and flattening at the eyebrows. The bones of

The cranium

face, as well as the

pared with the

jaw bones, are

size of the

head.

small.

The neck

The lumps

is

thin

and short as com-

ai ihc widest part of the

are lower than in the adult as a protection for the temporal region
ears.

The

peculiar projection at the

protection,

and so

A duWs skull
later

on

in

life.

is tiie

is tiiin

back (occiput)

is

for the

head

and the

same reason,

protruding forehead.

and

The narrow

elastic; it will

bear btows which would be fatal

shoulders and the almost useless arms

make

other
necessity of a bulging forehead to protect the face from the front; the

prominent bulges protect the

sides

and back of the head.

infancy to adolescence great changes take place in the upper as well

and
as the lower portion of the face. Above, the face lengthens; the nose
cheek bones become more prominent. The^ teeth add width and d^th at the

From

lower part of the face. Jaw bones become more angular and pomted, the
masseter muscles axe mem in evidoice, and a squareness of the chin \&
noticeable.

112

MUSCLES OF THE FACE

113

EXPRESSION
The variable

expressions of fbe

voice, are sensed

human

face* like the varied tones of the

and ever changeable. Expression

is

not always caused by

the contraction of certain muscles, but rather from the combined action of

The same

many muscles

as well as the relaxation of their opposing muscles.

group

example, in both the expression of smiling and laughter, in a

act, for

lesser or greater degree.

The

eyes and

mouth

are surrounded by muscles of circular form. These

muscles function primarily to close either mouth or eye. The fibrous ring
that surrounds the eye

is

attached to the irmer angle of the orbit.

The

fibres

of the outer rim blend or mingle with die bordering muscles of the face.

Another muscle
operate on the

The

of circular form surrounds the mouth.

lips,

inner fibres

while the outer borders blend with the free ends of the

surrounding facial muscles.

The muscles which

classes, those

laterally
is

encircle the eye

which control and those which oppose.

and the muscles of the cheek are raised

produced.

By muscular

action, a

the face but the body as well.

is

and mouth arc operated by two

If

the

mouth

is

distinct

stretched

to the lower eyelid a smile

paroxysm of laugbter

affects

not only

The breath is drawn in, the chest, a diaphragm,

convulsed and agitated.

The

lips,

the depression of the angles of the

and the corrugation of the brows denote

other combinations of which the

114

mouth

despair, fear

human face is

disclosing the teeth

and anger, zage and

capable.

OCCIPITO-FRONTALIS

CORRUGATOR OF THE
EYEBROW

ORBICULARIS OCULI

4
5

ZYGOMAHCUS MINOR
ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR

BUCX:iNATOR

lis

116

Features

THE CHIN
Below
base

is

the cleft of the chin, the chin itself protrudes. Its breadth at the

marked by two

the nose,

making

lines

which, prolonged, would meet at the septu^ of

a triangle chat

wedges upward into the base of the lower

lip.

bordered on each side by two planes which reach to the angle of the jaw.
Variations in chins present the following comparisons: high or low;

It is

pointed or bait;

flat,

furrowed or diqipled; elongated, double,

etc.

117

MOVEMENTS OF THE LOWER JAW

119

THE EYE

A BOVE

the eye socket, or orbit, the frontal bone

thickness.

The cheek bones beneath

is

buttressed

and of double

arc reinforced and the entire bony struc-

ture surrounding the eye is designed to protect this vulnerable

and expressive

feature of the face.

The eye, cushioned in fat, rests in this socket. In shape, the eyeball is
somewhat round. Its exposed portion consists of pupil, iris, cornea and the
"white of the eye." Due to ihe transparent covering, or cornea, which fits
over the iris, much as a watch crystal fits over a watch, making a part of a
smaller sphere laid over a larger one, the eye
It is the

ly

upper

lid

which moves.

over the eye; when open,

its

Its

mark

the fold.

The

lid travels

when

closed,

drawn smooth-

transparent cornea of the eye, raised percepti-

widi the eyeball as

it

lid,

makes

this lid bulge.

This

moves, whether opened or closed.

120

is

beneath the upper part and leaving a

bly and alway.s partly covered by the upper

bulge on the

slight^ projected in front.

lower part follows the curve of the eyeball,

like the roll top of a desk, folding in

wrinkle to

curtam,

is

The lower lid is quite stable. It may be wrinkled and slightly lifted inward,
buying below the inner end of the lid. The lashes which fringe the upper and
lower

lids

to protect

from
it,

their outer margin,

shade the eye and serve as delicate feelers

the upper lid instim^vely dosing

whra they

are ttn^ied.

THE EAR

HE

ear. irregular in form, is

the head.

The hne

line with the

of the ear toward the face

is

is

on a

upper angle of the lower jaw. The ear,

in man, has lost practically all

like half of

placed on the side of

movement. It is shaped

a bowl with a rim turned out, and below

appended a piece of

fatty tissue called

a lobe.

Its

muscles which in primitive times, no doubt, could

move
it

it

to catch faint sounds,

into wrinkles, which,

certain definite forms.

is

serve only to

draw

though varying widely, have

There

bearing the rcinains of a

front of which

now

tip,

is

an outer rim often

an inner elevation

in

the hollow of the ear with the canal's

opening protected in front by a flap and behind and

below by smaller

flaps.

The ear has three planes divided by lines radiating from the
back and down and back. The first line marks a depressed
planes. The second marks a raised angle.

canal,

up and

^ between

122

its

2 Tragus

4 Anti-tragus

123

PLANES OF

THE EAR

THE

I HE nose
like, its

is

in the center of the front plane of the face. Its shape

root in the forehead

descends from the forehead

base

it

is

held

The bony

NjOSE

and
it

its

base at the center of the upper

becomes larger

in width

up in the middle and braced from the

part of the nose descends only half

is

wedge-

lip.

and bulk, and

sides

by

way from

As it
at

its

root and

is

cartilages.
its

composed of two nasal bones. The lower part is composed of cartilages,

in all: two upper, two lower laterals and one dividing the nasal cavities.

Two wedges

meet on the nose, a

the bridge of the nose.

The

above the center

little

direction of

one

is

five

at a point called

toward the base of the fore-

head between the eyes; that of the other toward the end of the nose, diminishing in width as it enters the bulbous portion at the tip.

125

THE NOSE

126

This bulb

rises as

two

middle of the upper

lip

pands into the bulbous

flares out to

The

form the

tip,

alje

from the

(septum of the nose), exflows over the sides,

and

or wings of the nostrils.

cartilaginous portion

wings are raised

ing,

sheets of cartilage

is

quite movable.

in laughter, dilated in

The

heavy breath-

narrowed in distaste, and wings and

tip

are raised

in scorn, wrinkling the skin over the nose.

127

Average variations

They may be

Roman
At

in

noses divide them into classes.

small, large, or very large; concave or convex;

humped,

or straight.

the tips they

may be

elevated, horizontal, or depressed; flattened,

tapering or twisted.

The wings may be

almond-^aped.

128

delicate or puffy,

round or

flat,

triangular, square or

129

THE MOUTH

That part of the jaws in which Ac teeth are set is cylindrical in

controls the shape of the mouth. If the cyliirfer

is flat

be thin and the mouth a sht. The greater the curve

and more bow-shaped will be the mouth and lips.

From
the

the base of the nose to the upper red

mouth has a

central vertical groove

and

<rf

on

in front, the lips will

this cylinder, the fuller

lip, this

pillars

eurtainous portion of

either side

into broad, drooping wings, ending at the corners of the

eminences called the

pillars of the

shape and

which blend

mouth

in fleshy

mouth.

has a central wedge-shaped body, indented at the top

by the wedge of the groove above, and two long, slender wings disappearing
under the pillars of the mouth. The lower red Up has a central groove with

The upper red

lip

a lateral lobe on either side. It has three soifaces: the largest depressed in

130

the middle at the groove, a smaller one

on

either side diminishing in thickness, curv-

ing outward, and not so long as those

the upper red

Bdow

lip.

the lower red

portion of the

ends at the

mouth

lip,

the curtainous

slopes inward

cleft in the chin. It

bounded by

and

has a small,

Hnear central ridge and two large,

lobes,

<rf

lateral

the pillars of the mouth.

The oval cavity of the mouth is surrounded by a circular muscle (orbicularis

oris)

wh(we

fibres,

overlapping at the cor-

ners, raise the skin into the folds or the

pillars of the
Its

mouth.

outer margin

is

usually

marked by a

crease in the skin running from the wings

of the nose out and

down

to varying dis-

tances, paralleling the pillars. Its lower

may
this

blend into

Itie cleft

of the chin.

end

From

muscle radiate various facial muscles

of expression.

Average variations in Hps i^esent the

following comparisons: thick or thin, prominent, protruding or receding.

compared with
straight,

the other in these respects:

curved or bowed, rosebud, pouting

or compressed.

132

Each may be

The Neck

The neck

is

cylindrical in shape, following the curve of the spinal column;

even when the head

In front,

it is

somewhat

is

thrown back the neck curves

slightly forward.

rooted at the chest and canopied above by the chin. In hack

and the back of the head overhangs it. The neck is

buttressed on each side by the shoulders. From behind each ear a muscle
descends inward to the root of the neck. These muscles almost meet each
it is

other,

making

flattened

a point at the pit.

They form,

in fact,

neck, the sides of an inverted triangle whose base

The two muscles

on the front plane of the

is

the

canopy of the

chin.

referred to are called bonnet strings.

Into this triangle are set three prominent forms: a box-shaped cartilage
called the kirynx or voice-box; just bek>w it a ring of cartilage called the

and beneath these a gland called the thyroid gland. In men,

the voice-box or larynx is larger; in women, the thyroid gland is more
prominent. The whole is known as the Adam's apple. The neck has
the followtng
cricoid cartilage;

action:

up and down, from

side \o sid^

and

rotary.

133

FRONT OF THE NECK

BACK OF THE NECK

From

the sloping platform of the shoulders the neck

rises. It Is

on the sides by the trapezius (table) muscle. The table shape of

appears only from the back, a diamond with lower apex well
Its lateral

comers

diagonally

The

arise

from the shoulder

buttressed

this

down

muscle

the back.

girdle opposite the deltoid. Rising

upward it braces the back of the head.

strength of the iwck is therefore at the back, which

and overhung

Ktso

is

somen^iat

flat

ham oE the akoO.

!35

Hi

,1!

Muscles of the Neck

1

Stcmo-cleido-mastoid

2 Levator

scapulae,

3 Tropeaus

136

Muscles or the Neck

Stemocleido-mastoid:
to

From

top of sternum and sternal end of clavicle

mastoid process (back of ear). Action: Together, pull head forwsid;

separately, rotates to opposite side, depresses bead.

Levator Scapulae;

From upper

cervical vertebra to upper angle of shoul-

der blade. Action: Raises angle of shoulder blade.

Trapezius:

From occipital bone, nape ligament and spine as far as twelfth

dorsal, to chivicle,

acromion and ridge of shoulda blade. Action: Extends

head, elevates du>ulder

and

rotates shoulder blade.

137

Muscles of the Nbck

Platysma Myoides:

comer

A sheathing from chest and shoulder to masseter and

of mouth. Action: Wrinkles

dcfift

of nedc, draws

down comer

of

mouth.
Digastric (double-bellied muscle)
chin; posterior belly,

Anterior belly, from maxiUa, behind

horn mastoid pxocess; fastened by loop to hyoid bone.

Action: Raises hyoid and tongue.

Mylo-hyoid: Forms floor of mouth and canopy of chin in front.

Stylo-hyoid:

From hyoid

to styloid process. Action:

Draws back

hyoid

and tongue.
Sterno-hyoid:

From sternum

to hyoid bone. Action: Depresses hyoid and

Adam's apple.
Omohytud: Fnnn hyoid bone to ^o^iiee uppor bolder of
Action: Draws hyoid down and to cme nde.

scapula.

Tongue Bone and Larynx

1

Hyoid bone

2 Thyroid cartilage
3 Thyroid gland muscles

Digastric (has

two portUms)

5 Styk>liydd

6 Sternohyoid
7 Omo-hyoid
8 Sterao-cleido-mastoid

9 Trapezius

139

Movements of the Neck

In the neck are seven vertebne, each moving a

Uttle.

Wi^

the neck

is

each vertebra moves back as far as theperpenas

dicular and then the fq>posite sides move forward, lengthening the neck
they do so. This motion is much freer at the second joint from the skull, which

turned to one

side, flt side of

on a pivot. The joint of the skull itself moves only

the rest of the neck may be quite stationary.
turns

For

safety as well as to see

able to turn in

2 The head

a lever of the

3 The muscles
140

and to hear, the hesd and shoulders must be

all durections.
is

that

move

in nodding, in which

first

order.

the atlas.

I
1

The inferior maxillary or lower jaw

bone

The hyoid

The

or tongue bone

thyroid cartilage or

Adam's

apple

4 Trachea or wind pipe

n
The canopy under the chin
2 The sterao-cleido-mastoid
1

Attachment to

clavicle

and the

at?

tachment to the sternum of the

stemo-cleido-mastoid muscle,

attachment of
directly

this

the

muscle above

is

back of the ear

III

The neck

in

shape

is

a rounded

cylmder that follows the direction

of the spine

141

142

vn
The stemo^Iei^Hnastoid turns the
head from
dioulder

side to side towards the

when both muscles act to-

gether; they deinress the face

down-

ward.

vm
1

StemocleidcMnastoid muscle

2 The trapezius; to the skull at the

curved line of fbe occipital bone;
its

fibres

are

carried

oUS^iie^

downward and outward

The seventh cervical vertebra, a
prominent projection at the back
of the

neck

IX

The region
is

at the

somewhat

back of the

flattened

shorter than in front.

ni-ck

and much

The head

resents the weight to be

rep-

moved;

the muscles, the power to

make

the

movement of

upon

the

the head

neck possible.

143

Side

View of the Neck

The lower jaw

2 The larynx or Adam's apple
1

The

sterno-cleido-mastoid
the breastbone)

The

The sternum, breastbcme

144

clavicle, collarbone

(sternum,,

Thkoat Muscles
1

Digastric

Hyoid bone

Omo-fayoid, passes through pulley

Neck from the Back

1

The sterno-cleido-mastoid

The

The levator sci^ulae

splenius capitis
.

(shoulder

blade)

145

The Torso
FRONT VIEW

The

thorax, or chest,

is

composed

of bones

not only to protect the heart and lungs, vtUxh

and
it

cartilages. It is designed

contains, but also to allow

&e Yi^u^ mass to be tunied and twisted with tbe i^ennt mov^^
body. This cage is fcnmed, at Oie back, by the spinal eohrnin*
the

ribs,

baseball

may

and in finmt by the breastbcme.

mask

protects the face;

serve as a bellows.

The

its

It protects the heart

structure

ribs are not

is

yielding

complete

and

circles,

on tfae^des by
and lungs as a

elastic, so that

nor do they parallel

each other; they incline downward from the spine and bend at an angle

146

it

at

the sides, to take a forward thrust toward

the breastbone.
tiie

The breasdxuie

is

called

sternum.

If

each

were

rib

rigid

and

circular, ihe

immovable and no

chest would be

chest ex-

pansion could take place. According to

Keill, the breastbone,

tion, is thrust

with an easy inspira-

out one-tenth of an inch,

allowing for^-two cubic mches

enter the lungs;

with

effort, to

and

this

may be

<rf

aur to

increased,

seventy or evai one hundred

cubic inches.

The

pelvis

is

the mechanical axis of the

the fulcrum for trunk and legs,

body.

It is

and

large in proportion. Its

is

little

mass

inclines

forward and as compared with the

trunk above

is

somewhat square. The ridge

and

at

the sides

is

the fulcrum for the lateral muscles;

flares

out

is

called the iliac crest

wi^ly

this
it

for this purpose, rather

more widely in front tito bcUadL

147

MASSES OF THE TORSO

The masses
them the

(rf

the torso are the chest,

e[rigastiium; the fii^

flie

abdomra or

pelvis,

and between

two ccmqiarativ^ stable, the middle one

quite

movable.

straight line

and paralleling

marking the

it,

epigastrium forms

Below this arch

ti<m. It is

collar

bones defines the top of the

first

mass;

a line through the base of the breast muscles and pit of the
its

is

base.

the abdomen, the most movable part of the iiu>bile por-

boimded below by a line passing approximate^ through the anterior

points of the iliac crests. Its profile shows the lines of the cone of the thorax

diverging downward, the lines of the wedge of the chest and shoulders cbn-

vo-ging downward, and the buttretsii^ of the federal

ransc^

In the bending or turning of the body the central

line of this portion

bends always to the convex

side,

always paralleled by the borders of the rectus muscle.

By
is

this

broken.

movement
It

the straight

wedge

of the front

becomes not a bent wedge, but two

wedges; one the upper half of the original wedge,

prolonged but not completed

downw^;

the other

the lower half, prolonged upward to meet the one

above.

More unchanging than

either of the

above

mass of the abdomen. The central groove

shallow and

may

lose itself below.

is

is

the

here

The long wedge

ends in the symphysis pubis.

149

150

PLANES OF THE TORSO

FRONT VIEW

From
trunk

the froat, the masses of the

may be

divided into three dis-

tinct planes.

Hie

first

ing lines
collar

may

be outlined by draw-

from the inner third of each

bone

to the base of the breast

muscles (the point where they take an

upward direction to
the upper

their insertion

on

arm) and then joining them

with a base hne across the sixth ribs.

The second is the epigastrium which

forms tl ui^ier part of die abdominal
region.

tened

For our purpose,

plane

bordering

it is

the

breast

flat-

muscles above and the stomach below.

The
and

is

lower

third

plane

bounded
ribs

and

at

is

more rounded

the sides

pelvic

by the

bones.

It

is

placed in the lower cavity of the trunk

^the

abdomen.

MUSCLES OF THE TORSO

pertaining to the breast

Pectoralis

The

Muscles that pull the arm down; pectorahs; latissimus dorsi

Abductors: draw the thigh toward the medium

Tendons

Pulley: knee-cap, tendon

Rectus, ufHight: abdoaninis and femoris

Rhomboideus: riiomb^haped, not ri^t-angled; horn the shoulder

serrati: the

deep muscles of the spine

that pass through a loop or

slit:

line

omo-hyoid; digastric

and li^unent

blade to the spine

Deltoid: delta-shaped, triangular, equilateral q the shoulder

10

Trapezius: table-shaped

11

Oblique, slanting

152

TORSO STRUCTURE

2 Deltoid
3 Rectus abd<nniiiis

Rectus

From

Abdominis:

&om

4 Serratusmagnus

pubis to cartilages oi

5 External obHque

seventh. Action: Flexes tinonx.

Serratus

to scapula

Action:

ribs,

symphysis
fifth

Magnus: From dg^t upper

to

ribs

^inal edge, under surface.

Dram

shoulder blade f<Mwaixl,

raises ribs.

External Oblique:
to iliac crest

From

and Ugament

eight lower ribs

to pubis. Action:

Flexes thorax.

153

CAGE OF THE TORSO

TORSO PROFILE

The

erect torso presents in profile

the long curve of the front, broken by

depressions at the border of the breast

muscle and at the umbilicus or navel

into three lesser curves, almost equal
in length.

The back presents the sharp

anterior curve of the waist, oi^xnite

the umbilicus, bending into the long

posterior curve of the chest, and the
shorter curve of the buttocks.

curve of the chest

is

The

broken by the

almost vertical shoulder blade and the

slight

bulge of the latissimus below

it.

In profile the torso presents three

masses: that of the chest, that of the
waist,

and that of the

men. The
tively

first

and

pelvis

and abdo-

last are

compara-

unchanging.

Above, the mass of the

bounded by the

line

of

cliest

the

is

collar

bones; below, by a line following the

cartilages of the ribs, being perpen-

dicular to the long diameter of

tiie

chest.

This mass

is

widened by the expan-

sion of the chest in breathing,

shoulder moves freely over

it,

and the
carrying

the shoulder blade, collarbone,

and

muscles.

155

marked by the ridge of costal cartilages tiiat forms its border,

down and
sloping up and forward, and by the ribs themselves, sloping
magnus
forward, and by the "digitations" (finger marks) of the serratus
The

chest

is

(big saw-toothed) muscle,

little

triangles in

a row from the corner of the

disappearing under the

breast muscle, paralteling the cartilages of the ribs,
latissimus.
is
Below, the mass of the pelvis and abdomen slopes up and forward, it
marked by the iliac crest and hip. In front it may be flattened by contraction

of the

abdominal muscles. Over

the

of the pelvis.

tilt

its

surface the hip

moves

freely,

changing

Between these the central mass contains the waist vertebrae, and is very
for
changeable. Practically all of the movement of flexion and extension
the whole spine occurs here,

This mass

is

marked by a

and much of

the side-bending.

buttress of lateral muscles, slightly overhanging

the pelvic brim and bearing inward against the side above.
in different positions of the trunk.

It

changes greatly

The Torso,
1

side view:

Latissimus dorsi

2 External oblique
Latissimus dorsi:
dorsal,

to

From

spine, sixth

sacrum and

passes inside of

humerus

iliac

crest;

to fasten to

front side near head. Action:

Draw$

arm backward and inward.

External Oblique:
ribs

to iliac

crest

From

eight lower

and ligament to

pubis. Action: Flexes thorax.

157

TORSOPROFH-E
T.

bones:

(shoulder

Scapula,

(1)

bladej, a large flat bone triangular in shape.

It articulates

with the collar bone at the

sumnut <A the

shouldfiir.

(2)

The

serratus

magnus muscles follow the ritn. See

Muscles No. 11. (3) The thorax or rib
cage

is

the cavity enclosed

by the

ribs, at-

tached to the spine behind and to the

sternum
short

in front.

The upper

and grow longer

seventh

rib,

which

is

till

ribs arc quite

they reach the

the longest

last to fasten to the breastbone.

ieven ribs are

II.

The

muscles:

latissimus dorsi

muscle covers the region of the loins to be

inserted into the upper part of the

arm

at

the lower border of the bicipital groove.

It is

a superficial muscle, a thin sheathing

that finds attachments at the small t the

back and at die crest at tte ilium near the

lumbar and

last dorsal vertebrae.

magnus muscle

serratus

is

(2)

The

seen only at

its

lower parts as prominent digitations that

show on

the side of the thorax or rib cage

below the armpit.

muscle

is

large portion of this

covered by the pectoralis major

and the latissimus dorsi muscles. (3) The

external oblique

lower eight

ribs,

is

attached aboye to the

vbetc they

the serratus magnus.

carried

downward

iliac crest.

iS8

From

interlodt:

h^

with

tiuy are

to be attached to die

named the true

and

the

The upper

ribs.

The

magnus draws

the

shoulder blade forward and raises the

ribs.

III.

The

serratus

latissimus dorsi draws the

ward aod inward.

backward at the

Its

arm back-

upper border curves

level with the sixth or

seventh dorsal vertebrae, as

it

paraes over

the lower angle of Uie shoulder blade.

The

serratus

magnus muscle forms the

inner wall of the armpit. Its insertion to

the ribs above are not seen, while those

below, three or four in number are plainly

visible

in

the

region

between the great

pectoral and the latissimus dorsi.

In profile,

IV.

the

torso

marked by the ridge of the

that

forms

its

in

front

is

costal cartilage

border. Sloping up and for-

ward (with the

ribs themselves

sloping

down and forward) the digitations of the

serratus magnus meet the external oblique.
In

the external oblique forms a thick

ilium,

oblique
row.

attachment to the crest of the

its

base marking the

roll, its

When one

tracts,

it

side of this muscle con-

gives the trunk a

movement

rotation to the right or left side.

sides pull,
ribs

iliac fur-

When

the oblique muscles

of

both

draw

downward, thus bea^og the body

forward.

159

RIB

CAGE

The fulcrum or hinge on which

lever

works

2 The

ribs

tiie

have to be

lifted

by

muscular force

The

front

end of the

rib

is

low-

ered and raised by muscular force.

Wh^her

ascending or descemting. the

muscles hold or balance the axu on

which

tiie ribs

turn.

They

are

worked

by two muscular engines, one that

raises and expands the chest and the
one that

pulls the cage

down. These

opposing muscles are known as

vators

and

ele-

depressors.

The enlargnnent and contraction of

die chest depends on the mec^ianical
contrivance of the bones which enclose

The

it.

the

ribs articulate to the sides of

backbone from where they project

obliquely

downward. When they

are

pulled upward, they are at the same

being

time

pulled

more

brings them
the

spine,

outward,

which

to a right angle to

causing the sternum or

breastbone to wbidi they are attached

at

fnmt, to be thrust forward. The

muscular bands that enlarge and contract the chest pass

from

pelvis to the front

the rib cage.

160

upward obliquely

and

sides of

The Torso
BACK VIEW
HE

trapezius

is

a diamond-shaped muscle, with upper apex at the base

of the skull, lower apex well below the shoulder blades, and corners at the

shoulder girdle opposite the deltoid, as though

it

were a continuatioii of

that muscle.

From

the sacrum the muscles diverge

upward, while the lower

comer

and lower

ribs

of the shoulder blade diverge

down-

ward, making lesser diamonds of various

definiteness of outline.

The

ridge of the shoulder blade

conspicuous,
the

comer

is

pointing diagonally

of the shoulder.

toward

sets

It

fixed angle with the spinal edge

always

at a

(more than

a ri^t angle) and at a ri^t angle with the

lower tumed-out comer.
In relaxation, both ridge
ridges under the skin,

and

blacte are

and are converted

into grooves by the muscles bulging in

contraction.

Of

these muscles, those

on

either side of

the ridge are easily recognizable

toid,

below and outside, and

above and

inside,

the del-

trapezius,

but the trapezius also

spreads from the inner end of the ridge to

well

down

the spine.

form the bulge, are

Under

this,

hewing

to

the rhomboidei, extend-

ing from the blade diagonally upward to

the spine, and the levator

from

its

anguH scapulae,

upper corner almost vertically to

the top of the neck.

161

TORSOBACK VIEW

Trapezius

2 Deltoid
3 Latisamus dorsi

Trapeaus: From occipital

bone,

nape ligament and

spine as far as twelfth dorsal,

to

clavicle,

ridge

of

acromion and
shoulder

blade.

Action: Extends head,

vates

shoulder and rotates

shoulder blade.

162

ele-

onfy when in action. Fc>r this reas(m, uiidex aQ dianges of pont^

the shoulder blade with its acromion process,

be regarded as the landmarks of

The

spine

of the back,

is

its

course

as the cervical, dorsal

ber,

and the seventh

known

is

ilium,

marked by

vertebrae. It extends the full length

a furrow.

The

vertebrje are

and lumbar. The cervical vertebrae are seven

is

the

must

this region.

composed of twenty-four

and

and the crest of Uie

most prominent

in the

in

num-

whole of the spine.

as vertebra prominens. In the dorsal region

deep as below. Here there are twelve vertebnc.

known

tiie

When

furrow
the

is

body

It is

not so
is

bent

forward, the processes of the vertebnc in this section are plainly indicated.

The
where

spinal furrow
it

is

marked

part of the body,

it

becomes

becomes deeper as

b> dimples

and as

flattened.

it

and

it

reaches the lumbar vertebrae,

d^)ressi(Uis. It

widens out, too, in

this

passes over the surface of the sacnmi to the coccyx

The average length

of the spine is about

two

feet three

inches.

The outer corner of the shoulder girdle is the acromion process, v4iich is the

high outer extremity of a ridge rising from the shoulder blade.

a

The shoulder blade

plaque of bone

flat

fitting

or scapula (spade)

is

snugly against the cage

of the thorax, having a long inner vertical edge,

parallel to the spine;

a sharp lower point; a long outer

edge pointing to the armpit; and a short upper edge

parallel with the slope of the shoulder.

The

ridge, or

spine of the scapula, starts at the spinal edge, about a

way down,

third of the

and

rises until

it

in a

triangular thickening,

passes high over the outer upper

corner, where the shoulder joint

ward

ties,

then turns for-

to join with the collarbone at the

The prominent

acromion.

portions are this ridge and the spinal

edge and the lower comer. The upper outer corner

is

thickened to tona the socket for the head of tlw

humerus, forming the should^ jrant prc^wr.

Movements
Movement

of flexion

entirely in the waist or

and extension occurs almost

lumbar

vertebrte.

Movement

of side-bending occurs throughout the whole length.

Movement

when
it is

is

of rotation occurs in the lumbar vertebrw

the spine

is erect,

vert^rs 4ien

in the middle

when

half flexed, in the upper vertebrae

fully bent. In the

rotation
it is

is

lumbar

the

sp^

vertebrae, the axis of this

behind the spine;

middle vertebrae

in the

neutral; in the upper dorsals

it is

in front of the

spine.

Each vertebra moves

ment

is

a httle, and the whole

the aggregate of the

The shoulder blade shdes

many

little

move-

movements.

against the surface

the cage of the thorax, in any direction,

and may be

lifted fnnn it

^inal edge

so that

its

point or

becomes prominent under the skin.

fifty

164

It

its

produces easily

per cent ^^.y^aiotomamaeatoS &fi jlKNikler.

Wedging of the Cage into the Hips

MECHANISM OF THE TORSO

AND

HIPS

Thr cage and the pelvic bones are connected by a portion of the spine called
ihc

lumbar region. Muscular power

the

body

to

acts

on these masses as levers and allows

move forwards and backwards

or turn.

pared to a wheel with only two spokes; the hub

is

The

pelvis can be

the hip joint

and the spokes

are the legs which swing back and forth as in walking or running.
force is applied to the long end of a lever, the

speed

is

desired, the lever

is

power

is

com-

increased.

When
When

shortened.

The muscular power of the human body can only pull upon and bend the
levers at the joints, when the masses of the back and pelvis are bent backward
or forward, or to the side.
that the

The movement

of the back

is

limited to the extent

bony structure of the spine allows. Each segment of the spine

lever,

upon which the masses of the

From

the rear, the torso presents a great

ward. The base of the wedge

is

between the two buttresses of the

rib

is

cage and the pelvis bend or turn.

wedge with

its

at the shoulders. This

hips. In

mov^nent

apex directed down-

wedge

is

driven in

these two masses turn

or bend.

167

SHOULDER GIRDLE

blades are embedded rather than atattachment

to the back. They move from their

Shoulder
tached
at the

n3

summit of the blade

raised, lowered, or twisted

movements

of the

collar

to the collarbone and are

by muscular force. The

bones and the shoulder

joins
blades are free except where the collarbone
around the
the sternum in front. These bones curve
cone shaped thorax, and are known as the thoracic
girdle.

This girdle, except at

its

attachment at the

ster-

or
num, may be raised or lowered; thrown forward
without interfering
twisted round the static rib cage

m any way with the

There

is

act of expiration or inspiration.

a space between the borders of the shoulder

two
blades at the back and in front and between the
the
ends of the coUar bones. The muscles that raise
shoulders

work

away from Ae rib cage, w*en set in motion,

against eadi other witii

p^ect balance.

169

DELTOID
The

deltoid muscle resembles a delta in shape. It arises

third of the clavicle

and the convex border

<rf

from the outer

the acromion and Vios the

directed
entire length of the spine of the shoulder blade. All three portions are

downward. The middle portion

is

vertical

and the inner and outer descend

be inserted by a short tendon into the outer surface of the

humerus. Nature allows these three portions to work in harmony. The delarm up vertically. The
toid, when all three portions are working, pulls the
obliquely, to

the
portions that pull diagonally from the collarbone, and from the crest of

shoulder blade, carry

The

it

forwards and backwards.

pectoralis major muscle twists

When the arm is extended

When drawing a pectoral
tendon leaves the arm (2)
meets at

its

sternum (5)

upon

itself

or raised above the head,

its

its fibres

its

is

down.

are parallel.

descent

attachment to the seventh rib (6) where

below the pre-tenuun.

arm

attachment on the collarbone (3) where

step-down from clavicle to sternum (4)

its

the

seven points should be noted: (1) where the

leaves the sixth rib (7) the location of the second

170

when

and

it

down

crosses

it

the

till

it

third ribs that are just

PECTORALIS MAJOR

The Scapula
MECHANISM OF THE SHOULDER BLADE

Xn

treating the shouldra' as

to discover

tries

its

leverage and

its

one

device,

mechanical

function,

its

The shoulder must

power.

he looked

upon as the foundation of

the arm.

The

large

opposite

diagram on the

shows

page

the

muscular arrangement of the

The arm

shoulder blade.

is

separated at a distance from

shoulder,

the

showing

the

nature

has

which

devices

contrived in order that the

arm may be pulled forward,

inward or back. The origin
(tf all the micles shown are

on

tiie

Moulder blade, while

the insertioiis

on both the

on the arm are

top, front and

back of the humerus. They

so

arc

placed,

when

that

pulling against one another,

their contracting fibres

a rotary

movement

cause

of the

0 Supra-spinatus muscle
Infrar^inatus muscle

aim. These muscles entirely

or in part are seen only in

2 Teres minor muscle

3 Teres major muscle

the triangular space

by

bound

the trapezius, latissimus

dorsi

172

and the

deltoid.

4 Triceps muscle
5

Humerus bone

Levator anguli scapulae: the elevator of the scapula, raises the angle

of the shoulder blade.

2 Rhomboideus:
dOTSal. It elevates

arises

from the sev^ith

cairiclc to the fourth

and

fifth

and retracts the shoulder blade.

3 Serratus magnus: from the vertebral border ot the shoulder blade;

draws tbe diouliter blade fraward.

Mechanism
1

is

The

(on opposite page)

inner border of the shoulder blade parallels the spine

when

the

arm

down.

arm is raised above, a right angle to the body, the greater

of the humerus loesses the upper rim of the glenoid ca^ty. The

2 When
tuberosity

the

should^ blade then

starts to revolve.

3 The horizontal bar represents the collarbone as

sternum at the
at the

front,

and with

tiie

axis

on which

the shoulder blade

the shoulder blade turns (seen from the back)

where the collarbone and the

crest of the shoulder blade meet.

The shoulder blade or scapula.

6 The humerus: arm bone.
174

(rf

articulates with the

summit of the shoulder.

4 The
5

acranicm process

it

is

MECHANISM OF THE SCAPULAR REGION

The

Arm

The

has

arm

its

base in ihe shoulder

one bone, called the humerus,

Its

slightly curved,

girdle.

is cylindrical,

with a spherical head

fitting into

tiw cup^haped cavity of the shoulder blade.

ball-and-socket joint

is

covered with a

Its

lubricat-

ing capsule and held together by strong braces

membranes and ligaments. These, crossing at

different angles, brace the arm as well as allow

of

great freedom of
the

arm ends

movement. The lower part

elbow

at the

the inner and outer sides of

inences, called inner

of

on

in a hinge joint,

which are two prom-

and outer condyle.

Both prominences show on the surfaa. The

iaoN condyle is used as a point of measurement

and is more con^icuous than the outer one.
The forearm has two bones. One, called the
ulna,

notched to

is

fit

around the rounded

sur-

face between the two condyles of the arm,

the elbow.
this shaft

plainly

The

at

extremity of the lower end of

has the shape of a knob which shows

above the wrist on the

little

finger side.

The other bone, called the radius, joins

wrist on the thumb side of the hand. Here
wide, curving upward to

its

head, which

is

the
it is

small

and cup-shaped, a ring of ligament holding

it

in

arm

bone,

on the thumb side of the

wrist,

place below the outer condyle of the

or humerus.

The

radius,

radiates

At

around the ulna on the

the elbow, the

hinge jdnt.

little

finger side.

arm and forearm

act as a

The mass

of the shoulder descends as a wedge,

smldng into the

At

flattened outer

fnun the

this point,

downward

When

the

ann

half

front, the

way down.
arm wedges

to enter the forearm below the elbow.

thumb

is

turned away from the body, the

mass of the forearm

is

oval,

becoming round when

the bones of the forearm cross.

The mass corresponding

wide as

it

is

to the wrist

is

twice as

way

thick and enters the forearm half

up, as a flattened wedge.

From the back,

side.

Beneath

the shouldo* enters the

there

it

is

arm on the

a truncated wedge from

tiie

center o n4iich, in a line from elbow to shoulder,

is

The forearm

is

the plane of the tendon of the elbow.

rounded or

oval,

depending upon whether or not the

bones of the forearm are crossed. The wrist

as wide as

it is

is

twice

thick.

IT?

The Arm

178

Back

View

Flexed

The Arm

Humerus

2 Ulna

(little

finger side)

3 Radius (thumb side)

180

Muscles of the Upper

Arm, front view:
Orraco-bradiialis

2 Biceps
Brachialis anticus

4 Pronator radii teres

5 Flexors, grouped

6 Supinator loQgus

Coraco-brachialis:

From

coracoid process, to humerus,

inner

down.

side,

Action:

merus forward,

half

way

Draws hurotates hu-

merus outwaid,
Bicq>s:

Long head from

g^oid

cavity (under acro-

mion)

through

groove

in

head of humerus; short head

from
radius,

coracoid
Aciinn:

process;

to

Depresses

shoukicr blade; flexes fore-

arm; rotates radius outward.

181

182

Muscles of the Uppbk

Arm, outer view:
1

Triceps

2 Supinator longus
3 Extensor carpi radialis
longus

4 Anconeus
5 Extensors, grouped

TV
EXTOJSOR GROUP
ExtNisor DigitOTiim

From

munis:
dyle

to

Com-

external con-

second and third

phalanges

of

all

fingers.

Action: Extends fingers.

Extensor Minimi Digiti:

From

condyle

external

to

second and third phalanges

of

little finger.

Action: Ex-

tends litUe finger.

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris:

From

external condyle

back of ulna to base of

finger. /I crion:

and
little

Extends wiist

and bends down.

Anconeus: From back of
external condyle to olecran-

on process and

shaft of ulna.

Action: EiUends forearm.

183

184

THE ARM
Front View
I.

bones:

( 1 )

The coracoid process

a part of the shoulder blade that extends

is

beyond and above the lim of the cup that holds the head of the humenu. (2)
The head of the humerus is rounded and covered with cartilage. It contacts with

The humerus

the glenoid cavity of the shoulder blade. (3)

bones of the body.

composed of a

It is

and the lower

articulates at the shoulder

humerus

at the

elbow

shaft

is flaiioiiL'J

and two large

at the

from front

lo

is

one of the long

extremities; the upper

elbow. (4)

hack ending

in

The

shaft of the

two projections:

one on thu inner, the other on the outer side, called the inner and outer condyles.

The inner

side is the

more prominent.

muscles: (1) The coraco-brachiahs

II.

inner surface of the

arm

so called because

it is

is

is

a small round muscle placed

lying next to the short

on the

head of the biceps. (2) The biceps

divided into two parts: the long and the short.

The long

head ascends in the tric^tal groove ot the humerus to be inserted just above the
upper

mar^n

of the gjencnd cavity of the should^' blade.

attachment to the coracoid process.

below the elbow. (3)

stretches across the

III.

The biceps descends as a tendon

its

to the radius

brachialis anticus muscle lies beneath the bicei. It

lower half of the humerus to the ubia.

Both the biceps and brachialis muscles are placed

they contract they

as

The

The ^ort head has

bend the elbow. Every muscle

an example: the finger

is

is

in front of the

arm.

When

provided with an adversary;

not bent or straightened without the contraction of

two muscles taking place.

an-

tagonists of the triceps.

The biceps and brachialis anticus are the direct

The brachialis anticus muscle covers the lower haU of

the

humerus in front and

inserted into the ulna just below the elbow. Its attadunent

is

at a great disadvantage as to power, but

to the

ulna

lost in

strength is gained in speed

is

so short that

it is

by

its

short

what

is

levo^.

The mass of the shoulder descends as a wedge on the outer surface of the arm
half way down. The biceps is seen as a flattened mass when not in contraction as
IV.

it

wedges downward to enter the forearm below the elbow. There are great

changes in the form of the

in

repose, but

arm above

the

elbow as a mass; the biceps

is

lengthened

becomes short and globular during contraction.

18$

186

THE ARM
Back View
I.

bones:

( 1 )

The

great tuberosity of the

the bicipital groove.

shoulder.

(2)

The

At

its

upper extremity

Though covered by the deltoid,

shaft of the

humerus

it

it is

is

situated

on

ttie

outer side

(rf

a prominent bony point of the

materially influences the surface form.

humerus is cylindrical. (3) Tlie olecranon of the

forms

ufaia

the point of the elbow.

n. muscles: (1)

Long

head. (2) External portion, (3) Internal portion of the

triceps. ( 4 )

Common tendon of the triceps. The triceps muscle has been so named

because

composed of three portions or heads, one of which is central and

The long head arises from the border of the shoulder blade immedi-

two

it

is

lateral.

ately

below

tlie

glenoid cavity and terminates

the termination of the internal

in a

broad

flat

tendon, which

and external portions. The external head

from the upper and outer part of the humerus. The inner head
humerus, but on the inner

which

is

side.

and triangular

in shape, is attached in the

arises

also on the

by contraction.

When

(5)

The anconeus

extnal condyle of the

humerus above, and below to the uhia, a continuation ol the

in, Muscles act only

is

also

Both muscles are attached to the common tendon,

inserted into the olecranon process of the uhia.

muscle, small

is

triceps.

exertion ceases they relax.

The

muscles that are placed on the front part of the arm, by their contraction bend the
elbow;

and extend and straighten the limb. The

triceps (the (q)posmg muscle) is

brought into play with no less than that which bent

muscles

move

is

a hinge

joint that

moves

in

it.

The dbow joint

one plane oaiy

either

that

th^

forward or

backward.

IV.

The back of

the

arm

is

covered by the large muscular fcnm of the tricqES,

which extends the entire length of the humerus. This muscle

is

widening below to the furrow of the outer head of the triceps.

common tendon

muscular fibres from

tendon

is

From

here the

of the triceps follows the humerus as a flattened plane to the

olecranon process of the ulna.

flat

narrow above,

all

three

The common tendon of the triceps receives the

heads of the triceps. The direction of this broad

in line with the humerus.

287

188

THE ARM
Outer View
I.

bones:

( 1 )

Acromion process of

The

(3) Shaft of the humerus. (4)

muscles:

II.

The

( 1 )

triceps

The biceps

the forearm. (2)

the shoulder blade, flexes the

the shoulder blade. (2)

is

external condyle.

By contraction, it extends
two-headed muscle. By contraction, it depresses

forearm and rotates the radius outward. (3

anticus (brachialis, pertaining to arm, uiuicus, in front):

alis

By

extensor

(extender); carpi

(long)

responsible for the action that extends the wrist.

contraction,

(carpus, the wrist); radialis

wires

and

strings that give the

that raise or
All the

much

movonents to a puppet. In the upper arm,

The forearm

the lever on

is

straighten out the

When a

muscle

arm

which both the biceps and the

at the elbow.

just

mentioned

pulls, the
is

pulling.

and

parallel the

arm

this,

is

needed to

the power

is

humerus above the outer condyle and extends

near the end of the radius at the wrist. It

is this

muscle that aids in turning

doorknob and the screwdriver.

the

IV. In looking at the

as a

arm from

the outer side

it is

seen that the deltoid descends

wedge sinking into an outer groove of the arm. The masses of the biceps and

triceps lie

on either

Tlicsc different
in

The muscles

motion to the thumb side of the hand. In order to do

attached to the lower third of the

to

the wires

triceps flex

swing the forearm backward and forward. Another contrivance

give rotary

as the

lower the forearm are placed in directions which parallel the bones.

muscles of the body are in opposing pairs.

opposing one yields with just sufficient resistance to balance the one that

to

it

(radiates); longus,

Muscles with their tendons are the instruments of motion as

III.

Brachi-

forearm. (4) Supinator longus. (5) Extensor carpi radialis longus;

flexes the

is

hunwnis.

a three-headed muscle.

is

Head ci

side.

There

is

as well an outer wedge, the supinator longus.

forms denote entirely different functions. Mechanism has always

move

view one of two purposes; either to

weight with speed.

arm, speed, This

a great weight slowly, or a hghter

down on the
move up and down as

at the shoulder creates power; lower

mechanism allows the

well as circularly,

paratively stow

The wedge

wrist

and hand to

with a certain firmness and

motvm with which

the

flexibility

compared to the com-

arm can be raised.

189

THE ARM
Inner View

BONES

I.

cylinder.

the

(1)

The bone of

arm and one

side consists of a
is

the upper arm, the humerus, consists of a long strong

As it is not flexible, it can turn only on joints, one at the shoulder to raise

known

at the

elbow to bend

round smooth

as the hcaci of the

The upper extremity

it.

ball that is covered over

humerus.

It

shoulder blade, the glenoid cavity. (2)

The

(3)

inner condyle of the humerus

outer one.
the

thumb

It is

seen from the inner

by a layer of

cartilage

and

glides in the cup^shaped cavity of the

The
is

cylindricnl shaft of the huiTi^.rus.

larger

and

inorL-

prominent than the

the origin of the flexors of the forearm as well as a muscle that pulls

side of the forearm toward the body, the pronator teres.

muscles: (1) Coraco-brachialis: from coracold process to humerus, inner

side half way down. It draws forward and rotates the humerus outward.
(2) Biceps: the long head from upper margin of the glenoid cavi^, the short head from-

II.

coracold process to radius.

It flexes

the forearm and rotates the radius outward.

Triceps: the middle or long head; the external head; the internal or short

(3)

head.

It

extends the forearm. (4) Brachialis anticus: from front of the humerus

and the lower half to the ulna.

It

flexes the forearm.

(5) Pronator radii teres:

extends from the internal condyle to the radius on the outer side and half

down.

way

pronates the hand and flexes the forearm. (6) Supinator longus: the
external condyloid ridge of tti^^Mwrus to the raid of the radius. It supinates the
It

forearm.

The arm and forearm are pivoted or jointed at the elbow. The elbow is the
fulcrum. The power that moves the lever is a muscular engine. When the forearm
III.

is

power

raised the

is

exerted by the biceps

and

brachialis anticus.

When

this

action takes place, the triceps are inert.

IV.

The arm, seen from

the inner side, presents the greatest width at the fleshy

region of the deltoid, two-thirds of the

hollow groove, bordered by

side that lies

its

way above

common

next the body, has a

tendon.

the elbow, then diminish^ as a

The

number of muscles

inner view of the arm, the

that point this

way and

that

way, as well as up and down, to pull and draw the joint in the direction to which
it is

attached.

great

The

crossing at different angles braces the

arm

as well as allowing

freedom of movement.
191

TRICEPS

AND

BICEPS

The triceps straightens out the flexed aim.

forearm on
2 The biceps bends the elbow and floes
1

the aim.

A finger is not bent or straightened without the contraction ot two muscles

same way a finger
talcing place. A muscle acts only by contraction. In the
is

bent, the forearm is bent.

The muscles on

the

from part

contraction, bend the elbow; those on the back extend

arm. The lever of the forearm

as

its

fulcrum.

against

its

To

is

of the

arm by

their

and straighten

the

pivoted or jointed at the elbow which acts

straighten the arm, the heavy ihree-headed triceps plays

antagonist, the two-headed biceps.

When the

exertion of either of

these two muscles ceases, they relax to their former state.

The arm consists

of a strcmg cylinder of bone whidi turns

on the

joint at

bend it.
the shoulder to raise the arm, and another jdnt at the elbow to
These joints are made to sUp on one another and are pulled as they contract
action or reor relax, thus dianging the surface forms while undergoing
laxation.

192

MECHANISM OF THE ARM

The muscles of tht human body not onty bend the body by muscular force,
but also serve as brakes, slowing tbt reactions. For instance, the biceps
and
the brachialis amicus muscles are placed in the

by

their contraction, they

bend the elbow.

If

fnmt of the uppw aim and,

power ceased altogether, the

forearm would drop down. But the opposing muscle slows the otherwise
uncontrolled

movement

slow motion pervades

after the

all the

manner

of a brake. This mechanifln of

limbs and every

movement

of the body.

193

The Forearm

X HE

move

muscles of the forearm

the wrist, the

hand and

fingers.

They

strapped down
arc muscular above and tendinous below. These tendons are
great variety of forma*
to pass over and under the wrist and fingers. There is a

muscles of the forearm. There are muscles with tendons

The
that are single and again double as they pass to the wrist and hand.
the
muscles act separately or in groups with quickness and precision as

and shape

tion

(o the

occasion requires.

The

front

and inner

cOTidyle of the

from the internal

arise

termujate below

side of the foieaim is

by tendons

composed of muscles

that

humerus by common tendons and

that are two-thirds the length of the muscle.

These tendons separate to be inserted into

known as flexors.
2 The muscles of the back and

flie

wrist

and

fingers

and are

outer side of the forearm as a group arise

from the external condyle and adjacent ridge of the humerus. As a mass they

on a higher

are

level than those of the inner side of the forearm.

muscles in general: they pass

down the back

to these

ot the forearm and divide into

tendons as they approach the wrist where they are held

called the annular

As

m place by a band

wrut Hgament.

a right angle and the hand is directed toward

contraction. They swell
the shoulder, the flexor muscles are set in motion by
pull the hand downward. When
to their muscular centers and their tendons

When the arm is bent to

the

hand

it is

is

flexion.

bent at

The

tlie

wrist in the direction

reverse

is

toward the front of the forearm,

called extension..

The extension of the hand on the forearm shows the muscles and the
heW in
tendons lymg on the outer side and back of the forearm. Hwse are
of the flediy
place by the annubir ligament. The rounded forearm is made up
pass to and over
bodies of muscle that tenmnate mostly in long tendons that
4

and hand. Some of these muscles move the hand on the forearm
also deep muscles of the
or the different finger joints on each other. There are
flie

wrist

foieaxm frmn which the tendons

194

emer^ tboi^ the

muscles are hidden.

195

FOREARM
Front View

bones: (1) The upper ann bone, the

humerus, is the longest bone of the upper
I.

limb. (2)

At the lower end of the humerus

there are two projections.

tion (the inner condyle)

always in evidence, and

measurranent. (3)

The

is

is

inner projec-

quite prominent,

used as a point of

The ulna hinges

at the

elbow, and articulates with the bone above

by a beak-like

process.

It

descends toward

the httle finger side of the hand, where

it is

seen as a knob-like eminence at the wrist.

The

(4)

the wrist

At

radius carries the

and hand

at its

the upper end, the

to play freely

side of

lower extremity.

head

on the

thumb

is

radial

hollowed out

head of

the

humow.
11.

muscles:

(1)

The pronator teres. From

on the internal condyle of the

humerus, it is directed downward and outits

origin

ward and

inserted into the outside of the

radius about half

contraction
side of the

it

way down

the shaft. In

turns the forearm and

thumb

hand inward causing pronation.

(2) There are four flexor muscles that arise

from the intonal condyle of the hummus.

Their bodies are mostly fleshy, terminating
at their

lower half in long tendons. (3)

The

palmaris longus, also a flexor, shows a long

slender tendon directed toward the middle
of the wrist.

It is

inserted into the paimaris

facia that stretches across the

palm of the

hand. (4) Flexor carpi ulnaris.

196

m.

Muscles must

joint they

lie

move. Muscles that bulge the

forearm in front are

as wires

above and below the

flexors.

They terminate

or strings that pull the wrist, hand

and lingers together as they contract.

rv. The inner c(mdyle of the humorus

landmark when the forearm

is

is

seen from

the front and the bones are parallel. In this

position, the muscles

directed

The

downward
first,

the

and

their

tendons are

to the wrist and hand.

pronator

teres,

passes

obliquely to the middle of the radius.

The

second, the flexor carpi, radiates toward

the outer side of the hand.

palmaris longus,

is

The

third, the

toward the middle. The

fourth, the flexor carpi ulnaris, is

the inner border of the hand.

just

named

are situated

on

inner side of the forearm and

toward

The muscles

the front
all

and

arise fxooa.

the iimer condyle of the humerus.

197

FOREARM
Back View
bones: (1) The humerus of the arm presents a shaft and two extremities.
to the
(2) Olecranon process <rf the ulna, elbow. (3) The ulna, from the elbow

1,

finger side of wrist. (4) Radius, the

little

(S)

The s^loid process (rf

thumb

side

erf

the forearm at the wrist.

the radius.

n. muscles: (1) The supinator longus arises from the outer border of the hu-

merus about a

third of the

way up

its shaft. It

then enlarges as

greatest size at about the level of the external condyle. Below,

placed by a long tendon that

On

(2)

is

it

descends to

its

its

fibres arc re-

inserted into the styloid process of the radius.

the humerus, just below the supinator, arises the long extensor of the

This muscle descends by a slender tendon to the index Jnger and is named
muscle atthe extensor carpi radialis longus. (3) Anconeus, a small triangular
tached to the external condyle of the humerus and inserted into the ulna just
wrist.

below the elbow. (4) There are four extensors mcludmg the long extensor of the
the huwrist just mentioned. Three of these arise from the external condyle of
merus, descend as muscles about half
the wrist, the

hand and

the fingers.

way down and end

The fourth

arises

as tendons that extend

from the shaft of the humerus

just

above the external condyle. (5) Extensors of the thumb.

III.

The muscles

of the forearm are placed just

below the elbow, moving the hand,

the wrist and fingers by long slim tendons that are securely strapped

pass under or over the wrist.

center. Its quickness
If the

It is

and precision

down

as they

a fixed law that a muscle contracts toward

of

its

movement depends upon its length and bulk.

muscles of the forearm had been placed lower down, the beauty of the arm

would have been destroyed.

The muscles that lies on the outer side and back of the forearm arc known as
the biceps and
the supinator and the extensor group. They emerge from betwei
mass. These
the triceps at about a third of the distance up the arm as a fleshy
IV.

wedge-^aped muscles are placed on a higher level than the pronator or flexor
humerus. The
group, as they arise some distance above the outer condyle of the
tendons
extensor group take their origin from the condyle below. The extensor
on the back of the arm and always point to the outer condyle of the humerus.
The extensor muscles are the direct antagonists of the pronators and flexors in

are

front.

The

chief action of the supinator longus

supination as well.

198

is

that of a flexor but acts as in

MASSES

SHOULDER
ARMS

of the

and

of the shoukln, ann, foreaim and hand do not

overlap and lie at
join directly end to end wifli eadi other, but

The masses

various angles.

They are joined by wedges and wedging move-

ments.
Constructing these masses

mass of the shoulder, or

sloping

down and

facing up and out;

This mass

lies

first

deltoid muscle, with

its

narrow edge

its

will

have the

long diameter
its

broad

side

straight forward.

diagonally across and overlaps the mass of

whose long diameter

ward,

narrow edge forward.

The mass

we

out, beveled off at the end;

the arm,
its

as blocks,

is

broad ddc

vertical, its

of the forearm begins behind the

out-

end of the arm

of
and passes across it at an angle frawaid and out It is made
whose
two squares. The upper half of the forearm is a block

broad side

is

forward,

its

narrow edge sideways. The lower

half, smaller than the upper,

its

has

its

narrow edge forward, and

broad side facing out (with the hand held thumb up)
These blocks are joined by wedges and wedging movements,

and

to the straight lines are

wedded

contour of the muscles. The deltoid

the curved lines of the

is itself

a wedge, whose

apex sinks into the outer groove of the arm half way down.
The mass of the biceps ends in a wedge which turns outward
as

it

enters the cubital fossa.

The mass of the forearm overlaps die widof ti ann on the

third of
outside by a wedge (supinator longus) that arises a
broadest part
the way up the arm, readies a broad apex at the
always to the
of the forearm and tapers to the wrist, pointing

thumb; and on the

arm and

inside

points to the

by a wedge that

little

rises

back of

the

tinger (fiexor-pronator muscles).

mass,
In the lower half of the forearm, the thin edge of the
wedge
toward the thumb, is made by a continuation of this

from the outside. The thin edge toward the little finger
by the end of the wedge from the inside.

When

the elbow

line of the

hand

is

is

forearm

turned out,

is

straight

and the hand turned

straight with that of the arm.

this line is set

sponds with die width of the wrist.

is

in,

is

made

the inner

When

the

out at an angle that corre-

The

little

finger side (uhia)

hub of its movemoit.

The flexor tendons <hi the front of the f(earm point ahrays

the

to the inner

condyle; the cxteaaot tendons

<m the back point

always to the outer condyle.

The breadth

of the

mass, not joining

it

hand corresponds with that of the lower

directly,

but with a step-down toward the

front.

In the back view of the arm, the mass of the shoulder

txxoss

its

top as in the front view.

h seen to be
focusing
three

of this

sits

mass

a truncated wedge arising under the detttnd and

on tiw elbow. The

upprar

end

resolves itself into die

heads of the triceps; the lower or truncated end

the triceps tendon, to

the

The back edge

which

to be added the tiny

is

wedge of
anconeus (donkey's foot) muscle bridging from outer

condyle to ulna.

is

Wedging of the

Arm

into the Forearm

Back View

203

Biceps

2 Triceps
3

Supinator kmgaa

PRONATOR AND SUPINATOR

Ihb two muscular

crossmg oas

forces that rotate or turn the forearm,

bone over the other, are the supinator and the pronator.
1

The supinator extends from the

of the upper arm.

It is

wrist to about a third

a long muscle.

The lower

third

is

lies

on tbe outer and upper

the

tendinous.

above the outer condyle of the humerus. The upper portion

mass that

way up

is

bone

It rises

the large fleshy

third of tlie forearm. In action

it flexes

as well as supinates.

2 The opposing muscle to the supinator is the short round pronator

which passes obliquely downward across the forearm.
inner condyle of the

It arises

teres,

from the

humerus to be inserted near tbe middle <A the outet

border of the radius.

These two muscles

pull the radius with a wheel-like

and back again carrying the thumb

body.

The supinator

away from the body.

the surface of

its

is

side of the

the force that turns the

It is the

motion over the ulna

hand toward or away from the

doorknob and the screwdriver

only flexor of the forearm that can be seen on

entire Imgth.

205

pRONAim AND Supinator

ELBOW
1

The upper

extremity of the elbow as seen from the front. The inner

surface of the coranoid process of the uhia

like trochlea of the

is

curved so as to clasp the pulley-

is

somewhat

humerus.

2 The lower extremis of the humerus

flat.

Projecting from

each side are the internal and extranal omdyles. Between the two
rounded gioan that receives the lip of the ulna.

is

the

Here the bones of the arm and forearm are connected. This is a view
from the front. The humerus above shows the two condyles with a notch
3

that receives the coranoid process of the uhia,

when

the

arm

is

hcnt.

ulna at the elbow swings hinge-like on the bone of the upper arm.

backward and forward

the

humerus

is

It

The

moves

one plane only. Just below the outer condyle of

a small and rounded bursa, called the radial head of the
in

humems, on the soiface of Mdi

rolls tbe

head of the

radius.

207

Front View

Elbow
The

may be

arm,

which

large bone,

carries the fore-

swinging upon

its

hinge at the

elbow, at the same time that the lesser bone

which carries the hand

round

it.

may

Both these bones

<rf

be turning
the foreann,

the radius and ulna, have prominoit ridges

and grooves.

Th^

are directed obliquely

from above, downward and inward. The

radius turns round the ulna in these grooves

and on the tubercles at the heads of both

bones.

The lower

extremity

gives a key to the

joint.

of

the humerus

movements of the elbow

Above, the shaft of the humerus

ccmipletely covered

by

the muscles

is

<rf the.

upper arm. Below, the inner and oatsr condjdes

ctme

to the surface near the elbow.

The inner condyle is more in evidence. The

outN one is hidden by muscle, when the
arm is straightened out. When the arm is
bent,

it

becomes more prominent and easier

to locate.

208

Elbow
1

The humerus

at the

elbow

is

View

flattened in front and back, tenninating in

placed the trochlea, a rounded spool-like fom
clasped by the olecranon process of the ulna.

two condyles. Between these

that

Back

2 This is a diagram of

is

is

the spool-like

form of the trochlea with the embrac-

ing condyles at tbc sides.

From

die back, the olecranon process

<rf

the ulna

is

lodged into the

hoUowed-out portion of the bade of the humenu. fbnning the elbow

point
4 This shows the bony structure of UK hmge joint at a elbow.

209

210

Side View

Elbow
The ulna swings on the
known as a hinge joint.
1

pulley ot the

Shows the mechanical device used

arm, at the elbow. The

of the ulna,

common

in

humous. The articulatum

straightening the forearm,

is

on the

tendon of the triceps grasps the olecranon

which in turn clasps round the

spool-like trochlea of the humerus.

When the foreann is flexed on the arm, the ulna hooks round the pulleyUke device of fbs humerus. The tric^ in this position is opposed by Uw
3

biceps and brachialis anticus in

the forearm upward.

fircmt,

Hie tric^

which beccraes the power

in reverse

is

inert

and

tiiat raises

scnnen4iat taJEtieaed

oat.

211

The Armpit

The hollow of the ann, filled with

by the great breast muscle
simiis dorsi

its

friction hairs, is

(pectoralis major) in front,

made into a de^

and the greater

pit

latis-

bdund.
Its floor slopes

forward,

downward and outward,

following the slope of the chest wall

Its

rear wall

farther

down

is

deeper, since

lulissinius attaches

llie

the back; thicker because

made

of two

muscles (latissimus and teres major); and roimder

because

its

Sixes turn on thonselves.

The front wall is

attaches farther

longer because the pectoral mus-

down die arm.

Into this pit the biceps

and

triceps muscles plunge,

with the coraco-bracIii;(lis between them.

The bottom of tlie pit may, when

the arm is fully raised, be bulged by
the

head of the arm bone and the

lymph glands that

212

lie there.

213

The Hand

^Jaturb standardizes all

hands to laws of mechanics and dynamics. The

hands of the mummies of ancient Egypt, thousands of years

The bones of prehistoric man are the same. Ninety

the hand is standardized by its use to the unchanging

ent from those of today.

per cent and

laws of

214

its

more

use.

of

old, are not differ-

But the hand as drawn and sculptured has varied maricedly

ages.

Cave

dwellers

marked the

implements with signs and

walls

and roofs of thdr dwellings and

and among
drew or carved had a general character distinctly of that

The Peruvian,

them, hands.

figures,

the Aztec, the

American Indians

adhered

in,

shown

drawn or painted,

to a certain style of

The hands they

age.

whether

in red or blue,

the

hand was

wherever a hand was

hand whose character marked

belimging to that age or that tribe or that race, and

from other periods or races or

their

in their written sign lan-

guages, the Alaslcan on his totem pole, each of these

carved out or cut

in different

it

as

all distinctly different

tribes.

The Assyrians graved hands on their palace walls and carved them in stone;
and they were Assyrian hands, distinguishable eadly from those of any other
race or age.

The Egyptians

as individual as those of

When we come
law
of

is

in evidence.

told stories

by means of carved and painted hands,

any other place or time.

to the ages of a

more studied

There is an early Gothic hand,

art, the

same psychological

distinctly difierent

from that

any other period.

215

There
its

is

a Renaissance hand with a ciiara^K^

own; so much so that

(tf

can be picked out and

it

not only as a Renaissance hand, but as an

classified,

early or a late Renaissance hand.

No

one questions the sincerity of Ghirlandajo, or

Not only were they

of Lippi, or of Botticelli.

great

and yet each drew a

masters, but close students,

different style of hand.

Of later schools die same thing may be said; as <tf

schools of Jordaens,

Dyck

it

Dut^

and the

die Venetian

schools,

and of

die

Rubens and Van Dyck. Of Van

has been said that he could not draw the

hand of a laborer, and of Millet that he could not

draw a gentleman's hand.

Indeed,

it is

see with our eyes.

The eye

behind the eye.

^e

we

very far from accurate to say that

that

mals

graphic plate

is

blind but for the idea

behind the

It is the idea
it

different

horn a photo-

seme

that prides out

parts

with emphasis and censors other parts.

We

and only through the

eye.

see with the idea,

Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and

Raphael,

same

all

of the

same

of models,

style

period,

had the

and yet they

duced hands of three very

Albert

all

pro-

distinct types.

Holbdn the younger,

made hands that, because

Dttrer,

Rembrandt,

all

of their indivulualj^. are classed as a Hol-

bdn

or a DQier or a Ronbrandt hand by

the art world.

Reasons for

this

change and

acter and style of hands

famiUar to every one.

pictured

is

flux in char-

are

no doubt

Briefly, the

hand

as

not subject to the automatic

forces that standardize the actual hand to

the laws of

its use.

standardized to

The ^ctuied hand

no laws except

is

those of

percqition; which

means

to the current

concepts and to individual

The

taste.

ness of the artist in such a connection

busiis

to

standardize his concepts of the hand to

those of nature

to see

it

as nature sees

its

purpose, methods and laws.

may be

It

anatomy

is

reflected that the

sdence

a Gompaa!dvt3y recent acquit

tkm of the race. It is DcM many decades since

the cutting up of the human body was forbidden by law and abhorred in

Even

after such a study

to penetrate to other

and

eFort,

It

well developed,

is

takes a certain time for

it

and a much longer time for

it

religion.

its

significance

domains of thought

to be assimilated there.

man centuries to team to look under the form for the mechahuman body; and he is mty now learning to look vaader the

has taken

nisms

tibe

mechaninns for the reasons tiut undwlle ttum. The worki of art is beginning
to appropriate these things to itself,

by

this

and the improvranent in one man's technic

the

means compels others to seek improvement in the same s^ool

school of nature, her reasons and her purposes.

If this

the

tendency to fluctuations, to

hand than

in other parts of the

styles

body,

it

and fashions
is

is

more marked

in

probably because the impor-

tance of the hand as an avenue of expression has not been understood.

The

hand is thought of as the slave <rf action. But the slave of acticm is the-master
of expression.

217

EXPRESSIONS

OF THE HAND

The face is well schooled to self-control as a rule, and may become an aid in
dissimulation of thought and feeling.

Rarely
states,

it

is

the

may

hand so

reveal

Like any other

fication in

it

and responding unconsciously

to the mental

what the face would conceal.

hand

living thing, the

any individual

gmerations
ficial

trained;

is less

is

modified to

its

use.

The

total

modi-

than one per cent; but in a succesdon of

may be cumulative.

Also

it

happens

tfiat it is

the

more

super-

and conspicuous puts that are thus modified.

On
human

the background of the mechanics, then, which

race,

we may have

racial variations; then

hereditary or family modifications,

on

is

older than the

this basis,

accumulated

and on them in turn expressions ol

indi-

vidual history and character.

The hand
and

its

of the child

tapering fingers,

is
it

almost unmodified. With

its

creases and dimples

represents almost the pure symmetry that

is

the

natural heritage of all created things.

The hand
218

of age rcpresentt the

op^o^ Misaw;

die end pnxhict, the

insanity of over-modification; furrowed, wrinkled with the

scan

time,

<rf

with enlarged squared joints, and shaky.

On the background then of mechanics

variations, such as those of youth or age;

and

racial variations,

we have many

male or female; healthy or unsound;

laboring or aristocratic; strong or weak.

Types ai hands may be classified as: square, round, compact; long or

Uiick or

The

tiiin.

relative length of fingers varies,

short;

both among themselves

and in ccnnparison wiUi the hand. The relative thickness of joint and shaft
and finger tip varies. The thumb may be short, thick or thin, may lie ckwe or
spread far from the hand.

The hand
larger

that

inured to heavy labor shows very definite changes.

is

and heavier. The muscles are of course developed, but these

the most part above the

hand

in the

It is

lie

for

forearm. Those of the palmar (thenar)

and hypothenar eminences are somewhat larger and more square. Chiefly,

become enlarged, square, rugged and irregular in appearance. The

tendons are more in evidence. The skin is hardened, so that creases are
deeper, especially the skm pads are heavier and may overhang the borders.
The dcin hairs may stand up HIk bri^^. In repose it anumes a mate crocked
the jomts

position. Clendied, with the aggressive

thumb

twisted around the fii^ent^

it

becomes a squared, knobbed and formidable looking weapon.

The converse
of the

palm present a

is

true in the

softly

hand not inured to

labor.

rounded appearance, the skin

The muscles

is

smooth and

pads not clearly demarked; the joints are not only not rugged,

silky, the skin

but

of this

may be unduly flexible,

and

fingers will

and

slighter.

have

small and weakly angled.

less of the spring curve, that

The hand

will

is,

The bones

of the

hand

they will be straighter

on the whole be much more symmetrical and

expressionless.

When the hand

is

employed in what may by contrast be called the

gent uses, in which flexibility

greater freedom of
will

express

ual exercise

movement,

much more
is

free

and

is

necessary,

will

it

will

intelli-

have as a consequence

assume much more varied

positions,

and

readily the mental states. In proportion as this habitintelligent, will the

symmetries assumed be free and

expressive.

Certain typical positions are due not so

mechanics of &e hand. For instance, the

ble tiian the

thumb ade, because

middle fingn

is

it is

mudi to the mental states as

little

to the

fingn side is always moxe flexi-

opposite to the powerful thmnb.

The

always inclined to bend farther forward, or to bend forward

219

first; this

first at

ried

on account of

its

relatively greater power. All fingers

The thumb

the knuckles, then at each joint in turn.

is

bend forward

habitually car-

somewhat extended, out of the way ot the fingers.

novous systrai, informs

us in regard to many of tlie instinctive pt^ticms and acti(nis of the body
(including the hand) and the thin^ expressed by them. For instance, there
is a wholly involuntary opening out movement of the whole body, limbs and

Modern psychology, studying

the dynamics of the

features, in pleasant emotions, honesty, courage, understanding, etc.; and

conversely, there

is

a closing up, a

emotions, in mental dishonesty,

drawing

in,

a turning away,

in unpleasant

etc.

In states of self-consciousness, and the effort at self-control, there

ency to express the same by clasping one's

self;

fingers; clasping or twisting the other liand,

220

is

a tend-

as clasping the thumb with the

or some part oi the body.

222

THE WRIST
AND THE HAND

The

bones of the wrist are mortised with those

of the

hand, making one mass, the hand moving

with the wrist.

thickness
ishes

in

The width

and where

it

of the wrist

joins the

twice

is

arm

it

its

dimin-

both width and thickness. There

is

always a step-down from the back of the arm,

over the wrist, to the hand.

The

wrist

moves with the hand on the

fore-

and in ccnnbiiuttion with these has aune

movement, but no twisting movemrat

ie twisting

movement

is

accomplished hy 13^

forearm.

The hand has two masses: that ot Uie hand

proper, and that of the thumb.
The

first

of these masses

luckles to wrist
Buckles

on

finger r<n

the

beveled from

on the edge, from

flat side,

and fnnn

wrist to

first

to

little

side to nde. It is slig^tfy arched

across the back.

Tongs

is

Weapon

The knuckles

somewhat more arched.

are

They are concentric around

the base of the

thumb, the second knuckle larger and higher

than the

rest,

die

thumb mde, where

I

first

knuckle lower on

its

has an ovoliang, as has

it

also the knad:le of the Bttle finger,

due to

their

e^qxMed positioiu.

On the little

r
is

given

hang of
side

is

form of the hand

by the abductor muscle and

the knuckle,

carried well

segment of the

On

finger side, the

the over-

by which the curve of

that

middle of the

first

up

to the

liule hnger.

the back of the hand, nearly

in the clenched

fist,

fiat

except

the tendons of the long

eottensors are nqierfidal,

and may be

raised

sharply under the skin.

The hand had f<Hir primal

scoop, hook and tongs.

Scoop

uses: weapon,

Bones op the Wrist,

Point side
1

TrapeziumNo two sides parallel

Two
Os magnumGreat bone
Unciform Hook-like
Scaphoid Boat-shaped
Semi-LunarHalf-moon
Cuneiform^Wedge-shaped
Pisiform

2 Trapezoid
3

4
5
6

7
8

sides parallel

^Pea-shaped

225

MECHANISMS
OF THE HAND

AND ARM
Turning movement as distinguished

from rotary movement

each corner
in

in rotation)

the wrist, but

fflexion

to

not present

is

produced by the

is

radius or turning bone of the forearm.

Movement
flexion

in the wrist

is

confined to

and extension (about <me

angle) and side-bending (a

little

right

mcae

than half a ri^t angle, in the average

hand);. these two ccmibined produce

some rotaiy movement.

In movements of the wrist
treme positions, the hand and

to exfingers

almost always participate, on account

of association of tendons
action;

and muscular

and in these positions

practically

s^aration

always

it

is

and

hooking of the fingers that is produced.

The movement
itself

of the

hand

reflects

as far as the shoulder, through

the biceps muscle, which aids in turning the radius. In

all

movement but

turning, the wrist can act alone. Turning,

to nearly

carried out

two right

by the

angles,

radius.

is

Further

movemoit ai any kind must be performed by elbow or Mulder.

At

the elbow

large size
wrist

ctf

it is

it is

the hinge movotnfflt that

important, wherefore the

the ulna or hinge bone, and the small size of the radius. At the

the turning

movement

that

is

unportMit*

forms two-tfaii^ of the joint, the ulna one-third.

22$

is

wber^cm

the radius

227

ANATOMY
OF THE HAND

In the hand are four bones, continuous with those

of the fingers, called metacarpals {meta, beyond,

carpus, wrist).

They are covered by tendons on

the

back, and on the front by tendons, the muscles

the

thumb and

tittle finger,

of

and skin pads.

movement like opening a

fan between these bones. They converge on the wrist
There

is

a very

slight

bones and are mortised almost solidly to them. The

hand moves with the

wrist.

The dorsal tendons

con-

verge more sharply than the bones.

The

short muscles of the hand, crossing only one

joint, the

aUy,

lie

knuckle, and moving the fingers individu-

deep between the metcarpal bones and

sets,

back and

and palmar. The pahnar

interossei

are called inteiossei.

front, or dorsal

so

They

are in two

are collectors, drawing the fingers toward the middle

finger,

and so are fastened

to the inner side of each

of the middle finger

joint except that

itself.

The

dorsal interossei are spreaders, drawing away from

the centre, and so are fastened to both sides of the

middle finger and to the outside of the other

In the thumb and

tittle

fingers the muscles of this

are called abductors, and being in exposed

are larger. That

bulge between

(rf

it

the

first

set

positions,

finger forms a prominent

and the thumb;

finger fcmns a l(mg

joints.

that of the

fi^y ma^ readiing to

tittle

the wrisL

PALMAR VIEW

Dorsal interossei

MUSCLES OF THE HAND

To

four corners of the wrist are fastened four

tlie

muscles, one of them doubled (that on the back of

the

first

finger side).

Back View
1

Extensor carpi ulnaris

2 Extensor digitonim ccmununis

3

^tensor metacarpi

pollicis ossts

4 ExtensOTpolUcistn^ds
5 Extensor caipi radiaUs brevis

6 Bxtoisor carpi

radialis Icmgus

Palmar View
7 Supinator longus
8 Flexor carpi

radialis

9 Tendon of the palmaris longus

10 Flexor carpi ulnaris

11

^Umar

fasda

231
I

THE HANDBACK VIEW

The

wrist bones are collectively smaller than

the end of the foreann, so there

is

a constriction

attheddes.

The wrist bones are in two transverse layers

with an angle between, forming in profile view
a hook, point backward; over this is a step-down
to the back of the hand. A little to the outer side,
this

is

bridged by the extensor tendons.

The rows
the back.

of wrist bones are arched toward

The two

pillars of this

arch in front

far overhang the anterior line of the arm.

tiiem arise the thenar

nences, and the

From

and hypothenar emi-

palm of the hand.

Except for the thumb and the extensor tendons, the back of the hand
smooth.
It is

the

It is slightly

arched from side to

side.

beveled from knuckles to wrist, and

palmar surface. There

is

is

is

slight fan-like

narrower on the back than on

movement among

the bones of

the hand.

The general mass

U Hxs back flows fixnn the wrist toward the fir^ and

second knuddes, and

is

flattoied

and thinned toward the

little

finger side.

MUSCLES OF THE HAND

4 Adductor poUids
5 Extensor caqnulnaris
6 Extensor

digiti

minimi

7 Extensor pollicis longus

8 Extensor pollicis brevis

9 Extensor metacarpi

234

ossis pollicis

Distributed over the back are seen the

extensor tendons. These represent two sets

which have become bloxled, so have dapUcations

and various connectiiig bands.

Those to the thumb and litUe finger remain

separate.

THE HANDBACK VIEW

The tendons on

the back of the

hand pass quite high over the

clearly impossible to arch the wrist both ways;

and

wrist. It is

fiexion being so

much

more important a function, the extensor tendons are forced far from the
centre ot movement backward and outward. They converge on the low outer
part (tf the wrist arch. Thus placed they are taut in extreme Beodan, so ibai
the lingers cannot be tightly closed.

The thumb

side of the wrist arch

forward, carrying the thumb:

compared with

On

it

is

the heel inside, which ends in a ball

finger side of the wrist,

pisiform bone,

may be seen a "rock"

This
its

is

the part <A the ardi

outer end. It

is

of.

is

square

the pisiform bone.

between the end of the uhia and the

the cuneiform bone.

the wrist immediately above the pisiform-

prominent when the hand

is

bent to the opposite side or

in the act of pulUng. It ahnost blends with ibt ulna

to that side.

and projects farther

has a deeper inset at the wrist and

little

the

larger, higher

wian

the

hand

is

carried

THE HAND PALMAR VIEW

The pahn
first

slig^tty overlies the wrist,

jdnt ai the

fingers. It is

and extends to the middle of

made of duee

portims. widi tbe hollow

<rf

^
die

palm between them.

On

the

opposite

thumb
it

is

side

is

the largest of these portions, the thenar eminence;

the hypothenar eminence, and across under the knuckles

the third portion, the

mounds

is

of the palm.

The thenar eminence is high, fat and soft; it contains the short muscles
the thumb and forms with the bone the pyramidal first segment at it
The hypothenar endnrace is kmga:, lower, harder and more triangular.
It contains s<ne muscles <A die little finger, large cm account ci die exposed
p(ition dt that digit, and part of the palmaris brevis. It reaches as far as the
base of the Uttle finger, blending there with the row of mounds. At the wrist
at

covers the pisiform bone, with a heavy fibrous pad like that of the heel.

238

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HAND

Palmar View

In the hand, as in the figure, there

side with the greatest angle

is

is

an action and an inaction

the action side, the opposite

is

side.

The

the inaction or

straight dde.

With the hand turned down (prone) and drawn toward the body, the

thumb
side

is

The
the

side

is

the action side, the

straight with the arm, while the

finger the inaction side.

thumb

is

thumb

The

action construction line

at the wrist,

finger,

and then

With the hand

still

inaction side, and

right angles with

is

it.

inaction

almost at right angles with

down the arm to

runs down the arm

from there out to the middle

part of the hand; ihence to the knuckle of the

second

The

inaction construction line runs straight

little finger.

of the

little

the base of
to the base

joint, at the

widest

finger, then to that of the

first

joins the inaction line at the httle finger.

prone, but drawn from the body, the tiiumb side

straight with the arm,

The

wbUc the little

inacti(m construction line

now

is

finger side, thence to the

runs straight to the

indicate the action

240

little

first joint, etc., etc.

lines,

turned up, according as

the

finger is at almost

middle joint of the thumb, while the action line runs to the wrist on the

These construction

it.

it

is

six

in

drawn

number, are the same with the palm

in

or out.

and proportions of the hand.

They place the

fingers

and

Palmar View of

241

THUMB

SIDE

HAND

OF THE

Between the knuckle

and the thumb

finger

This

the

is

large here

first

is

of

the

first

a bulging mass.

interosseous muscle,

on account

of the exposed

position of the finger, also because

aids the thumb. In cla^nng,

pendicular to the
to the knuckle.

it is

it

per-

thumb and diagonal

It

attaches to the

phalanx at the knuckle, to the whole

side of the

thumb

to the base of the

the finger

(first

segment) and

metacarpal bone of

itself.

Beyond

its

edge

is

a fold of skin,

ahonately drawn into a half-moon

blade,

and dimpled and wrinl^d, as

thumb changes its position.

Rtmning the length of die thumb to
the last joint, on its back, is seen die

the

extensor tendon, pointing always to the top of the wrist. At the root of the

thumb

is

seen another tendon, that of the short extensor, pointing always to

the bottom of the wrist; the two converging

them

at the wrist is a depression, quite

This

latter

on the second

deep when the thumb

joint..
is

Between

extended.

tendon marks the front border of the metacarpal bone of the

thumb. Bulging in front of it

are, first, the trapezium,

marking the radial id

of the wrist arch, then the thenar eminence, to the big joint of the thumb.

ScHnetinm the basal joint of the thumb

242

still

farthn bulges

this

eminence.

The mass of the hand

mass of the thumb

sets

sets at

an

an an angle across the end of the foraum; the

an^ across Ae base ot the hand.

The Muscles of the Thumb

1
Long extensor of the thumb
2 Short extensor of the thumb
3

Long abductor of the thumb

243

The power of the thumb depends

be long

in

chiefly

on

its

short muscles. Museles

must

proportion to the distance they have to contract. Muscles to the

ends of fingers and thumb are therefore long reaching to the elbow. Those

s^ments ci the thumb (the latter with very little

movemmt) are short and are developed about the segment and across the
of the fint and middle

p&lm,

whoe

they act in direct line with the movranent of the bone.

power produced by muscular acti(m

at

which

it is

applied.

d^nds on

The long musdes

movement but little power.

act at

The

the leverage and the angle

an acute ang^, with rapid

These short muscles being in direct line produce great power but are
relatively slow.

The

pared to that of the

movement of die thumb is therefOTe slow comfingers; its power is pn^rtionately greater.
fastest

US

246

Thumb

Sros of the

Distinguishable under the skin of the

Hand

thumb (palmar

side)

are three

muscles, sometimes a fourth. These, from the back forward, are the fat

opponens, hugging the bone; the broad abductor, forming the bulk of the
mass; and the
across the

tiiin flexor brevis, inside.

hand

is

Deeper and reaching

transversely

the adductor muscle, which throws the skin of the

into a bulging wrinkle ^^len the

thumb

is flattened

palm

back.

Opponens pollicis

247

LITTLE FINGER SIDE

OF THE HAND
t

The

little

finger side of the

the pushing side; the

hand

is

little

finger ride

the wri^ is the heel side.

The thumb

side of the

hand

Since pulling

is

is

so

the pulling side.

much more

im-

portant a function of the hand, the

thumb

side of

hand and wrist and

the bones of that side, with the

two

fingers, are larger.

all

first

Hie

little

finger side of the

end of the forearm

thumb

side. It is

tiie

wrist.

is

sets across the

at a sharper angle than

does the

narrower and never wholly conceals

the rest of the hand.

the hand,

hand

The pisiform bone,

or heel of

always conspicuous on the lower side of

To

it

attaches the flexor carpi ulnaris

muscle, corresponding with the tendon of Achilles.

Pisiform (pea-shaped) bone

2 Flexor carpi ulnaris

249

In resting the wrist on a table, the weight should

rest

on the pisiform bone.

sensitive

Instinct protects the

more

unciform bone, on the thumb end of the

wxistaxch.

In

this positicHi the fingers are

or arched,

m aeoount

250

curled

up

ot the shortness ol the flexor

tendons.

alwa^

Pisiform bone

Sms
OF THE Hand

Little Finger

Abductor digiti minimi

2 Amiular ligament
3 Flexor carpi ulnaris

4 Pisifonnbone

THE THUMB
Orill
The

nutter to the fingers, 0ie hand and the foreann,

fingera,

gathered together, form a corcma around

they radiate from a

tips

common

centre at

forms a curve whose centre

its

is this

base;

and a

is

the thumb.

its tip.

Spread out,

line connecting their

same point This

is

true of the rows

of joints (knuckles) also.

Bent,

in

any position, or closed

each one concentric on

circle of

this

as in clasping, the lingers

same basal

joint of the

knuckles forms an arch with the same

The mass
to the

centre.

of the

thumb; while, through the biceps muscle,

begin really at the Moulder.

252

thumb. Clenched, each

common

thumb dominates the hand.

The design and movement of even the forearm

form arches,

is

to give the freest sweep

its

movement

is

seen to

The Thumb
The thumb,

extended, faces half

bcmtways; flexed
pafan,

may

it.

touch the side of the

finger, but otherwise

254

faces across the

and may by pressure be bent

sUgbtly toward
It

it

first

cannot touch the

the fingers that are brought

palm.

It is

down

to touch

it.

The thumb has

than those of the fingers,

Its last

segment has a

only tendons.

and as many

three segments

The

its

nail

one.

suprafidal

The

fat

bon^

basal segment

is

a pyramidal mass of muscle reaching to

and the base of the

mtudes of tiiis mass are a fat one. a broad

mnsde hi^

are hivir

and a heavy skin pad. The middle segment has

the wrist, the "line of Ufe" of the pahn,

The

joints. Its

more rugged.

joints

ibt

bom

(ppptmens),

bulk of the pyramid (abductor) and the

tiie

first finger.

one, and a thin

broad one forms die

thm one lies inside, toward

the index

finger (flexor brevis).

Between the thumb and

bulged, especially

when

first

the

finger the skin is raised into a web,

thumb

is

which

is

flattmed, by the abductor pollids

muscle.

25S

Sawle
The range
base,

mudi

movement

less at the

(rf

Joint of the

Thumb

thumb

the

is slight

half a rig^it angle at the

middle jomt, a right angle at the

jomt
angle ot movement
last

The basal jomt is a saddle jc^t pennitting haU a right

sideways, and very much less fore and aft The middle joint
proportion to others on account of
flexion

and very

slight torsion. It

is

its

is

extra large in

eqx>sed position, permitting

built for strength rattier than

slight

movement.

The last joint with its long muscle reaching to the elbow has a right angle of
movement (this long muscle must take up the slack of the other joints,
including the wrist, also).

256

Masses of the TRumb

The thumb
the end.

The

is

pyramidal at the base, narrow in the middle, pear-shaped

ball

facn

middle joint of the

The

last

to the

&oot mtne than sideways.

at

It reaches to the

first finger.

segment bends sharply back, carrying the

broad at the base, gives

it

an appeaaaaot not unlike a

nail. Its sldn

pad,

foot, expressing its

pressure-bearing function.

The middle segment is square with rounded edges, smaller than the other
two, with a small pad.

The basal segment

one

is

is

rounded and bulged on

all sides

except where the

superficial at the back.

257

258

Muscles of the Thumb

Palmar View, above
1

Flexor pollicis brevis

2 Abductor

pollicis

3 Opponens pollicis

259

THE FINGERS
From

the centre of the arch of the wrist radiate the tendons

of the long muscles to the fingers; and the fingers must be in

line with their

power, to prevent warping, so radiate from

this

But the power of the thumb has drawn the centre of

ladiation a trifle to its side of the wrist, so that the mechani sm s

point.

hand are grouped around a pcnnt near its base. The

clendied fin^rs all pdnt to this centre, as far as crowding will
of the

permit. Half closed, as in dasping. they form arches con-

verging there. In any position except a strained one the rows

of knuckles form arches whose

common

centre

is this point.

261

ANATOMY OF THE FINGERS

of the four fingers has three bones (phalanges, soldiers). Each

phalanx turns <m the one above, leaving exposed the end of the higher bone.
There are no muscles below the knuckles; but the fingers are traversed by

Each

tendons on the back, and are covered on the front by tendons and skin pads.
The middle finger is the longest and largest, because in the clasped hand
it is

thumb and with it bears the chief burden. The little finger
and shortest and most freely movable for the opposhe reason.

opposite the

is

the smallest

It

may move fartiier back

two reasons; one

the other

is

that

is

than the other fingers, aiul

that the

bdng

hand often

"sits"

on

diagonally o^wsite fee

tiie

is

usually held so, for

base of the

thumb

it is

little finger;

twisted farther

badcward in any outward tmstmg movemoit, and so tends to assume

poritioi.

Sectional Views

262

that

The

skin

pads are of approximately the same

length, as necessary

when

the finger

is

tightly closed,

but the segments are of different lengths; so the

creases are not opposite the joints.

In the

first

finger the creases are

beyond the

knuckle, opposite the middle joint, and short of the

last; in

the second finger they are b^ond the knuckle,

beyond the second

joint,

the third finger they are

the second.

individuals.

The

about oppceite the

last; in

beyond the knuckle, beyond

other positions vary in different

Fingers

The

joints of tiie fingers are built like shallow saddle joints; that

readies up

on

the sides, the other reaches

In every case

it is

the

more

distant

down on

bone

the front

that turns on the

is,

one

and back.
convex end of

the nearer bone, leaving the end of the latter exposed in flexion.

265

Fingers

On

the palmar surface,

when

the fingers arc straight, the

beyond the knuckles half way to the next

joint; but

when

pahn

extends

the fingers are bent,

a portion bends with them, and belongs with them; so that

when

bent the

on the palmar side start frmn the knudde.

Thus when strai^t the fingos have three pads; when bent they luve

fingers

266

four.

267

Fingers

When

curled close, the ends of the fingers

first phahinges:

fbem.

Tim is

Thus

Uie

268

cover the heads of their

that is, they lie widi their tips against the knuckles, 8iq>portuig

a medianical necessity in

fitting

two outer segments are longer

from the back of the knuckle, Uie

lattntwo.

jttst

first

the fingos into the

fist.

&an the first, but when measured

segment

is

equal in Iraglh to the

269

Fingers
Opposite the three bones of the finger are four skin pads; the pads therefore smaller.

The

first

joint is

about equal to die

knuckle (thou^ the bone

to

form three

270

two, measuxing from back of

shorter).

When

sides of a square, the four pads

of the grooves between

larly placed.

itself is

last

fill

Uw

the three joints are bent

in the quarters

of

it.

dinn are diagonals, with two other grooves

Three
irregu-

THE

The blow with

the

the longest, strongest,

fist falls

and

FIST

on the knuckle of the second

in line

finger,

is

with the radius.

The more tightly it is clenched, the more it is arched across the

The bones of the second row lie in the same plane.
The thumb Hes against the firA finger, or across the second.
272

which

knuckles.

273

The For
The hand, open,
The hand,

When

is

closed,

an

is

inq>leiiient.

a weapon.

driven forward, the second knuckle, as the most prominent, be-

comes the point of impact; but in clenching

it is

braced by the entire

fist,

bone, tendon and Itnuckle.

When driven

directly forward, the

second knuckle

is

in line with the wrist

and the radius, making a straight battering ram.

275

KNUCKLES OF THE HAND

I

There

is

no muscular covering

are half blended with them,

In clenching, this

skm

for the knuckles; only

and roughened

hardened, so that in other positions

The end

of the metacarpal bone

of the first phalanx.

flanges,

The dome

is

is

is

and by contact with <^jects

is

wrinkled.

a round

dome, over which

lits

the socket

protected on the sides by square projecting

which are matched by the

finger set at

it

tenikms, viiich

skin.

stretched,

is tightly

tiie

sides of the socket.

slight diagonal, so that there is

They are

in the

first

an overhang of the phalanx,

serving to protect the joint in lateral blows.

277

278

THE HAND OF THE BABY

In the hand of the baby, neither anatomical nor mechanical features are
in evidence,

In

but are alike concealed under the

fact, neither

yet; the

bone

flesh

sctft

and smooth

skin.

anatomical nor mechanical features are sharply defined as

is still

partly cartilage, the joints

still

small, the muscles have

not taken shape nor given shape to the skin.

The

wrist

is

quite large in comparison with

the fingers quite short

its

size in

and symmetrically tapering

Instead ai expanded joints

we

in the

is

marked by a double

same comparison.

find constrictions in the flesh; instead of

wrinldes over on the backs of knuckles and joints

wrist

mature hands, and

wrinkle.

The

first

we

find din:^)les.

segment of the

fingers,

on

On

the

account of the bulging and dimpling of the flesh, looks quite short.
other hand, the middle joint of the
the last joint appears quite long,

280

thumb

The

being, like the other joints, small,

and the whole thumb has flowing

lines.

281

The

Pelvis

bones make the pelvis: two innominate

HRF.F.

(witlioutananie) bones and one sacrum

(sacrificial)

bone.

The sacrum is a wedge about the size of the hand

but more perfectly shaped, lilK a lialf-bent hand, and
carrying a va7 small tq) (coccyx) about as big
last joint

<rf

the thumb. It forms the central Ih(|||^

the back, curving

and

as the

first

back and down and then down

in.

The two innominate bones

are formed

like two

propellers, with triangular blades twisted in opposite

directions.

The

rear corners of the top blades meet

the sacrum in the back,

and the

front corners of

lower blades meet in front to form the

sympIlN^

The hip socket itself forms the central point

the shaft. The two blades stand at right angles

pubis.

for

to each other.

The upper blade

is

called the ilium, the lower

is

called the pubis in front and the ischium behind,

with an opening between. The only

superficial parls

are the top of the upper blade (iliac crest) and

the

front tip of the lower (symphysis pubis).

Masses and Markings

The

size of the pelvis is

due to

mechanical axis of the body;

muscles of the trunk and
Mttle forward,

At
282

and

is

legs,

and

is

is

position as

the fulcrum

large in proportion. Its mass

somewhat square

the sides the ridge

it is

its

as

compared with the

called the iliac crest. It

is

trunl-

the

for the

inclines a

above.

the fulcrum

for the

lateral

muscles and flares out widely for that purpose, rather more widely in

front than behind.

Above
ately

the rim

below

obliterated

it

is

a roll of muscle belonging to the abdominal wall; immedi-

a groove or

when

dq)r^on, made 1^

the sag of the hip muscles,

th^ are contracted in acti(m.

Back View

nium
2 Pul^
2

3 Ischium

4 SfUJTum
283

Pelvis

The

greater part of the movemrait o

figure is based

on the

pelvis. Its

bony basin in front sui^rts the fleshy mass of the abdomen. Behind, a circle
of bones forms the extreme lateral part, of which the sacrum h the keystone.

The muscles
region.

that are visible are all situated at the

Only two of these arc prominent; they

the gluteus medius.

which

With the

acts as a crank shaft.

are, the gluteus

pelvis as a base, these

The upper end

a bent lever on which the w^ole body

284

back to form the gluteal

rests.

maximus and

two act on the femur,

of the femur

is

in the shape of

The PEtvis AND Hip

1

TensOT vagina femoris

2 Sarttmus
3 Rectus femoris

4 Gluteus medius
5 Gluteus maximus

Gluteus

Medius:

From

ilium,

outer surface, to femur, greater

chahter. Action: Abducts
tates

inward

rear

ro-

tiiigh.

Gluteus Maximus:
ilium,

and

tro-

portion,

Fnnn

crest of

sacrum and

coccyx to femur. Action: Extends,

rotates

and turns out

thigh.

285

THt HIP
So great are the changes in surface form of

the

muscles in different positions of the hip that the

iliac

crest remains as the one stable landmark. It

is

curve, but being bcvclcil backwartl,

two

side view

them

presents to the

and almost an angle between

lines

at the top.

The posterior
it

it

line

joins the sacrum,

into the fold

the gluteus

is

marked by two dimples where

and the

line continues

downward

d the buttocks. From this whole

line

down and

for-

maximus muscle

passes

ward, to just below the head of the thigh bone, making the mass of the buttocks and hip.
Just in front of this, from the top of the crest,

descends

the

gluteus

wedge whose apex

is

medius muscle, forming a

head of the thigh bone.

at the

Between these two muscles

is

Only part of the medius

portion

is

overiaid

by

the dimple of the thigh.

is superficial; its front

tensor fasciae femoris

tiie

muscle, v^iich rises from the edge of the front

line

<A the crest and descends to form with the gluteus

maximus

the

wedge

by the medius. The two

filled in

fasten to the dense plate of fascia that guards the

outside of the thigh (iiio-tibial band). This muscle

is

always prominent and changes

its

appearance

greatly in different positions of the hip, forming a

U-shaped wrinkle when the thi^

is

completely

flexed.

On

the front

end <A the

from which descends the

longest in the body.

It

forms a graceful curve as

crest is

a small knob,

sartorius (tailor's) muscle,

it

lies

in the groove of

the

inner side of the thigh, passing to under the knee.

From

just

below the knob, overlaid therefore by the

the rectus femoris muscle, straight to the knee cap.

continues

down and

abdomen and
26

thigh.

in to the symphysis,

sartorius, descends

From

the knob, the

line

marking the boundary between

Gluteus medius

2 Gluteus maximus
3 Trasor vagiiuB femoris

Muscles of the Hip

Nature has provided a perfect ^stem of columns, levers and pulleys to
which cords and muscles are attached. When contracticm takes place, these
muscles and their tendons pull, twist or turn, the movable bones.
joint
hip.

;i

is

a strictly machine-like contrivance.

ball

and socket

joint

and a hinge

It

has at

its

The

hip

connection with the

joint at the knee.

The muscles

at the

hip give a wheel-like movement. Those muscles that pass to the knee parallel
the thig^ bones to

bend the knee.

287

The Lower Limbs

^CiE lower limbs axe divided into three part*the thigh,
die leg, and the foot. These partt correspond to

tibe

arm,

hand of the iq>per limb.

The thigh extends from the pelvis to die knee, and

the forearm, and the

leg

from the knee to the

The

at the hip socket

itself

foot.

longest and strongest bone of the

femur (thigh bone).

It is

body

bon^) converge

Imees, bringing the Imee

on

the

carries the shaft

From thwe

out beyond the widest part of the crrat

knee, the femur rests

is

joined to the bones of the pelvis

by a long neck, which

the femora (thigh

the

mtda

as they approach the

the hip socScxX.

At

the

the tibia (^lin bcme), the main

bone ot the leg, and makes a hinge joint. The tibia descends to form the inner ankle. Beside it, not reaching
quite to the knee, is the fibula, the second bone of the leg,
which descends to form the outer ^nkle.
the outside, and

is

It is

located on

attached to the tibia at the top and

bottom. These two bones are almost parallel. Above the

juncture (rf the femur and tibia lies the pateUa (kneecap).

a small bone ahnost triangular in shi^. It

on its under side, and omvex on the surface.
The great trochanter of the femur is the upper

This

is

the shaft which reaches

up

slightly

is flat

tip of

beyond where

the

neck joins.

The lower

portion of the femur widens to form two

great hinge processes,

the outer

and iimer

known

sides,

as tuberosities.

and they are both

They

are on

visible.

THE THIGH

Fzomti head of the femur (trodmntn)

of the knee runs a band of tendon called
band.

It

makes a

LEG

and the

straight line

totheoittBide

the ilicMilnal

from the head of the

thigjt

bone to the outside of the knee.

The

rectus femoris muscle

from just below the

straight line

On

makes a

slightly

iliac crest to

either side of the latter is a twin

bulging

the knee cap.

mass of muscles.

That ot the outdde (vastus extemus) makes one mass

with it. and slightly overhangs the ilio-tibial band outside.

That of the inside (vastus intemus) bulges only in

lower third of the thigh, and overiiangs the knee on the
inside.

Behind and inside of

this is the

groove of the thigh

occupied by the sartorius muscle, passing from the ilium

above to the back of the knee below.

Behind ihe groove

the heavy

is

reaching two-thirds of the

mass of the adductors,

way down

the thigh.

Behind groove and adductors, around the back of the

thig^ and to the itio-tilal band outside, is tiic mass of the
ham-string musdeft whose
side of the

knee

tmdons are found on

at the back.

It is

either

a dual mass of muscle,

dividing above the diamond-shaped popliteal space at the

back of the knee, whose lower corner

is

formed by the

gastrocnemius muscle, similarly divided.

Of

the

same width

head of the

tibia,

as the

end of the thigh bone

is

the

or shin bone. Immediately below the

head the ^laft narrows on both udes, but on the outside

and a little to tiie rear is the head ot the fibuht (which
corresponds

mfh

filhng out the

The

the ulna of the forearm)

narrowing on that

ridge of the shin

side.

bone descends

front of the leg, a sharp

surface toward the inside,

more than

down

the

edge toward the outside, a

flat

straight

which at the ankle bends in to

become the inner ankle bone.

The outer bone

of the foreleg (fibula) soon overlaid

by a

gracefully bulging muscular mass, emerges again to

become

On
low,
is

the outer ankle bone.

the

flat

back of the

leg are

and broad soleus

two muscles. Beneatta

(sole fish) muscle;

is

on top

the

of

it

the double-bellied calf muscle (gastrocnemius, frog's

belfy), covering its

upper half, but crossing the knee joint

above and helping to make the two knobs

there.

These

two muscles unite to form the tendon of Achilles

at the

heel.

Bones:

Thigh Femur.
and Fibula
Leg
Hip

Pelvis.

Tibia

(outside).

Muscles, Front View:

Tensor fascis lat

Sartorius

Rectus femoris

4 Vastus extemus
5

Vastus intemus

Tibialis andcus

7 Praoneus kmgus
8

ExtenscHT digitorum longus

Tensor FascifB Latas (tensor fasds femoris): From

crest of ilium, front end, to fascia lata, or ilio^bial band.

Action: Tenses fascia and rotates inward thigh.

Sartorius:

From

spine to ilitun in front to tibia inside.

Action: Flexes, abducts and rotates inward thigh.

Rectus Femoris:
to

common

Fnnn

antraior inferior spine of ilium

tendon of patella. Action: Extends

Vastus Externus:

From outer

side of

leg.

femur to common

tendon of patella. Action: Extends and rotates outward

leg.

Vastus Internus:

From

inner side of femur to conmion

tendon of patella. Action: Extends and rotates inward

leg.

291

THE LOWER LIMBS

Inner View

Rectus f emoris

Vastus internus
Sartorius
Gracilis

Semi-tendinosus

Semi-membraziosus

Gastroowmius
Soleus

Bblow the Knee

Soleus:

From uppet

part of fibula and back

of tibia to tendon of Achilles. Action: Extends

foot

and

lifts

body

in walking.

Communis (extensor
digitonun pedis): From tibia and front

Extensor Digitorum
longus

of fibula to second

and third phalanges of

Action: Extends toes.

toes,

5-6

292

MUSCXBS OF THE LOWBR LOCBS

Outer View
1

Gluteus maximus

Gluteus raedius

Biceps femoris

Vastus externus

Gastrocnemius

Peroneus longus

Tibialis anticus

293

THIGH AND LEG

The column of the thi^ and
the foot Frcnn ai^ view

it

leg diminishes in thickness as

also has

it

descends to

a reverse curve that attends

its

entire

length.

On either side a descending wedge overlaps the rounded form of the thighs
and

this

again overlaps the square form above and below the knee

which is also square. The kg at the

294

calf is triangular; at the

ankle

it is

joint,

square.

Muscles Below the Knee

From

Gastrocnemius:

tuberosities

of

femur to tendon of Achilles. Acrion: Extends foot, raises body in walking.

Peroneus Longus:

From head and upper

part of fibula passes beneath foot from outside, to

base of big toe. Action: Extends

ankle and raises outer side of foot.

Tibialis Anticus:

From upper and

outer

two-thirds of tibia to inner side of foot.

Action: Flexes ankle

and

raises inner side

295

::

Muscles of the
LowF.R Limbs

Back View:
1

Gluteus medius

2 Gluteus

maximus

3 Semi-iendinosus

4 Semi-membranosus
5 Bic^femoris

6 Oastrocnonias
7 Sdeus

Semi-tendinosus

From

ischial tuberosity

to tibia. Action: Flexes

knee and rotates inward

leg.

Semi-membranosus

From

ischial

tuboosity

to tibia. Action: Flexes

knee and rotates leg

in-

ward.
Biceps Fnnoris:

bead from

Long

ischial tuber-

osity; short

head from

femur, to head of

fibula.

Action: Flexes knee and

rotates thigh outward.

296

297

THIGH
Front View

BONES

I.

Pubis: of the pelvis

2 Femur: thigh bone

The head of the femur

4 The neck of the femur
5 The great trochanter
3

muscles:

II.

The

rectus

femoris:

two tendons from

the

common

arises

by

the pelvis to join

tendon of the triceps

femoris a short distance above the

knee.

2 The adductor muscles, longus

and magnus:

arise

from the pubic

uid isdrium portions of the pelvis

be inserted into the whole length
the femur

on

its

to
of

inner side.

3 Vastus extemus: from the femur

at the great

rough

trochanter: following a

line at the

join the

common

back of the shaft

tendon a

Httle

to

above

the knee.

4 The
the

vastus intemus: arues from

boat and inner

side of the femur

to nearly the whole length of the shaft

to be inserted into the side of the

psteUa and

298

common

tendon.

m.
The

triceps of the thigh

comprise the rec-

externus and internus, adding

tus, vastus

the crureus, a deep seated muscle, which

makes four
called the

iu all These four are together

quadricq extensor. They

all

meet above and around the knee to a com-

mon

tendon that

is

inserted into the patella

and continued by a ligament to the tubercle

of the

tibia.

The

rectus

seen above as

is

emerges

it

from between the tensor vaginae femoris

and the
vertically

to

its

sartorius.

From

here

on the surface of the

it

descends

thigh to join

teadoa above the knee. The rectus

muscle bulges out at a much

hi^r

than the muscles on either side.

level

The

outer

muscle ends as a triangular tendon to enter

the patella above the knee.

The

inner

is

placed quite low on the thigh and seen

distinctly

at

lower margin.

its

round the inner side of the knee

It

passes

to its inser-

tion into the patella.

IV.

The human body

system
cles

levers

pun on

is

provided with a

and pulleys by which mus-

the movable bones.

Hie

swings backward as well as f<ward.

in action, all

thigh

When

muscles that surround the

tiie

hip joint are geared and

set in

motion.

The

triceps of the thigh like the triceps of the

arm

is

composed

together.

leg

on the

When

of three muscles that act

they pull they extend the

thigh.

299

Tbt

diigh bone

cles that pass

is

the most perfect of

up from the "crank

all

levns,

it is

shaft" of the thigh

balanced by the mus-

bone to the pelvis. These

muscles work against one another in turning the round slippery head of the
thigh bone in the socket.

knee

of the

thigh

is

joint.

The

The muscles

parallel the shaft to control the action

extensors of the leg are in front or

drawn upward, while those

that flex the leg

on

on top when

the

the thigh are at the

back.

The

sartorius arises

from the

crest of the ilium. It

sweeps downward in a

sinuous curve across the thigh, in a flattened tendon as

inner surface of the knee to

INNER VIEW
1

Rectus

insertion

on the

tibia.

OUTER VIEW
1

Hamstrings

2 Vastus intmius

2 Rectus femoris

3 Sartorius

3 Biceps femoris

4 Adductor

4 Vastus extemus

5 Hamstrings

300

its

wraps around the

it

301

THE KNEE

Think of the knee

as a square with sides beveled for-

ward, slightly hollowed in back and carrying the kneecap

in front.

When

the knee

mattress, forms a bulge

tween the cap and

itself.

The kneecap

The back

its

is

of the knee,

string tendons

is

on

straight

its

bursa, or water

either side in the corner be-

tendon, exactly opposite the joint

always above the level of the

joint.

when bent, is hollowed

ham-

on dther side. When

the

straight, the

bone be-

comes prcmiinent between them, making, with these

tendons, three knobs.
the knee as a whole

is

The inside of tiie knee

bent convex toward

hip socket, the knee and the ankle are

leg

is

at an angle with the leg.

302

its

larger,

and

fellow.

The

all in line

straight, but the shaft of the thigh

some distance out by a long neck, so

is

bone

when
is

the

carried

that the thigh

is

set

303

304

305

306

307

The Foot

THE

little

finger side

so the outside of the foot

is

the heel side of the hand,

is

the heel side.

upoa the ground, continuous with the

even

lower than the inside

and

lower

The

it is

inside, as

the

To

heel;

is

shorter.

though raised by the greater power

the front of the ankle

is

the

all

the toes,

knob

is

that cor-

responds with the base of the thumb. Opposite

it,

on

a similar knob corresponding with the

the outside,

is

base of the

little finger.

In the foot

is

it

out ankle bone

of the great toe and the tendons of

higher.

It is flat

this

symmetry

is

adapted to the fimc-

and has developed into a

of arches. The five arches of the

tion of weight-bearing

wonderful

series

foot converge
tresses to them.

The

balls of the foot

on the

heel; the toes being flying but-

form a transverse arch. The inner arches

of the foot are successively higher, forming half of a transverse arch

completion
arching

is

in the opposite foot.

movement

finally

308

the ankle, this

culminates in the two columns of the leg and the

arch between; wbetefore the leg

centra] line of the foot

Opening gradually toward

whose

is

placed somewhat to the inside <A the

Movements
In

all positions,

the foot tends to keep

itself flat

of the foot changing accordingly. In action,

straight line with the leg, but

heel side strikes

first

and the

when

settling

with the ground, the arches

flie

foot comes ahnost into

upon the ground, the outer or

whg^ foot settles

toward the

inside.

309

310

ABDUCTION AND ADDUCTION

Tuming

the foot inwaid toward the

body

is

called adduction. Abducticm

means turning away. Abductitm and adduction are controlled by the tendons
round the
that pass round the inner and outer ankles. The tendons that pass
outer ankle bone pull the foot in an outward direction.

round the inner ankle bone turn the foot in.

The toot is also capable of turning and elevating
muscle that causes
the leg.

this

The tendon

movement

The tendons
its

inner border.

The

passes from the outer to the inner side of

passes over the arch of the foot to the base of the meta-

tarsal of the great toe

and is called the tilnalis anticus.

The extenscnrs as th^ pass imder the annular ligament.

Tend<ffls

<rf

that pass

both the long and short peroneals pass round the outer

ankle to die outer side of the foot.

The

tibialis

anticus passes in front of the inner ankle to be inserted

into die base of the great toe.

311

The Foot
Irmer View

The Foot
Outer View
Interlocking of the ankle with the foot

BONES AND MUSCLES

OF THE FOOT

Bones: Outer Side

Muscles: Outer Side

The
2 The
3 The
4 The

The tendon Achillis

2 The extensor of the toes
3 The annular ligament
4 The peroneus

fibula
tibia

astragalus
oscalcis

Bones: Inner Side

The tibia
2 The astragalus
3 The metatarsal
4 The phalanges
1

314

Muscles: Inner Side

1

The

2 The

tibialis

anticus

flexor polHcis

The annular ligament

4 The abductor pollicis
3

315

Toes are placed on the top of die foot and descend downward by steps
tending to keep flat on the ground. The little toe is an exception. The big toe,
as well as the

toe,

little

has but two steps down.

The

other toes have

the

steps to reach the ground.

The mechanical

contrivaiKL- used to

to let another tendon pass

first

joint of the toe

second

The

it.

move

the toes,

long tendon

is

slit

in

one tendon

in the foot

bends the

and passes through the short tendon which bends the

joint.

foot has strength to support the weight of the body. It also has

bility, elasticity

bridge builders.
pass round

machine.

316

through

flexi-

and beauty of form. Its construction is tiie envy of the

The arrangement of its tendons and ligaments as they bmd,

and through

slits is

aldn with the belt, straps and ropes of the

The arch

of the foot

is

curved from heel to

between two bones, the inner and outer ankle.

arch at

its

The arch plays freely

From the two ends of this
toe.

base, a strong elastic ligament extends that sinks or rises as the

weight of the body bears upon the arch. The foot

side as well as forward, across

and

is

also arched

from

side to

The bones of the foot are

wedged together and bound by ligaments. The leg bones
on the arch
where it articulates with the astragalus, die key-bone or keystone of the arch.
This keystone

is

not fixed as in masonry, but moves freely between the inner

and outer condyle. The heel

large toe

is

horizontally.

on the

is

on the outside of the

inside, giving it the rotary

foot.

The

ball of the

and transverse movonent

already mentioned.

317

Draping
FIGURE must
gested before

it

first

be outlined, drawn or sug-

can be properly clothed. Clothes are

supported from the shoulder, the waistband and at

the hips in the costumes of both

The

principles oi

Clothes are

made

su^ension are always the same.

loose

have great fireedom

move

men and women.

(tf

freely in eveiy

enough so that the body can

actkm, aUowing the Hmbs to

posdble way. These diffo^nt

actions in drapery are represented

by

lines radiating

from the points of support terminating

in

hooks or

hanging festoon-like from opposite systems. In case

the folds are
to

fall,

drawn upward

in place of being

the surfaces of support change

outward support to a stretch

tlie

318

mass.

hom

allowed

from an

the underside of

319

STYLES
From

ancient times the dress was based

on the simple principle of suspension from

the shoulders or from a waistband. Styles

may change but the basic princqiles rmain

Uk same. A ^ece at material ^lea held up

in die air descends

by

gravity

entire!^ upon its 8Upp(Mt.

and d^ends

When this is taken

away it falls, flattens out and beoxnes inert.

320

The

character of drapery has followed the different periods in

as distinguishing the work of some particular master. Therefore,

realized that tiie object could not

have been a

art, as
it

well

must be

servile imitatioii of folds.

These periods varied frran V-shaped kinks at one time to long rounded
festoons at another.

The costumes

study oi the laws of folds

on pottery kept to
iike

dasnc times were more suhed to tile

than thtne of the present time. The Greek paintings
ct

long, flowing or sweeping lines that terminated in hcxA.-

forms; the Gothic changed from round to angular; the Renaissance

period shows a radiation of line that follows the figure allowing the plain
surfaces to cling or

lie

close to the form, thereby accentuating the figure

beneath.

321

COMPOSITION

Though one can copy a

piece of drapery by noting every fold or crease,

be observed that every time the model moves, the folds seem to take
on a different aspect. Therefore, some underlying principle must be thought

it

will

out or there

will

be

Cloth revolves

little

harinony as a whole.

itself into

drapery but the thought that must be carried

body underneath. This fact must

always be uppermost. Next, the art is in the arrangement vAich comprises
line, rhythm, distribution and subordinaticm, grouping and balance, and the

out

is

the idea of a figure draped with a

joining of all these essentials iota

322

a luirmonioiu vho]t.

The design

of a draped figure must

portion be relevant to the whole.

The

first

detail

be good in proportion and each

must have a

relation to the

main

design and not be plastered over with meaningless zigzags and sagging folds
that

do hot contribute to the

real

form of the body which must be preserved

and not broken up by minute detail. To arrange these

Uie head of composition. In composition there must be
if

the subject calls for

it

comes under

liiythm, charm,

and

even beauty, a word for which no one can give a

satisfactory definition, yet all this enters into

figure

details

must be a complete pattern

in

a composition. The draped

itself.

323

DRAPING THE FIGURE

When

drawing folds that occur

stood that drapery

If

the material

is

at the

bending of a limb,

either attached to, or supported at

it

must be under-

some

fixed point.

limited as to volume, such as the bending at the knee, the

is

folds radiate in size

and number from the

as a pcnnt of resistance.

the hip the thij^

is

The lower

fixed point of attachment as well

limbs vary greatly as to shape. Below

round; at the knee the form

is

square with

its

sides

beveled forward; and the broad double-bellied calf muscle covers the upper
half of the leg.

When

the leg

is

bent upon the thigh

that are above and below the knco need

at the
little

knee, the two opposing masses

delaii, but

when bent

at the joint,

become bunched up and lake on both spiral and acute angles. To

memorize the direction and meaning of one or two of these folds gives a plan
to work upon. It takes both theory and close otervation to find a fold that
the folds

occurs again and again.

324

In drawing folds watch for forms that

happen and then happen again. Using

as a background,

one can put in the

this

really

important things that are essential to the

story

and not just a series of still life

studies

describing things that are not worth describing. In studying the character of these
different

folds,

the

quality of

materials

should be tried out to study their comparative relationship,

such as: the difference of

weight and tension; heavier materials as

compared

to li^t or

more pUant materials.

Try to remember the folds that happen and

then happen again and you will find a
family resemblance in all materials
ter

what the weight or

no mat-

temiire.

325

When

considering a sleeved or drapod arm, the masses that

neath must be

consdmd. The masses

of the

ann and forearm

lie

onder-

are joined

wedges and wedging movements that overlap eadi other at various angles.
The shoulder slopes down and out, its broad side facing outward, the upper

arm flattened at the sides. The mass of the forearm overlaps the end of the
arm on the outside by a wedge that arises a third of the way up and tapers
toward the wrist. Whether the arm is straight or bent, this wedge, this underlying form, must be kept in mind. The folds pass over and around it; the
creases alternate between round, zigzag or locked yet seldom parallel one

another.

The mass of the upper half of the forearm is oval in shape when the thumb
is turned away from the body and more round when the thumb side of the
hand is reversed. The forearm as it approaches the wrist becomes flattened
out to about twice as wide as it is thick. As material has no form in itself,
these round and wedged forms must be shown or felt under the material
that covers the arm.

The

folds at the

looked upon and copied as

and

piece of

still life,

resistance, as well as their radiating

of the

326

;i

elbow under certain conditions can be

form beneath

is

clearer

but

if

the points of attachments

hnes are understood, the translation

and better understood.

Draped Arms

327

FOLDS

Clothino
it

To

is

nothing bat drapery ananged axound a body that

express the multitudinous fonns

in a direct

way

it

takes,

is

beneath

one should learn to express

the different characters of folds, for each one plays

its indi-

vidual part as distinctly as actors play their different characters upon the
stage.

Folds are totally different. There are those which pass around and radiate
from the points of support, clasping the figure and thereby reducing the
receding surface to a

minimum; or they may zigzag

in an irregular

manner

{rom side to side. There are folds which are straight, festooned and V-shaped;
folds which fall, cross or pass aroimd the figure. There are materials which
have concave and convex forms as well as cord-like edges. All folds have
laws unto thonselves.

Some

folds run into their opponents

and die away

while there are others which terminate abruptly. Each individual fold has
religion. Each pursues its
its own manner, its temperament and almost its

328

function so that each must be studied apart as a fixed law, a thing entirely
apart, without connection, yet held throughout by the unforeseen laws of

rhythm.

As you would
leg,

and

come
name

study the surface of an

their connection at the

elbow or at the knee

together, linked as they pass

indicating

arm and forearm, or a

thigh

joints, these folds

around or into one another.

To do

Pipe or

Cord

Diaper Pattern

2 Zigzag

Drop or Flying

3 Spiral

7 Inert

must
so,

a fimction must be givai to each:

and

4 Half-lock

329

TYPES OF FOLDS

L/ress
fonn.

materials in themselves have no

When lying on the floor they confmn

to the floor; thrown over a chair they take

the contour ot Uie ct

air;

on a hanger or

hook, the folds descend from

their support.

may encircle, it may fall or it may

be drawn upward. To realize this is the first

Drapery

step to the understanding of drapery. There

is

no sameness, no monotony; every fold

has a distinct character of

its

own.

To show this vast difference in folds take

the figure of Victory as an example. First, the diaper patten which in this
case
all

USk hom its fixed points

of support at ibc shoulders

fdds to understand. Next, a

hips;

opposed to

irregular

this spiral is

and zigzags from

fold appears,

known

spiral fold is

a fold of a

side to side.

known

carried

Below

is

known by

the

this

away fonn the body by

its

name,

its

another distinct type of

form with that which

inert.

There

movement or by

as the drop fold or a piece of flying drapery.

INERT
330

drawn around the receding

as the pipe or cord fold. Beneath this another type

prone upon the floor and

is

the simplest <^

totally different character. It is

emerges, called a half-lock. This in turn shares

that

is

is

lies

also the fold

the air and

is

/_
/

i
7'

ZIGZAG

PIPE.

DROP

HALF LOCK

These diagrams come under the

head of geometric or working drawings

and represent

distinct characters

of fokls, each playing

role in the stoiy

ctf

its

individual

the draped

human

body.

One can make

a code of laws to be

governed by, but every one of these

can be changed or eliminated.

Still

one should know these laws so that

SPIPAL

332

Uiey

may be

ately

tm^n.

used as such or deliber-

DIAPER PATTERN
Every

fold

must have

pulls or is bdii pulled;

support

its
it

cfings or

It

it

either

folds; it

encircles or it is testxxmed, but in every case

must be suj^xnted.
miti]

it is

It

it

does not become drapery

supported by something.

Take a yard or so
hands; hold

of plain material in both

by the two upper comers and

it

allow the center to sag.

It

shows how the folds

festoon and lock into each other toward the

center.

Try both

you note the

light

and heavy materials

relationship in the radiating lines.

Trace the fold or crease from the point

port 1^ which

it is

being held.

FoQow

the two sagging opposing forces meet

carefully

how

two corners

until

they interlock.

Still

at arms' length bring the

ctf

sup-

to where

and study

holding the

ends nearer

together and note the changes that take place

and note the way they repeat themselves. After

you have the idea as

the goods

to

how

the festoon locks,

may be thumb-tacked to a boaxd or to

the wall or placed

on a4ay figure.
333

PIPE

If

a piece of cloth

is

OR CORD FOLDS

held up or nailed by one

the other comer, tubular Ccmns radiate from

clotti is

woolen, cotton or

silk;

conm
its

whether it is thick,

and then pulled from

fixed point
thin, old

Whether the

or new, die same

same tube or p^like forms are always prevalent This is a

distinct fact therefore it must be recognized as a law; it is something that
repeats itself <jtttn enough to be recognized as such, something to look for,
radiiUion, the

something you expect to

find.

These radiating cords or summits as they descend from

support are the simplest forms

in

drapery and are the

first

their points of

to be understood.

A simple cord fold will descend and then divide into two or three other cords.
As

these diverge

from each other, the

or more within dion, then these

they flatten out.

334

original cords

may make rocan for two

may again divide, making two

or more until

335

ZIGZAG FOLDS
I

A tubular fold of doth may be bent As it bends

the outer pcnrtion

becomes

rigid,

and undemeadi

it

The excess cloth on the inner

side buckles into a more or less definite pattern which
must be figured out and remembered. The twisting
of this fold when bent gives an entirely new design,
becomes more

slack.

one which might be called a zigzag pattern.

336

337

Here the pull is uneven in character.

tiiis,

take

bend the
and give

ax sugle

it

a sharp

twist

reason out

repeat themselves. Try

familiar resemblance.
that

quick and jerky.

sheets of newspaper, roll

mU in the middle, now grasp

You can

mind so

It is

them

To demonstrate

into a two-inch cylinder,

the roll near each side of the bend

Note the pattern and the

from

side to side.

why

these bendirgs and twistings so consistently

it

out on a piece of

It is this

stiff

repetition that

cloth and

you

design.

will find a

must be stored away

in

your

you may check your knowledge with what you see on the

Remember at all times that each fold has a charucier apart frojn every
other fold. Remember that you will have a preference as to folds, that some
folds will appeal to you more than others, making your drawings diffnent
from other drawmgs. Remember that the things you know and leave oiU are
the things that giw the power and simplicity to your drawings.
Students gain much by making a niunbcr nf drawings to tell the story Ot
model.

an interlocking zigzag

fold.

Do

not copy the drawings on these pages, start

with a straight or curved line and try to lock the ends with other lines that
will

338

account for bringing together the two opposing forces.

After Caipacdo

339

SPIRAL FOLDS
No

matter

how

complicated the fold appears,

it

can be traced to a few

basic principles. These few principles should be catalogued and kept as far

apart in the mind as possible.

one of these seven

should be able to draw at

all

times,

distinctive characters without notes or a model.

the part they play so that

less liable

One

\^en confronted by

any

Think

the costumed model,

of

you are

to get lost in depicting these ever dianging folds.

The arrangonents of curved and diagonal lines fit the rounded forms of
the body as the matraial wraps around die figure. In the same mamier folds
widen as they leave

away from

their points of support. It is safe to say: as they radiate

the point of support they seldom parallel.

To

a great extent, these

radiating folds should have a decorative arrangement. (There

knowing what

As a

is

the art of

to leave out.)

sleeve enters the shoulders, the design calls for both curved

and

Where the elbow is bent, the material fadiates oufward and up

to encircle the wedge that occurs on the outer side of the forearm just above
the elbow. The number of folds depends upon die textuite or wdght ol the
fabric as well as die number ot times the garmmt has been worn. Folds
straight lines.

should not look as

if

they paralleled nor repeat thonseWes in direction or

volume. Yqur drawing

patton.

340

^uld

show an undsrstandtng

soise of design

and

341

HALF-LOCK FOLDS
The
rial

half-lock takes place every time a tubular or flattened piece of mate-

abruptly changes

the locking

locks are

Is

its

direction.

When

the turn

more sharp and angular; when

more rounded and

it

falls in

sweeping curves, the

diihculty, therefore,

Each

fold

must appear to be as far apart in character as the

a^)tobet and as

letters

seems to dissolve

it is

when brought
itself

into that

letters of the

together to form a word.

word and

with folds, each with a distinct character, yet when brought together

solve one into the other

figure.

Each has

underneath.
the greater
planes.

As each

that again into a sentence,

the pipe, zigzag, spiral, half-lock, diaper, festoon and drop-folds

342

must be

and simple.

direct

so

at or near a right angle,

are apt to dissolve one into the other. Folds

must be made to explain themselves without

letter

is

The

its

own

making one harmonious element

function.

half-lock

number

is

Each

is

must

dis-

called the draped

supported from or by the form

more prevalent

in a sitting

down

figure

due to

of angles causing a greater change in the direction of

343

344

INERT FOLDS
no matter how thick or thin has in
A piece oS doth when thrown or dropped on the floor
out or crumples up and takes on a character distinct frcnn ai^

It is understood,
itself

of course,

tiiat

cloth

no given form.

either flattens

other form. This crumpled up piece of cloth

keeps

and

settling; in

an hour's time

flattened. Still

it

and apart from any

is inert

not

static; it

vigorous angles become

changes as

it

more subdued

remains a fallen piece of goods with a character distinct

other,

and

idea back oi the drawing to

piece of cloth

its

is

this positive

make

it

character must be the abstract

obvious to the onlooker that

this fallen

and dead.

345

346

DROP FOLDS
As
being

this particular class

down

free,

of fold leaves

these folds

the figure but

support,

takes a swinging rhythmical motion

it

the whole length of the material to

When

its

hang

when

movement and

is

selvedge.

add dignity

to

curved such as

in

straight they

the outhne

its

the lower borders are suspended in

space, they usually twist, turn or take a spiral

at their inner or outer edges.
distinct opposite to

The drop

any other character of

other fold must encroach upon

its

form

fold is
fold.

territory. It is

No

used

chiefly in figures that run,

dance and perform other

decorative movements.

outline sways in weaving

curves when

when

the figure

in repose.

in

is

Whether

folds follow the laws

fixed

Its

pomt Onty

ctf

in

motion and with dignity

movement or

gravity

static, all

when away from a

the details at these laws vary.

great deal depends

upon the materials used when

they are cut strai^t across or warp-wise. They then

behave

differently in detail.

DROP AND FLYING FOLDS

Folds must be arranged and regulated to the lines of the figure. Folds that

some distance from

fall

th^ leave
the

way

the figure.

wave

the source of support shake or

These

may be

irregularly as

seen as concave or convex according to

they are connected to the cordage of the materiaL

The upper

portion

may have the same width or bulk, but having less space may give a pipe-like
^)pearance above. As it descends it widens out and bectnues more free at
the'lower borders.

These descending folds must have the appearance of

from

falling

their

support above, such as the shoulder, sleeve or girdle. In drawing a drop or

flying fold

one must sense and force

it

to drop.

qualities; they are personal, individual.

No

camera can give these

may be

photograph

useful in

studying the details of parts, but can scarcely be of use in arrangement

we

will say,

eye, but

it

two figures or more.

position.

A camera may be as accurate as the human

cannot render the beauty of

into the e]q>ression

demanded

of,

line or the

many

the

arrangement that eaters

factors that

go to make a com-

A photograph does not eliminate the petty details that go to make

folds convincing.

The

different characters of folds that are represented here

looked on as a novelty. Drapery that

impression of descending or

flying.

to others, that this piece of drapery

falls free of the figure

The
is

must give the

idea must be to carry this impression

doing a definite thing.

standing of these simple laws that will

must not be

It is

your under-

make die drawing <A drapery

possible

and OMiyincing.

To get an idea of drapery in motion, have someone ipress the movement

you have in mind by swinging a length or so of thin or heavy material in a
backward, a forward or a rhythmical movement. At the same time, hold a
piece of tissue paper in one
until

it

is

hand and

twist or turn

with the other hand

given somewhat the duplicate motion you wish.

the tissue to a board and copy the details.

of paper should be used.

348

it

Then thumb-tack

For heavier goods, a heavier piece

VOLUME
The treatment

ot heavy materials

for the reason that

form
it

the body beneath and

erf

represents a

cloth

it is difficult

and

human

folds.

figure

Assuming

is

a problran,

to preserve

make

it

and not

tiie

real

a^^arent that

just

a mass of

that the principal supports

of a sitting figure are from the knees, and that these

supports are on a level horizontally and not too

close together, the descending folds

toward
rial,

tiie

would festoon

center following the weight of the mate-

causing the lower border to fan out and become

more pointed below and lower down than

sides.

at the

Should one foot be resting on a stool or cushion

then one support would be higher than the other

causing a large festoon above and a smaller one

below

to interlock

much

nearer the lower knee than

at the center. In this case, the folds

would not be

continuous from one support to the other but would

meet at a more acute angle.

When

drapery hangs in loose folds the opposing

festoon and cones

but

intermingle

do not interlock at acute angles

and fade into each other. The

thought must be to carry the idea that a fold

a definite thing.
copying, that

It is

is

doing

your understanding, as well as

makes the drawing

of drapery possible.

RHYTHM

The arrangement of line and volume of folds is not complete or harmonious

without a hidden and subtle flow of symmetry. Nature has supphed both
line
exist

and form

that are symmetrical

and are recognized

and harmonious. These laws of rhythm

as undefined laws.

In drawing and painting there

is

rhythm

in outline, color, light

and shade.

rhythm in drawing a figure we have in the balance of masses

a subordination of the passive or inactive dde to the more forceful and
angutor ude in action, ]ceq)ing constant^ in mind the hidden, subtle flow

So

to express

ot symmetry throughout.

350